Earth is a Dynamic and Snowball Earth Evolving...

Geological time • Plate tectonics

Biogeography and Evolution of Marine Organisms

Geological time

Earth is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet

•Changes in its surface

• Changes in life

Paleoclimate

Major ice agesSnowball Earth

Geological time Paleoclimate

PangeaEocene ‘optimum’

Miocene coolingAntarctic glaciation

Panama + Bering Strait

Beginning of ice ages

Million Years BP Thousand Years BP

Paleoclimate Plate tectonics and continental drift

Plate tectonics and continental drift PaleoclimateHallam (1994) afterVail et al. (1977)

Temperature

Paleoclimate

Sea level

Paleoclimate

Sea level

Sea-level

Factors controlling sea level

Miller et al. (2005)Sea-level

Changes in volume of ocean watercontinental glacier volume

Sea-level

Changes in volume of ocean waterlakes and groundwater

Sea-level

Changes in volume of ocean watertemperature of the ocean

Sea-level

Changes in volume of ocean water

1961 to 20031993 to 2003

Plate tectonics and continental drift

Late Cretaceous (65 Ma)


What drives sea-floor spreading?

1. Convection loops in asthenosphere plates pulled along by current

2. Force of rising magma pushes plates apart

3. Gravity pushes mid-ocean ridges down and forces plates apart

4. Weight of subducted plate pulls ocean plates apart

In fact, all these mechanisms may be operating


Early History


Supercontinent Rodinia 1300 – 800 Ma

Grenville orogenic crust of mid-late Mesoproterozoic age (circa 1250-980 Ma)



Proto-GondwanaMiddle - Late Proterozoic

Proto-Gondwana consisted of all of Phanerozoic Gondwana except Atlantica and Congo landmasses.

Proto-Gondwana formed when Rodinia rifted into smaller continents.



590-500 MA


500-435 MA


435-410 MA



410-330 MA



330-290 MA



290-240 MA


240-205 MA


205-138 MA



Atlantic Ocean


Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift

Gondwana205-138 MA


Gondwana205-138 MA


Gulf of Mexico

Caribbean Sea

South America

Africa

Tethys Trench

Mediterranean

N

Mid

-Atla

ntic

Ridg

e

fault

North America

Pangea Pulls Apart

• 200 MYA • Stretches

continental crust

• Atlantic Ocean Banks


138-65 MA


138-65 MA


Indian Ocean



Hall R (2012) Late Jurassic–Cenozoic reconstructions of the Indonesian region and the Indian Ocean. Tectonophysics 570-571:1–41. doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2012.04.021



175 Mya


95 Mya


80 Mya


SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES

65MY


65 Mya


45 Mya


18 Mya


0 Mya


50 My


From the Tethys Sea to the Mediterranean

(200-180 Mya)

Historical Biogeography

Tethys


Eastwards motion of Africa relative to Europe

(130-85 Mya)


Eastwards and Northwards motion of Africa relative to Europe

(57- 35 Mya)


Eastwards motion of Africa closes the Connection between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean

(18- 7 Mya)


Africa moves northwards and westwards

(6-5 Mya)


Messinian salinity crisis


http://records.viu.ca/~earles/messinian-crisis-apr03.htm

Evaporites

In August of 1970 the DSDP ship Challenger was positioned in the western Mediterranean, south of the Balearic Islands, in almost 3000 m of water. The geologists on board were looking for the source of a prominent sub-sea-floor seismic feature called the M-reflector, and, to their great surprise, they drilled into a thick layer of anhydrite - the first evidence of a vast deposit of evaporite rocks extending across the Mediterranean.



Iberia and North Africa

Three mechanisms have been proposed to explain the isolation of the Mediterranean during the Messinian, including:

1) a 60 m global drop in sea level due to glaciation,

2) horizontal squeezing, and

3) tectonic uplift.


Mediterranean annual water loss by evaporation 1600 Km3/year. Only 10% replaced by rainfall and the influx of rivers.

The remaining 90% had to come from the Atlantic Ocean.

With the Atlantic connection closed and climatic conditions in the lower Pliocene much warmer than at present, water level dropped approximately 1.4 m/year taking less than 1000 years to dry up.


Western Mediterranean (8 Myr ago)

Duggen et al. (2003) Nature, 422: 602-606

Betic Strait

Rifian Strait

(Closed 7.2 Mya)

(Closed 5.9 Mya)


Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.9 – 5.3 Myr ago)

Hsü et al. (1973) Nature 242: 240-244; Hsü et al. (1977) Nature 267: 399-403.

Plate tectonics and continental drifthttp://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/Paleomagnetism/people/Wout/res_wout.htm

Biogeography

Southern Ocean

Biogeography Biogeography

Biogeography+


55MY

34MY

Biogeography

Isthmus of Panama



ISTHMUS OF PANAMAPlate tectonics and continental drift


ISTHMUS OF PANAMA





ISTHMUS OF PANAMA





ISTHMUS OF PANAMA

Plate tectonics and continental drift Biogeography

Review16-15 Ma

Coates & Obinda (1996)+

Biogeography

Review16-15 Ma

6-5 Ma

Coates & Obinda (1996)

subduction

compression

+ Biogeography

Review16-15 Ma

6-5 Ma

3 MaCoates & Obinda (1996)

subduction

compression

+

Biogeography

Anderson et al. 2010 Curr Res Pleistocene

Biogeography

Stone R 2013. Battle for the Americas. Science.


Spatial distribution of cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) haplotype clades for the EP1-2/WA3 transisthmian lineage of Barbatia (Acar). Numbers and the relative sizes of circles refer to sample sizes.

Biogeography

Spatial distributions of cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) haplotype clades for the EP3/WA4 and EP9/WA11 transisthmian lineages of Barbatia (Acar). Numbers and the relative sizes of circles refer to sample sizes.

Biogeography

Biogeography

Bernardi G, Alva-Campbell YR, Gasparini JL, Floeter SR (2008) Molecular ecology, speciation, and evolution of the reef fish genus Anisotremus. MPE 48:929–935. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.011

TEP Tropical Eastern Pacific

WA Western Atlantic

Biogeography

Alva-Campbell Y, Floeter SR, Robertson DR, et al. (2010) Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of Holacanthus angelfishes (Pomacanthidae). MPE 56:456–461. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.02.014

TEP Tropical Eastern Pacific

TWA Tropical Western Atlantic


Pacific

Caribbean

Knowlton et al.(1993) created a phylogeny of Pacific (P) and Caribean (C) species pairs of AlpheusIn 6 out of 7 cases, the closest relative of a species was on the other side of the Isthmus

exception


Bering Strait

Paleoclimate

Bering Strait

Paleoclimate

Bering Strait

Anderson et al. 2010 Curr Res Pleistocene

Minimum age range for the strait's first opening: between 4.8 and 7.3–7.4 Myr ago.

Marincovich and Gladenkov (1999) suggested an age of 3.1–4.1 Myr for the initial opening of the Bering Strait.

Paleoclimate Marincovich, L., and A. Y. Gladenkov. 1999. Nature 397:149-151.

Paleoclimate

Closed Bering Strait and global climate

Scientists are unraveling a chain of events that led to large-scale warmings and coolings across the Northern Hemisphere during past ice ages.

As ice sheets expanded, water levels dropped in the narrow Bering Strait and cut off the flow of relatively fresh water from the northern Pacific through the Arctic into the saltier Atlantic.

This altered ocean currents, increasing the flow of Atlantic water northward from the tropics and producing warming in the north Atlantic (right, shown in dark red) that melted ice sheets and affected climate patterns and sea levels across much of the world.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100110151325.htm



Amphi-Atlantic distribution patterns - continental break-up and spreading of the Atlantic Ocean.

Teske PR, Hamilton H, Matthee CA, Barker NP (2007) Signatures of seaway closures and founder dispersal in the phylogeny of a circumglobally distributed seahorse lineage. BMC Evol Biol 7:138. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-138

Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway

Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway

Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway


E and F: amphi-Atlantic distribution patterns - continental break-up and spreading of the Atlantic Ocean.


A: Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway

C: Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway

B: Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway

D: Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway

C

A

B

D

E

F


A

B

D

A: Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway

D: Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway


B: Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway


Suggested dates of vicariance events: Central American Seaway closure: 3.1 – 3.5 MY (assuming that the divergence of the trans-isthmian seahorse lineages took place when a land bridge formed in Central America [1]); 3.1 – 4.6 MY (taking into consideration that seahorse divergence may have been affected by the reorganisation of ocean currents associated with the closure of the seaway [2]); 3.1 – 8.5 MY (the upper bound being the time when the earliest recorded evolution associated with the closure of the seaway took place in marine corals and foraminiferans [3]);

Indonesian Seaway closure: 0.01 – 1.8 MY [12,13]; 3 – 4 MY [11]; 7 – 10 MY [9,10]; 15 – 17 MY [8];

Tethyan Seaway closure: 11.2 – 14.8 MY [5,6]; 18.4 – 20.5 MY [7]; 23.8 – 28.5 MY [4];

Complete separation of the land masses on either side of the Atlantic Ocean: 84 mya [14].



[1] Keigwin LD: Pliocene closing of the isthmus of Panama based on biostratigraphic evidence from nearby Pacific and Caribbean sea cores. Geology 1978, 6:630-634.

[2] Marko PB: Fossil calibration of molecular clocks and the diver-gence times of geminate species pairs separated by the Isthmus of Panama. Mol Biol Evol 2002, 19:2005-2021.

[3] Haug HH, Tiedemann R: Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature 1998, 393:673-676.

[4] Barber PH, Bellwood DR: Biodiversity hotspots: evolutionary origins of biodiversity in wrasses (Halichoeres : Labridae) in the Indo-Pacific and New World tropics. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2005, 35:235-253.

[5] Adams CG, Lee DE, Rosen BR: Conflicting isotopic and biotic evidence for tropical sea-surface temperatures during the Tertiary. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 1990, 77:289-313.

[6] Rögl F, Steininger FF: Vom Zerfall der Tethys zu Mediterran und Paratethys. Ann Naturhist Mus Wien 1983, 85:135-163.

[7] Rögl F, Steininger FF: Neogene Paratethys, Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific Seaways. In Fossils and Climate Edited by: Brenchley P. John Wiley, New York; 1984:171-200.

[8] Lourie SA, Green DM, Vincent ACJ: Dispersal, habitat differ- ences, and comparative phylogeography of Southeast Asian seahorses (Syngnathidae: Hippocampus). Mol Ecol 2005, 14:1073-1094.

[9] Nishimura S, Suparka S: Tectonic approach to the Neogene evolution of Pacific-Indian Ocean seaways. Tectonophysics 1997, 281:1-16.

[10] Gasperi JT, Kennett JP: Vertical thermal structure evolution of Miocene surface waters: western equatorial Pacific DSDP Site 289. Mar Micropaleont 1993, 22:235-254.

[11] Linthout K, Helmers H, Sopaheluwakan J: Late Miocene obduction and microplate migration around the southern Banda Sea and the closure of the Indonesian Seaway. Tectonophysics 1997, 281:17-30.

[12] Cane MA, Molnar P: Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a pre- cursor to east African aridification around 3–4 million years ago. Nature 2001, 411:157-162.

[13] McManus JW: Marine speciation, tectonics and sea-level changes in southeast Asia. Proc 5th Intl Coral Reef Congr 1985, 4:133-138.

[14] Rosen DM: A vicariance model of Caribbean biogeography. Syst Zool 1975, 24:431-464.

References


Take home message:

The distribution of organisms and their genetic make-up is a mix between past

geological events and present-day oceanographic/environmental conditions.

Present-day currents

Thermo and salinity soft barriers

Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway

Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway



Opening of Bering strait

Continental break-up and spreading of the Atlantic Ocean.


Take home message:

To explain a biogeographic pattern be prepared to explore different

alternatives.

Be parsimonious.

Be parsimonious.

Earth is a Dynamic and Snowball Earth Evolving...

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