Earth and Life Science Module

7/25/2019 Earth and Life Science Module

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Earth

&

Life Science

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I. Description of the subjectThis learning area is designed to provide a general background for the

understanding of Earth Science and Biology. It presents the history of the

Earth through geologic time. It discusses the Earths structure composition

and process. Issues concerns and problems pertaining to natural ha!ards

are included. It also deals "ith the basic principles and processes in the

study of biology. It covers life processes and interactions at the cellular

organism population and ecosystem levels.

II. #bjectives

$. To have a better understanding of the origin of the Earth and its species

%. To appreciate the importance of the e&istence of the living and non'living

things on earth

(. To familiari!e the students "ith the metabolic processes of living organisms

). To motivate the students to participate in the conservation and protection of

life forms and environment

III. Table of *ontent

*hapter $+ T,E #-II/ 0/D ST-1*T1-E #2 T,E E0-T, $$.$ 1niverse and Solar System$.% Earth and Earth System

*hapter %+ E0-T,3 40TE-I05S 0/D 6-#*ESSES 7%.$ -ocks and 4inerals%.% E&ogenic 6rocesses%.( Endogenic 6rocesses%.) *rustal Deformation 6rocesses

%.8 ,istory of Earth

*hapter (+ /0T1-05 ,090-DS 4ITI0TI#/ 0/D %% 0D06T0TI#/

(.$ eological 6rocesses and ,a!ard(.% ,ydrometeorological 6henomena and ,a!ard(.( *oastal 6rocesses and Their Effects

*hapter )+ I/T-#D1*TI#/ T# 5I2E S*IE/*E %:).$ *oncept of 5ife).% #rigin of the 2irst 5ife 2orm).( Evolution + 1nifying Themes in the Study of 5ife

*hapter 8+ BI#E/E-ETI*S (%8.$ *ell8.% 6hotosynthesis8.( *ellular -espiration

*hapter ;+ 6E-6ET10TI#/ #2 5I2E )(;.$ 6lant and 0nimal -eproduction

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;.% 6rocess of enetic Engineering;.( Benefits and -isks of 1sing 4#s

*hapter 7+ ,#< 0/I405S S1-=I=E 8(7.$ Different 4etabolic 6rocesses7.% as E&change "ith the Environment

7.( *irculation+ The Internal Transport System7.) ,omeostasis7.8 The Immune System7.; /ervous System7.7 The Body in 4otion

*hapter :+ ,#< 650/TS S1-=I=E ;::.$ 6lant 2orm and 2unction:.% 6lant ro"th and Development

*hapter >+ T,E 6-#*ESS #2 E=#51TI#/ :%>.$ Evidence of Evolution

>.% The #rigin and E&tinction of Species

*hapter $?+ I/TE-0*TI#/ 0/D I/TE-DE6E/DE/*E >:$?.$ The 6rinciples of Ecosystem$?.% Biotic 6otential and Environmental -esistance$?.( Effects of ,uman 0ctivities to the /atural Ecosystem

CHAPTER 1+ THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Objectives:$. To state the different hypotheses e&plaining the origin of the universe%. To describe the different hypotheses e&plaining the origin of the solar system(. To e&plain the current advancements@ discoveries on the solar system

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). To recogni!e the uniAueness of the earth being the only planet in the solarsystem "ith properties necessary to support life

8. To describe the four subsystem of the earth;. To identify and describe the layers of the earth

Lesson 1.1: UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SSTE!

Unive"seis an all space'time matter and energy including the solar system allstars and gala&ies and content of intergalactic space regarded as a "hole. Thereare three various theories e&plaining the origin of the universe

Ste#$% St#te T&eo"%. It states that the counting of the gala&ies in our 1niverse isconstant and ne" gala&ies "hich are forming continuously are filling the emptyspaces "hich are created by those heavenly bodies "hich have crossed theboundary lines of observable 1niverse. This theory proposes that the overallstructure of the universe is al"ays the same at any point in time and space. Thisstructure is maintained even "hen certain events such as birth of ne" stars occur. Itis balanced by the death of old stars.

P'(s#tin) T&eo"%:In this theory it is assumed that there is continuous e&pansionand contraction in universe. It proposes that the universe "ill keep e&panding moreand more then slo"ly it stop. Then it "ill start to contract due to gravitation. Thiscontraction "ill continue until the universe become more compact and "ill latere&plode and e&pand again.

*i) *#n) T&eo"%:It proposes that the entire universe "as once condensed in avery small and compact particle called primeval nucleus. It is estimated that about %?billion years ago primeval nucleus suddenly e&ploded in a big bang. The force of thise&plosion caused matter to scatter in any direction forming a universe.

*ib(ic#( *e(ie+ on t&e Fo",#tion o" C"e#tion o+ t&e Unive"seCenesis $+$ ' In the beginning Go$ c"e#te$ t&e &e#vens #n$ t&e e#"t&.C

The very first claim made in the Bible is that there "as a beginning. Sinceenesis $ describes ho" Go$ c"e#te$ t&e 'nive"se and in a certain seAuence thereis no doubt that he did that e&actly. Go$c"e#te$ t&e 'nive"se.

SOLAR SSTE!ust a part of the vast universe is our solar system. It is located some"here in

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causing it to s"irl around the protosun. 0s the protosun evolved into the sun thematerial it accreted gradually formed the planets and other revolving bodies.

(. Ti$#( T&eo"%. 0ccording to this theory the time "hen the sun about to formprotosunF a large body passing around it may have dra"n some gaseousmaterials from it. The mass of gaseous materials dra"n did not completelyescape gravitational pull of the protosun. It continued to spin around it eventually

becoming more dense and gradually formed into planetesimals. Theseplanetisimals give rise to the planets and their satellites.S-#ce e-(o"#tionby means of manned and unmanned spacecrafts give us

information about the solar system and beyond. 0chieving spaceflightenabled humansto begin to e&plore the solar systemand the rest of the universeto understand the manyobjects and phenomena that are better observed from a space perspective and to usefor human benefit the resources and attributes of the space environment.

Ho,e/o"0: -esearch on the current information about space e&ploration.

Lesson 1.: EARTH AND EARTH SSTE!

E#"t&is the only planet in the solar system capable of supporting life. *omple&

and brilliant combination of gases composition and structure of earth are some of the

reasons "hy it can sustain life.

EARTH SU*SSTE!

Earth is a very comple& place. The earth consists of four distinct yet connectedspheres. 0ll of the processes on Earth are driven by four Cs-&e"es2 "hich "e describeindividually but are really all connected.

GEOSPHEREThe Geos-&e"edescribes all of the rocks minerals and ground that are found

on and in Earth. This includes all of the mountains on the surface as "ell as all of theliAuid rock in the mantle belo" us and the minerals and metals of the outer and innercores. The continents the ocean floor all of the rocks on the surface and all of the sandin the deserts are all considered part of the geosphere. Basically if it looks like solidground itGs part of the GgroundG sphere.

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Study Auestions+$.


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HDROSPHERE6lanet Earth has been called the Blue 6lanet due to the abundant "ater on its

surface #ver 7? percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by "ater. 0ll theearths "ater solid or in liAuid form those that are contained in glaciers rocks soil andthe air comprise the earths&%$"os-&e"e.

SOURCES OF 3ATEROce#n. 0 big portion of earths "ater is found in ocean. The oceans cover more than 7?percent of the EarthGs surface and contain >7 percent of the EarthGs "ater. If the oceanGstotal salt content "ere dried it "ould cover the continents to a depth of 8 feet.

Together "ith the atmosphere oceans regulate global temperatures shape

"eather and climate patterns and cycle elements through the biosphere .

Oce#n St"'ct'"e #n$ Co,-osition5ike the atmosphere the oceans are not

uniformly mi&ed but are structured in layers "ith distinctproperties. 6ressure increases "ith depth as the "eightof the overlying air and "ater increase. 0tmospheric

pressure at sea level is $).7 pounds per sAuare inch and pressure increases by an additional atmosphere forevery $? meters of descent under "ater.

5ayers of the oceanThe E-i-e(#)ic or sunlight !one so called because most visible light in the

oceans is found hereF comprises the first %?? meters belo" the surface and is "armand mi&ed by "inds and "ave action.

0t a depth of about %?? meters the *ontinental Shelf the submerged border ofthe continentsF begins to slope more sharply do"n"ard marking the start of the!eso-e(#)ic or t"ilight !one. ,ere "ater temperature falls rapidly "ith depth to lessthan 8J* at $??? meters. This sharp transition "hich is called the thermocline inhibitsvertical mi&ing bet"een denser colder "ater at depths and "armer "ater nearer the

surface. 0bout $: percent of the total volume of the oceans is "ithin this !one. Belo"$??? meters in the Bathypelagic or midnight !one "ater is almost uniformly coldappro&imately )J*. /o sunlight penetrates to this level and pressure at the bottom ofthe !one around )??? meters depthF is about 8::? pounds per sAuare inch. 5ittle lifee&ists at the Ab%sso-e(#)ic 4#b%ss#(5 6one "hich reaches to the ocean floor at adepth of about ;??? meters. Together these cold deep layers contain about :? percentof the total volume of the ocean. The deepest layer of the ocean is the H#$#( 7oneorTrench 9one. The deepest trench on earth is !#"i#n# T"enc&8 also called !#"i#n#sT"enc& lies in the floor of the "estern /orth 6acific #cean.

INLAND 3ATERS

,ousehold commercial and agricultural "ater supply mainly come frominland bodies of "ater. T"o major inland "aters are described belo".

$. Rive"s0 volume of a fresh flo"ing "ater across the surface of the land usually tothe sea. -ivers flo" in channels.

%. L#0es 0 reservoir of relatively still "ater that is surrounded by land. It is formed

from the accumulation of large amounts of "ater in natural or artificial

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http://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Oceanhttp://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean


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depressions on the surface of the land. #ther inland "aters includeponds spring stream "etlands floodplains and reservoirs.

GROUND3ATERIt is the "ater found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil sand and rock.

It is stored in and moves slo"ly through geologic formations of soil sand and rocks

called aAuifers. It results from the accumulation of "ater penetrating through smallopenings called -o"esin the rocks or soil. This process is kno"n as -e"co(#tion.

round"ater supplies drinking "ater used for irrigation to gro" crops and animportant component in many industrial processes.

A !ASSIVE *OD OF ICE0bout % percent of earths "aters is in a form of solid a massive bodies of ice

called )(#cie"s. Deposited sno" that falls during "inter season piles up yearly. Thisaccumulated sno" transforms the lo"er layers into solid ice.

THE HDROLOGIC CCLE 43ATER CCLE5


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*IOSPHEREThe bios-&e"eis "here all forms of life e&ist. Since life e&ist in the air in "ater

and on the ground its boundaries overlap other CsphereK because life can be foundevery"here on earth. The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem La comple& community of living and nonliving things functioning as a single unit.

INNER PART OF THE EARTHThe planet Earth is made up of different layers+ the very

thin brittle crust the mantle and the core the mantle and coreare each divided into t"o parts. 0lthough the core and mantleare about eAual in thickness the core actually forms only $8percent of the EarthGs volume "hereas the mantle occupies :)percent. The crust makes up the remaining $ percent.

C"'stThe crust is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other

layers. It is a part "here the living organisms d"ell in. It forms a very thin continuouslayer that e&tends underneath the ocean and continents.

9INDS o+ CRUST$. Continent#( c"'stis mostly composed of different types of granites. eologists oftenrefer to the rocks of the continental crust as CsialK "hich stands for silicate andaluminum the most abundant minerals in continental crust.

C"#tonsare the oldest and most stable part of the continental lithosphere andare found deep in the interior of most continents.%. Oce#nic c"'st is mostly composed of different types of basalts. -ocks of the oceaniccrust are referred to as CsimaK "hich stands for silicate and magnesium the mostabundant minerals in oceanic crust.

T&e !#nt(eIt is the mostly'solid bulk of Earths interior. The mantle lies bet"een

Earths dense super heated core and its thin outer layer the crust. It is made up ofsilicates magnesium o&ide iron aluminum calcium sodium and potassium. Themantle is divided into t"o layers+ the '--e" ,#nt(eand the (o/e" ,#nt(e.

!#nt(e P(',es0 mantle plume is an up"elling of superheated rock from the mantle. 4antle

plumes are the likely cause of Chot spotsK volcanic regions not created by platetectonics.

T&e Co"eIt is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The core is made almost entirely

of iron and nickel.The G'tenbe") $iscontin'it%is the boundary bet"een the core and the mantle.The core is made of t"o layers+#5 O'te" Co"e' borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the

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core.b5 Inne" Co"e is a hot dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is

far above the melting point of iron.*'((en $iscontin'it% is the boundary separating these t"o layers.

E#"t&;s !#)netic Fie($

Earths magnetic field protects the planet from the charged particles of the solar"ind. .


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CHAPTER : EARTH !ATERIALS AND PROCESSES

Lesson .1: ROC9S AND !INERALS

#bjectives+1. To identify common rock'forming minerals using their physical and

chemical properties2. To classify rocks into igneous sedimentary and metamorphic

Roc0s

Roc0or stoneis a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.

The EarthGs outer solid layer the lithosphereis made of rock.

The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are deter'mined by the manner in"hich the rock "as formed. 4any rocks contain silicaSi#%F a compound of silicon ando&ygenthat forms 7).(N of theEarthGs crust. This material forms crystals"ith othercompounds in the rock.

Geo(o)ic#( C(#ssi+ic#tion o+ "oc0s #cco"$in) to C"#cte"istics s'c& #s$. mineral and chemical composition%. permeability(. the te&tureof the constituent particles). andparticle si!e.

These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed therocks. #ver the course of time rocks can transform from one type into another as des'cribed by the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce threegeneral classes of rocks + igneous sedimentary and metamorphic.

1. I)neo's:Igneous rocks form from the cooling of melted rock either lava or

magmaF into solid form. If the cooling occurs underground the rock is an intrusive or plutonic

igneous rock. If the cooling occurs on the earthGs surface the rock is an e&trusive or

volcanic rock. 4olten material "ithin the Earth is called magmait is ClavaK once it has

erupted onto the surface.

2. !et#,o"-&ic:4etamorphic rocks form "hen e&isting rocks are subjected tointense heat and pressure usually deep belo" the earthGs surface. Theseconditions change the original minerals of the rock into ne" minerals.

3. Se$i,ent#"%:Sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical.a. Detritalrocks are formed by the compaction of separate particles or

sediments into a rock.b.*hemical sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been

dissolved in "ater and precipitate out forming a solid rock.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospherehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_crusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_(grain_size)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_cyclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rockhttp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/geophys/magma.html#c1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospherehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_crusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_(grain_size)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_cyclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rockhttp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/geophys/magma.html#c1


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eologists describe sedimentary rocks according to the si!e and shape of theparticles in them or their mineralcomposition in the case of chemicalsedimentary rocksF.

Roc0 C%c(e

The rocks of earthGs crust areconstantly being recycled and changedinto ne" forms through geologicprocesses. This continual transformationof rocks from one type to another is calledthe rock cycle.

Rock Cycle

Ho/ "oc0 t%-e c#n be cn)e$?s. The trend linked toglobal "arming puts thousands of coastal cities and even "hole islands at risk ofbeing claimed by the ocean. This slo" sea level rise helps to increase the rate ofcoastal erosion.


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I. I$enti+% t&e te",s bein) "e+e""e$ to.MMMMMMMMMMMM$. It is caused by a sudden release of strain in the earthGs interior.MMMMMMMMMMMM%. It is the movement of rock debris or earth do"n a slope.MMMMMMMMMMMM(. It begins "hen pressure on the magma chamber forces magma up

through the conduit and out of the volcanos vent.MMMMMMMMMMMM). It is a phenomenon of atmospheric hydrological or oceanographic

nature that may cause loss of life injury or damage to property.MMMMMMMMMMMM8. It occurs "hen "ater overflo"s or inundates landthat is normally dry.MMMMMMMMMMMM;. a vital component for appropriate land use planning in flood'prone

areasMMMMMMMMMMMM7. a term used for big "aves and high tides that occurs during tropical

cyclonesMMMMMMMMMMMM:. a belo"'average precipitation in a given region resulting in prolonged

shortages in its "ater supplyMMMMMMMMMMMM>. the movement of ocean "ater into fresh ground"ater causing

contamination of the ground"ater by saltMMMMMMMMMMMM$?. a measure taken prior to the impact of a disaster to minimi!e its

effects

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

#bjectives+$. To help instructors manage the presentation of biological information "ith

the goal of producing scientifically literate students%. To help each student to acAuire information according to his or her o"n

learning style(. To help students relate this information to their o"n lives so as to understand

its importance and relevance

Lesson .1: CONCEPT OF LIFE

3t is (i+eF. -udolf =ircho" $:88F later added the concept of formation of cells tothis theory. The cell theory is as follo"s+

a. 0ll living things are made of cellsb. It is the smallest living unit structure and function of all organisms.c. 0ll cells arise from pre'e&isting cells.

TPE OF CELL5iving things vary in terms of the number of cells they have. Some living things

are multicellular. #thers are unicellular. T"o types of cells compose living things. In thecase of bacteria and cyanobacteria have prokaryotic cells. These cell lack distinct nucleiand only have fe" organelles that are not membrane'bound. In contrast eukaryotic cellshave distinct nuclei and contained several membrane'bound organelles. 0nimals plantsprotists and fungi have eukaryotic cell. See the illustration belo" for the comparison ofthe t"o types of cellsF

PROKARYOTES vs. EUKARYOTES

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Comparison of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell


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PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A EU9AROTIC CELLThe structures that make up a Eukaryotic cell are determined by the specific

functions carried out by the cell. Thus there is no typical eukaryotic cell. /everthelesseukaryotic cells generally have three main components+ 0 cell membrane a nucleusand a variety of other organelles.

THE CELL !E!*RANE 4PLAS!A !E!*RANE5

*arrier proteins in or on the membrane are

specific only allo"ing a small group of very similar molecules through. 2orinstance ' glucose is able to enter but U Q glucose is not. 4any moleculescannot cross at all.

The cell membrane is a fluid mosaic of proteins floating in a phospholipid bilayer.

The rest of the cell membrane is mostly composed of phospholipid molecules.

They have only t"o fatty acid Ptails as one has been replaced by a phosphategroup making the Phead. The head is charged and so polar the tails are notcharged and so are non'polar. Thus the t"o ends of the phospholipid moleculehave different properties in "ater. The phosphate head is hydrophilic and so thehead "ill orient itself so that it is as close as possible to "ater molecules. Thefatty acid tails are hydrophobic and so "ill tend to orient themselves a"ay from"ater. *ells are bathed in an aAueous environment and since the inside of a cellis also aAueous both sides of the cell membrane are surrounded by "ater

molecules. This causes the phospholipids of the cell membrane to form t"olayers kno"n as a phospholipid bilayer. In this the heads face the "atery fluidsinside and outside the cell "hilst the fatty acid tails are sand"iched inside thebilayer. The cell membrane is constantly being formed and broken do"n in livingcells.

THE NUCLEUS

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The cell membrane is a comple& barrier

separating every cell from its e&ternalenvironment.

It is CSe(ective(% Pe",e#b(e' "hich

means it regulates "hat passes into andout of the cell.

The cell membrane functions like a gate


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It is a membrane bound structure that contains

the cellGs hereditary information and controls thecellGs gro"th and reproduction.

It is the command center of a eukaryoticcelland

is commonly the most prominent organellein acell.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double

membrane called the nuclear envelope "hichhas many nuclear pores through "hich m-/0and proteins can pass. These pores make it looklike a golf ball.

4ost nuclei contain at least one nucleolus plural nucleoliF. The nucleoli are

"here ribosomes are synthesi!ed. see fig. above for the illustrationF

THE CTOPLAS!Everything "ithin the cell membrane "hich is not the

nucleus is kno"n as the c%to-(#s,.

*ytosol is the jelly'like mi&ture in "hich the other organellesare suspended.

#rganelles carry out specific functions "ithin the cell. In Eukaryotic cells mostorganelles are surrounded by a membrane but in prokaryotic cellsthere are no membrane'bound organelles.

T&e Di++e"ent O")#ne((es #n$ T&ei" F'nctions

O+A#//S F#IO#$. *ell "all 6rovides mechanical support and maintains cell shape in

plant cell. It prevents "ater loss in plants and protect fromover e&pansion by too much "ater.0nimals have no cell"allF

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St'$% >'estions:

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%. mitochondrion 6rovides energy for the cell in the form of 0T6

(. vacuole Stores "ater food and "aste for the cells). olgi 0pparatus Sorts packages and secretes cellular products

8. lysosomes The Csuicide bagK. They digest e&cess or "orn outorganelles food particles and engulfed viruses orbacteria.

;. centrioles 2ormation of the spindle fiber during cell division7. endoplasmic reticulum Translocation of materials "ithin the cell and in and out of

the nucleus

:. chloroplastids ives green color of plants

>. nuclear membrane Separates the nuclear contents from the contents ofcytoplasm

$?. /ucleoplasm Synthesis of -/0 and production of ribosomes

$$. -ibosomes They use the -/0 synthesi!ed by the nucleolus inmaking specific amino acid.

$%. *ytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape motility ofthe cell as a "hole and motility of o")#ne((es "ithin acell

$(. 4icrobodies They contain en!ymes that are essential in neutrali!ingto&ic materials that are product of cellular metabolism

Lesson B.: PHOTOSNTHESIS

5ife on Earth is solar po"ered. The chloroplasts in plants and otherphotosynthetic organisms capture light energy from the sun and convert it to chemicalenergy that is stored in sugar and other organic molecules. This conversion process is

called -&otos%nt&esis.5ets begin by placing photosynthesis in its ecological conte&t. 6hotosynthesis

nourishes almost the entire living "orld directly or indirectly. 0n organism acAuires theorganic compounds it uses for energy and carbon skeletons by one of t"o major modes+autotrophic nutrition or heterotrophic nutrition.

0lmost all plants are #'tot"o-&s the only nutrients they reAuire are "ater andminerals from the soil and carbon dio&ide from the air. Specifically plants arephotoautotrophs organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesi!e organicsubstances. 6hotosynthesis also occurs in algae like kelp certain other unicellulareukaryotes and some prokaryotes

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PhotoautotrophsA&ide 'rom plant& the&e organi&m& u&e light energy to dri)e the &ynthe&i& o' org

molecule& 'rom car*on dio+ide and (in mo&t ca&e&! ,ater. hey 'eed them&el)e& and the entire li)ing

n land plant& are the predominant producer& o' 'ood. In aquatic en)ironment& photoautotroph& inc

unicellular and multicellular algae &uch a& thi& kelp !a"/ &ome non-algal unicellular eukaryote& &uc

#u$lena !%"/ the prokaryote& called cyano%acteria !c"/ and other photo&ynthetic prokaryote& &u

the&e purple sulfur %acteria !d" ,hich produce &ul'ur.

b. Euglenac. Cyanobacteriad. purple sulfur baa. Kelp


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#n the other hands &ete"ot"o-&sobtain organic material by the second majormode of nutrition. 1nable to make their o"n food they live on compounds produced byother organisms the autotrophs.

P&otos%nt&esis Conve"ts Li)&t Ene")% To C&e,ic#( Ene")% O+ Foo$The remarkable ability of an organism to harness light energy and use it to drive

the synthesis of organic compounds emerges from structural organi!ation in the cell+6hotosynthetic en!ymes and other molecules are grouped together in a biologicalmembrane enabling the necessary series of chemical reactions to be carried outefficiently.

C&(o"o-(#sts:The sites of photosynthesis in plants. 0ll green parts of a plant includinggreen stems and unripened fruit have chloroplasts but the leaves are the major sites ofphotosynthesis in most plants . There are about half a million chloroplasts in a chunk ofleaf "ith a top surface area of $ mm%. *hloroplasts are found mainly in the cells of the,eso-&%(( the tissue in the interior of the leaf. *arbon dio&ide enters the leaf ando&ygen e&its by "ay of microscopic pores called sto,#t# singular stoma from thereek meaning CmouthKF.


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The eAuation for photosynthesis may look simple but actually it is a very comple&process.

It involves t"o stages "hich involve a step by step series of chemical reaction.$. 5i)&t "e#ctions thephoto part of photosynthesisF ' "hich capture solar energy andtransform it into chemical energy and

%. C#(vin c%c(e the synthesis partF ' "hich uses that chemical energy to make theorganic molecules of food.

During photosynthesis plants carry out three vital energy conversions$. *onversion of light energy to electron energy%. *onversion of electron energy to short'term energy storage0T6F(. *onversion of short'term energy storage 0T6F to long'term energy storage

sugarsF

Li)&t De-en$ent Re#ctionsThe light dependent reactions capture the energy of sunlight storing it as

chemical energy in t"o different energy'carrier molecules 0T6 and /0D6,F. The

chemical energy stored in these molecules "ill be used to po"er the synthesis of high'energy storage molecules like glucose during light' independent reactions. 0s the termimplies light'dependent reactions can take place only in the presence of light solarenergyF. The light'dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes or granaof the chloroplasts. The thylakoid membranes contain highly organi!ed assemblies ofproteins chlorophyll and the photosystems.

The process begins "ith P&otos%ste, II "here trappedlight energy is used to split "ater a process kno"n as -&oto(%sis+

HO K HJJ e J MOThe electrons are used to generate 0T6 by passing them along a series of

electron carriers losing energy as they do so before they join P&otos%ste, I replacing

electrons lost there.6hotosystem I also traps light energy and uses it to e&cite electrons along a

series of carrier molecules. *ombined "ith the ,V ions formed in 6hotosystem I theyreact "ith /0D6 to produce reduced /0D6 also kno"n as /0D6,%F+

NADP J HJ J e K "e$'ce$ NADPThe end'products of the light reaction are thus 0T6 and reduced /0D6 also

called /0D6,F "hich move into the stroma of the chloroplast ready to act as the ra"materials for the light'independent reactions see figure aboveF /otice that the light

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reactions produce no sugar that happens in the second stage of photosynthesis the*alvin cycle.

Li)&t In$e-en$ent Re#ctions 4C#(vin C%c(e5This process "as named from the fact that they do not reAuire light to take place.

The *alvin cycle is named for 4elvin *alvin "ho along "ith his colleagues ames

Bassham and 0ndre" Benson began to simplify its steps. *alvin cycle is #n#bo(icbuilding carbohydrates from smaller molecules and consuming energy. *arbon entersthe *alvin cycle in the form of *#%and leaves in the form of sugar. The cycle spendsATPas an energy source and consumes NADPHas reducing po"er for adding high'energy electrons to make the sugar. The carbohydrate produced directly from the *alvincycle is actually not glucose but a three'carbon sugar the name of this sugar isglyceraldehyde ('phosphate (6F. 2or the net synthesis of one molecule of (6 thecycle must take place three times fi&ing three molecules of *#%Lone per turn of thecycle.

Calvin cycle is divided into three phases: carbon fixation, reduction, andregeneration of the C!acceptor.

Pse 1: C#"bon +i#tion.The *alvin cycle incorporates each *#%molecule one at atime by attaching it to a five'carbon sugar named ribulose bisphosphate-uB6F. Theen!yme that cataly!es this first step is R'*P c#"bo%(#seo%)en#se or "'bisco5 'the most abundant protein in chloroplasts and is also thought to be the most abundantprotein on Earth. The product of the reaction is a sic#"bon inte",e$i#tethat is short'lived because it is so energetically unstable that it immediately splits in half forming t"omolecules o+ @-&os-&o)(%ce"#tefor each *#% fi&edF.

Pse : Re$'ction. Each molecule of ('phosphoglycerate receives an additionalphosphate group from 0T6 becoming $('bisphosphoglycerate. /e&t a pair of electronsdonated from /0D6, reduces $('bisphosphoglycerate "hich also loses a phosphategroup in the process becoming )(%ce"#($e&%$e @-&os-te [email protected] the

electrons from /0D6, reduce a carbo&yl group on $('bisphosphoglycerate to thealdehyde group of (6"hich stores more potential energy. (6 is a sugarLthe samethree'carbon sugar formed in glycolysis by the splitting of glucose. /otice in fig. belo"that for every three molecules of *#% that enter the cycle there are six molecules of(6 formed. But only one molecule of this three'carbon sugar can be counted as a netgain of carbohydrate because the rest are reAuired to complete the cycle. The cyclebegan "ith $8 carbons "orth of carbohydrate in the form of three molecules of the five'carbon sugar -uB6. /o" there are $: carbons "orth of carbohydrate in the form of si&molecules of (6. #ne molecule e&its the cycle to be used by the plant cell but theother five molecules must be recycled to regenerate the three molecules of -uB6.

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&he Cal'in cyclehi& diagram&ummari0e& three turn& o' the cycletracking car*on atom& (gray *all&!.he three pha&e& o' the cyclecorre&pond to the pha&e& di&cu&&edin the te+t. For e)ery threemolecule& o' 2 that enter thecycle the net output i& onemolecule o' glyceraldehyde -pho&phate (3! a three-car*on&ugar. he light reaction& &u&tainthe al)in cycle *y regenerating therequired A and "A5.


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Pse @: Re)ene"#tion o+ t&e CO% #cce-to" 4R'*P5. In a comple& series of reactionsthe carbon skeletons of five molecules of (6 are rearranged by the last steps of the*alvin cycle into three molecules of -uB6. To accomplish this the cycle spends threemore molecules of 0T6. The -uB6 is no" prepared to receive *# %again and the cyclecontinues.

2or the net synthesis of one (6 molecule the *alvin cycle consumes a total ofnine molecules of 0T6 and si& molecules of /0D6,. The light reactions regenerate the

0T6 and /0D6,. The (6 spun off from the *alvin cycle becomes the starting materialfor metabolic path"ays that synthesi!e other organic compounds including glucoseformed by combining t"o molecules of (6F the disaccharide sucrose and othercarbohydrates. /either the light reactions nor the *alvin cycle alone can make sugarfrom *#%.

Lesson B.@: CELLULAR RESPIRATION

*ellular processes are made possible by means of energy.


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STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION1. G(%co(%sis. lycolysis is kno"n as Csplitting of sugarK.

One G('cose 4CH1O5is broken do"n to ,o(ec'(es o+ -%"'vic #ci$ results in the productionof ATPsfor every glucose. It is an anaerobicprocess ' proceeds "hether or not #%is present.

0erobic conditions produce -%"'v#te and anaerobicconditions produce (#ct#te as the end products ofglycolysis. 0t the end the process yields a % pyruvatemolecule and %0T6.

2. 9"ebs C%c(e 4T"ic#"bo%(ic Aci$ C%c(e5. -ecall thatthe pyruvate is the end product of glycolysis. P%"'v#teis transported to the mitochondrial matri& "here it isbroken do"n via Wrebs *ycle. The pyruvate diffusesdo"n its concentration gradient into the mitochondriauntil it reaches the mitochondrial matri& "here it isused in cellular respiration. In the matri& pyruvatereacts "ith coen!yme 0*o0F forming *#%and acetyl

*o0.


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0naerobic means without oxygen. In humans "hat youll do is take glucose andin many steps break it do"n to t"o molecules of a three carbon molecule called (#ctic#ci$. 5actic acid causes the muscle cramps.

Co,-#"#tive S',,#"% o+ P&otos%nt&esis #n$ Ce(('(#" Res-i"#tion

P&otos%nt&esis Ce(('(#" Res-i"#tion

$. Stores energy in sugar molecules%. 1ses carbon dio&ide and "ater(. Increases "eight). #ccurs in cell containing chloroplasts8. 6roduces o&ygen in green organisms;. 6roduces 0T6 "ith energy from light

-eleases energy from sugar molecules-eleases carbon dio&ide and "aterDecreases "eight#ccurs in all living cells1tili!es o&ygen6roduces 0T6 "ith energy released from sugar

*,06TE- TEST+

-ead each Auestion carefully.


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MMM>.


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attached to the parentGs body and sometimes it breaks off. ,ydras reproduce bybudding.

Ge,,'(es are special structures that are found in sea sponges. 0 parent spongereleases gemmules that later develop into mature sponges.

Re)ene"#tionIn the process of regeneration detached pieces of the parentGs body can develop

into a ne" organism if this body part contains enough genetic information. Some flat"orms and starfish can reproduce by regeneration.

A$v#nt#)es #n$ $is#$v#nt#)es o+ #se'#( "e-"o$'ction0se&ual reproduction "orks "ell for organisms that stay in one place. Because

they do not move it is difficult for them to find a mating partner. Stable environments arethe best places for organisms that reproduce ase&ually. 0se&ual reproduction is alsomuch less time and energy consuming. 0se&ually'produced generation does not haveany genetic variations. That means that these organisms "ill not have any GmaterialG foradapting to environmental changes. That is "hy many ase&ually'reproducing organisms

can reproduce se&ually as "ell.

Se'#( "e-"o$'ctionDuring se&ual reproduction t"o gametes from both parents fuse forming a

!ygote. 0 !ygote is also referred to as a fertili!ed egg. 0ll gametes are haploid cellsmeaning they have only one set of chromosomes $nF. So "hen gametes fuse theyform a diploid organism+ $nV$nR%n.

Se'#( "e-"o$'ction in #()#eThe simplest form of se&ual reproduction in algae is conjugation in "hich t"o

similar organisms fuse e&change genetic material and then break apart. Somemulticellular green algae undergo a process called alternation of generations. During this

process generations of different types of organisms are produced+ haploid and diploid.,aploid generation reproduces se&ually. It is follo"ed by diploid generation thatreproduces ase&ually.

Se'#( "e-"o$'ction in +(o/e"in) -(#nts2lo"ers contain both male and female parts. The female part is called the pistil

"hich consists of the ovary ovule style and stigma at the tip. Inside the ovary are theovules. Each ovule contains an egg cell. The male structure is called the stamen. Itconsists of the filament and the pollen'producing anther. 0 ne" seed is formed "hen anegg cell joins "ith a pollen cell in the process of pollination. 6ollination occurs "henpollen grains are carried from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil.

Se'#( "e-"o$'ction in #ni,#(s0nimal male gamete is called spermato!oan or sperm. Sperm is a mobile cellthat moves using its GtailG called flagellum. 2emale gamete is called an ovum. It does notmove and it is much larger than sperm.

T%-es o+ +e"ti(i6#tion

There are t"o main types of fertili!ation.

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1. Inte"n#( +e"ti(i6#tionDuring internal fertili!ation eggs are fertili!ed inside the femaleGs body. 0nimals

like reptiles and birds lay eggs after fertili!ation. /e" offspring develop outside thefemaleGs body. 0ll eggs are covered by a protective shell. 4ammal females e&ceptmonotremes develop a ne" embryo inside their body. This e&tra protection increases anorganismGs chances of survival.

. Ete"n#( +e"ti(i6#tionDuring e&ternal fertili!ation the egg is fertili!ed outside the femaleGs body. 4ale

and female gametes are released into these speciesG surroundings "here they fuseforming a !ygote. This type of fertili!ation usually occurs in "ater. 0mphibians and fishare e&amples of animals that reproduce in this"ay.He",#-&"o$ites

,ermaphrodites are animals that have both female and male reproductiveorgans.

Earth"orms and leeches are hermaphrodites but as they produce eggs andsperm at different times they need a mate to reproduce. 2lat"orms are hermaphroditesthat can self'fertili!e.P#"t&eno)enesis

In some animal species eggs can develop "ithout fertili!ation in a process calledparthenogenesis. Some types of birds and bees can reproduce by parthenogenesis.

6lants+0 plants life cycle starts "ith a seed.


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T&e St#,ens:4,#(e "e-"o$'ctive o")#ns50 stamen is basically the male reproductive organs.


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include plants "ith resistance to some insects plants that can tolerate herbicides andcrops "ith modified oil content.

DNADeo&yribonucleic acid or D/0 is a genetic material "hich is stored in the

nucleus. The nucleus is a part of the eukaryotic cell and contains nucleic acids and it is

responsible in protein production. Small segments of D/0 are called genes. Each geneholds the instructions for ho" to produce a single protein.

D/0 is usually a double'heli& and has t"o strandsrunning in opposite directions.D/0 is the recipe for life. It is a molecule found in the nucleusof every cell and is made up of ) subunits called bases andare represented by the letters 0 0denine F T ThymineF uanine F and * *ytosine F. The order of these subunits inthe D/0 strand holds a code of information for the cell. Thegenetic language uses ) letters to spell out the instructions forho" to make the proteins an organism "ill need to gro" and live.

Structures of the Bases

P#i"in) o+ S'b'nits

In the double'stranded D/0 the t"o strands run in opposite directions and thebases pair up such that 0 al"ays pairs "ith T and al"ays pairs "ith *. The 0'T base'pair has % hydrogen bonds and the '* base'pair has ( hydrogen bonds. The '*interaction is therefore stronger by about(?NF than 0'T and 0'T rich regions ofD/0 are more prone to thermalfluctuations.

The smaller base is al"ays paired"ith a bigger one. The effect of this is tokeep the t"o chains at a fi&ed distancefrom each other all the "ay along. These particular pairs fit e&actly to form very effectivehydrogen bonds "ith each other. It is these hydrogen bonds "hich hold the t"o chains

together.

E-(o"in) # DNA cinThe backbone of D/0 is based on a repeated pattern of a sugar

group and a phosphate group. The full name of D/0 deo&yribonucleicacid gives the name of the sugar present ' deo&yribose.

Deo&yribose is a modified form of another sugar called ribose.-ibose is the sugar in the backbone of -/0 ribonucleic acid.

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Each of the four corners "here there isnGt an atom sho"n has a carbon atom inthe ring.

Deo&yribose as the name might suggest is ribose "hichhas lost an o&ygen atom ' de'o&y.

N',be"in) o+ c#"bon #to,s in $eo%"ibose "in)

The carbon atom to the right of theo&ygen is numbered $ and then aroundclock"ise direction F to the carbon on the*,%#, side group as number 8.

Att#c&in) # -&os-te )"o'-The other repeating partof the D/0

backbone is a phosphate group. 0 phos' phate group is attached to the sugarmolecule in place of the Q#, groupon the 8 carbon

Att#c&in) # b#se #n$ ,#0in) # n'c(eoti$e#ne of four bases cytosine *F thymine T F adenine 0 F and guanine F

is added to the above structure to form a D/0 strand nucleotide F.These bases attachin place of the '#, group on the $G carbon atom in the sugar ring.

&im;liie" n(cleoti"e "i!gr!m o nucleoi"e

5ocation of Bonding on Base Structures "ith Sugar -ing

These bases attach in place of the Q#, group onthe $ carbon atom in the sugar ring. The nitrogen andhydrogen atoms in blue F on each molecule sho" "herethese molecules join on to the deo&yribose. In each casethe hydrogen is lost together "ith the '#, group on the $G

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7 8


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carbon atom of the sugar. This is a condensation reaction ' t"o moleculesjoiningtogether "ith the loss of a small one not necessarily "aterF.

E&ample of nucleotide containing cytosine

oinin) t&e n'c(eoti$es into # DNA St"#n$0 D/0 strand is simply a string of nucleotides joined together. The phosphate

group on one nucleotide links to the ( carbon atom on the sugar of another one. In theprocess a molecule of "ater is lost Q another condensation reaction.

0dding more nucleotidesin the same "ay build up aD/0 chain for one strand.6airing the t"o strands ofD/0 chains forms the structureresembling a ladder t"istedinto a spiral called thedouble heli&. #ne chain of D/0strand

2inal structure for D/0 "ith % strands each at opposite direction

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Ho/ is )enetic en)inee"in) $one


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potential close to current hybrids that e&presses the trait encoded by the ne"transgene.

Genetic en)inee"in) co,-#"e$ to t"#$ition#( b"ee$in)0lthough the goal of both genetic engineering and traditional plant breeding is to

improve an organisms traits there are some key differences bet"een them.


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primarily performed by simple mating or gene recombination. 4#s range frommicroorganisms like yeast and bacteria to insects plants fish and mammals. eneticallymodified crops 4 cropsF are those engineered to introduce a ne" trait into thespecies. 6urposes of 4 crops generally include resistance to certain pests diseasesor environmental conditions or resistance to chemical treatments e.g. resistance to aherbicideF. #ther purpose of genetic modification of crops is to enhance its nutritional

value as seen in the case of golden rice.The use of 4 crops is "idely debated. 0t the moment there is no kno"n harm

in consuming genetically modified foods. 4 foods are developed Q and marketed Qbecause there is some perceived advantage either to the producer or consumer of thesefoods. This is meant to translate into a product "ith a lo"er price greater benefit interms of durability or nutritional valueF or both.

Iss'e on G!OsThose "ho are pro'4# claim that 4#s are not only safe for us and the

environment but also potentially a very beneficial development. Those "ho are anti'4# argue that the risk of negative conseAuences to our environment is high and verydifficult to predict. It is important to determine the magnitude of potential damage to our

environment due to the spread of 4# genes into "ild plants and microbes. 4 cropscan cause short and long term effects on the environment.

*ene+its o+ Usin) G!Os$. a decreased use of pesticides and insecticides%. reduced greenhouse gas emissions(. increased nutritional values in foods). contribute to an increase in the number of functional foods or nutraceutical foods

"ith added benefits8. better taste;. faster output of cops7. more crops can be gro"n on less land

:. genetically modified animals have higher resistance to disease and overall betterhealth

Ris0s o+ Usin) G!Os$. potential development of allergens%. production of to&ic substance to Cnon'targetK organisms(. increased endocrine disruption reproductive disorders and accelerated aging). antibiotic resistance8. unkno"n effects;. soil and "ater pollution

So,e Potenti#( Conse'ences to t&e Envi"on,ent Inc('$e:

$. 1nintended selection%. 1n"anted change in gene e&pression(. 1nintended effect on non 4 "eeds pests or pathogens). Survival and persistence beyond intended !one8. 6roduction of to&ic substance to Gnon'targetG organisms;. ,ori!ontal ene transfer

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CHAPTER TESTI. True or 2alse.


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bet"een different cells in "hich case the set of reactions "ithin the cells iscalled intermediary metabolism.

4etabolism is usually divided into t"o categories +

aF. catabolism' the breaking do"n of organic matter by "ay ofcellular respirationbF. anabolism' the building up of components of cells such as proteins and

nucleic acids.

1sually breaking do"n releases energy and building up consumes energy.The chemical reactions of metabolism are organi!ed intometabolic path"ays in

"hich one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical by aseAuence of en!ymes. En!ymes are crucial to metabolism because they allo"organisms to drive desirable reactions that reAuire energythat "ill not occur bythemselves by coupling them to spontaneous reactionsthat release energy. En!ymesact ascatalysts that allo" the reactions to proceed more rapidly.

!et#bo(ic P"ocesses4etabolic processes are seAuences of biochemical reactions that take place

"ithin living cells to maintain life.They can be divided into t"o main types +

0. *atabolic processes involve the breakdo"n of comple& molecules from foodinto smaller units that can be used as building blocks for ne" molecules or toprovide energy

B. 0nabolic processes involve the use of energy to build ne" chemicals thatbecome components of cells. These reactions are made possible by a number

of organic catalysts kno"n as en!ymes.Together the t"o types of metabolic processes allo" the transformation of the

ra" materials or nutrients that are taken in by an organism into tissue. #ne compoundcommon to all cellular life is essential to these trans' formations. 0denosine triphos'phate 0T6F is used to store energy obtained from nutrients such as carbohydrates and

to release energy "hen it is reAuired for the building of ne" molecules.

C#t#bo(ic P"ocessesSome organisms such as green plants make their o"n food from inorganic

materials "hile others such as animals consume organic materials to obtain theirnutrition. The food consumed by animals can be broken do"n into three main types Lcarbohydrates lipidsfats and oilsF and proteins. Digestion involves catabolic processesthat break these do"n into simpler components. 2or e&ample relatively comple&carbohydrates such as polysaccharides and disaccharides are broken do"ninto glucose and proteins are broken do"n into amino acids. These simpler compoundsmay be used by anabolic processes to build ne" materials or they may be furtherbroken do"n to provide energy.

*ellular respiration is the process by "hich the carbohydrate glucose *;,$%#;Fis broken do"n into carbon dio&ide *#%F and "ater ,%#F producing energy that isstored in 0T6. The procedure involves o&idation and "here there is atmospherico&ygenavailable it is used in "hat is kno"n as #e"obic "es-i"#tion. This is the processthat takes place in animals plants and some microorganisms.

In conditions "here no free o&ygen is present #n#e"obic "es-i"#tion takesplace. This is found only in certain microorganisms that live in soil decaying organicmatter under the sea deep underground and in the intestines of animals. Theseorganisms use alternatives such as nitratessulfates fumarate and evensulfurin place

57
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respirationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathwayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(physics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysishttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-enzymes.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-lipids.htmhttp://www.wisegeekhealth.com/what-is-glucose.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-oxidation.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-oxygen.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-nitrates.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-nitrates.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-sulfur.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-sulfur.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respirationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathwayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(physics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysishttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-enzymes.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-lipids.htmhttp://www.wisegeekhealth.com/what-is-glucose.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-oxidation.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-oxygen.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-nitrates.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-sulfur.htm


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of free o&ygen. 0naerobic respiration is much less efficient than the aerobic process andproduces much less 0T6 .

In animals lipids are also o&idi!ed to carbon dio&ide and "ater but the first fe"steps are different. The chemistry of organisms takes place in a "ater'based envi'ronment but fats and oils do not mi& "ith "ater. The first step is to emulsify thesesubstances "hich means converting them into a form that "ill mi& "ith "ater in the

same "ay that detergents can help clean up oil spills. This is done by soap'likesubstances contained in bile released by the gall bladder into the small intestine. Thelipids are then broken do"n into fatty acids and glycerol "hich can be absorbed throughthe intestines and "hich can then undergo o&idation reactions similar to thoseperformed on carbohydrates.

6roteins are very large comple& molecules made up of building blocks kno"nas amino acids. They are metaboli!ed by various reactions that split them up into theiramino acids "hich can be absorbed and then used "ithin cells. enerally proteins arenot used to provide energy but instead the amino acids are utili!ed to manufacture ne"proteins to build tissue and muscle. In cases "here no carbohydrate or fat is available inthe diet and the body has used up its fat reserves proteins may be used to generateenergy by o&idation of their amino acids. In these cases the body may start breaking

do"n muscle proteins.

An#bo(ic P"ocesses0lso kno"n as biosynthesis these are reactions that use up the energy stored in

0T6 by catabolic processes. They include the building of proteins from amino acids andthe construction of D/0from nucleotides. In animals the muscle contractions thatpo"er movement can also be included as these reAuire the use of stored energy. Inplants the synthesis of glucose from carbon dio&ide and "ater through photosynthesis isanother anabolic path"ay.

Ho/ $o #ni,#( ce((s )et +oo$ 2ood to an animal cell is glucose. lucose is a monosaccharide a simple sugarF

produced by plants in the process kno"n as photosynthesis. lucose is used to producethe energy to make another molecule called 0T6 adenosine triphosphateF "hich is the

energy currency of the cell This process is called cellular respiration and this process

takes place in the mitochondria of the cell.F 0ll cells regardless of "hat living thing they

are in reAuire glucose to make 0T6 in sufficient Auantities to run their metabolism.0nimals get this glucose by eating plants or animals that eat plants. The glucose

that the cells do not use is stored in the tissues of the plants.


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breakdo"n or catabolismof sugars and sho" ho" they produce 0T6 /0D, andother activated carriermolecules in animal cells.


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respiratory membrane "here o&ygen concentrations are relatively high and easilyrelease the o&ygen in deeper tissues "hich are lo" in o&ygen.

Filaments of asalmon's gills. In fish, water Gills are respiratory organs that asor o!ygen from water

is p"mpe# across gills to enale gas e!change as it flows o$er the gill s"rface

0nimals "ith small bodies e&change respiratory gases sufficiently through thebody surface "ithout speciali!ed respiratory membranes. Even some vertebrates suchas small slender salamanders e&change respiratory gases solely across the skin "hichis richly supplied "ith blood vessels. 5arger animals reAuire an e&tended surface for gase&change. 2or most fish many aAuatic invertebrates and some terrestrial invertebratesthe speciali!ed respiratory organs are the gills. In crustaceans gills are often found"here the legs attach to the body moving the legs s"eeps "ater across the gillsurfaces. In fish and some mollusks gills are ventilated by muscular contractions thatpump "ater across the respiratory surface.

Terrestrial animals must protect their respiratory membranes from drying out.4any spiders have book lungs "hich are speciali!ed leaf'shaped in"ard folds of thecuticle surrounded by an air chamber that can be ventilated "ith muscular contractions.In larger terrestrial insects the respiratory organs are in"ard branching tubulare&tensions of the body "all called tracheae. The system is so e&tensive that most cellsare in close pro&imity to a tracheal branch and the tissues do not depend on bloodcirculation for gas transport.

Terrestrial vertebrates generally have lungs. Endotherms such as birds andmammals have a high metabolic rate and a correspondingly high respiratory surfacearea. Birds have one'"ay flo" through their lungs enabled by a comple& system of air'storing sacs.

4ammals reptiles and amphibians have saclike lungs "ith tidal t"o "ayF airflo". This results in residual air remaining in the lungs reducing the concentration ofavailable o&ygen in comparison to bird lungs. -eptile lungs have fe"er air sacs and lessrespiratory surface area than mammals and amphibian lungs have less surface areathan reptilian lungs.

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-evie" Ouestions++Identify the "ord being described by the given statement.

MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM$. the % respiratory gasesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM%.MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM(. the gas that must be eliminated from the animals bodyMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM). the respiratory organ of fish that absorbs o&ygenMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM8. the spreading of gas molecules
http://www.biologyreference.com/knowledge/Salmon.htmlhttp://www.biologyreference.com/knowledge/Salmon.htmlhttp://www.biologyreference.com/knowledge/Salmon.htmlhttp://www.biologyreference.com/knowledge/Salmon.html


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Lesson .@: CIRCULATION THE INTERNAL TRANSPORT SSTE!

#bjectives+$. To differentiate bet"een cardiovascular system and

lymphatic system%. To identify the components of blood(. To describe the functions of the major components

of the circulatory system

Ci"c'(#to"% S%ste,The circulatory system also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular

system is an organ systemthat permits bloodto circulate and transport nutrientssuchas amino acids andelectrolytesF o&ygencarbon dio&ide hormones and blood cellstoand from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help infighting diseasesstabili!e temperatureandp, and maintain homeostasis.

T/o Se-#"#te S%ste,s o+ t&e Ci"c'(#to"% S%ste,+$.F cardiovascular system ' distributes blood%.F lymphatic system ' circulates lymphBlood is a fluid consisting ofplasma red blood cells "hite blood cells

andplateletsthat is circulated by the heartthrough the vertebrate vascular systemcarrying o&ygen and nutrients to and "aste materials a"ay from all body tissues.

5ymph is essentially recycled e&cess blood plasma after it has been filteredfromthe interstitial fluid bet"een cellsF and returned to the lymphatic system.

T/o T%-es o+ Ci"c'(#to"% S%ste,$. open circulatory system ' blood moves freely inside the body cavity and

soaks the cells "ith nourishment%. closed circulatory system ' blood is pumped through tube supplying cells

"ith food and o&ygen and carrying a"ay "aste products

H',#n ci"c'(#to"% s%ste, constit'te t&e +o((o/in) :$. ,eart ' a muscular organ located slightly to the

left of the middle of your chest pumping device forthe circulation of blood

%. Blood =essels

a. Veins ' take blood back to"ard your heart. A"te"ies' take o&ygen'rich blood a"ay fromthe heart

c. C#-i((#"ies ' are very tiny blood vessels that form a connectionbet"een arteries and veins facilitate the transfer of o&ygen nutrientsand "astes in and out of the body

(.Blood ' a constantly circulating fluid providing the body "ith

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrienthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoregulationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateletshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_filtrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstitial_fluidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrienthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoregulationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateletshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_filtrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstitial_fluid


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nutrition o&ygen and "aste removal

Co,-onents o+ b(oo$ #n$ t&ei" +'nctions :a. -ed Blood *ells ' take o&ygen from the lungs and transport it to the rest of the body

cellsb.


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0nd all those systems have to stay in balance "ith each other. In the case of animalslike humans even a small change to the state inside of the body can be deadly. So toprevent this animals have developed something called homeostasis.

Ene")% b#(#nce in t&e &',#n bo$%

The bodies of animals are able to control the flo" of energy using neurologicaland chemical signals. /ot only can they control ho" much of the food they eat is storedas fat but they can send signals to the that "hich cause you to fill hungry or full.

Te,-e"#t'"eTemperature is a very delicate e&ample of homeostasis especially for "arm'

blooded animals like humans.


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Widneysplay a very large role in animal osmoregulation by regulating the amountof "ater reabsorbed from glomerular filtrate in kidney tubules "hich is controlled byhormones such as antidiuretic hormone 0D,F aldosterone and angiotensin II.Therefore a large proportion of "ater is reabsorbed from fluid to prevent a fairproportion of "ater from being e&creted.

Lesson .B: THE I!!UNE SSTE!

#bjectives+$. To describe the role of "hite blood cells in the body system%. To name the components of the immune system

I!!UNE SSTE!The immune system is a comple& net"ork of organs containing cells that

recogni!e foreign substances in the body and destroy them. It protects vertebratesagainst pathogens or infectious agents such as viruses bacteria fungi and otherparasites. The human immune system is the most comple&.

The major components of the immune system

L%,-& no$es small bean'shaped structures that produce and store cells that fightinfection and disease and are part of the lymphatic system

S-(een the largest lymphatic organ in the body "hich is on the left side under theribs and above the stomach contains "hite blood cells that fight infection ordisease

*one ,#""o/ the yello" tissue in the center of the bones produces "hite blood cells. This spongy tissue inside some bones contains immature cells called stem

cells "hich could morph into any human cell.L%,-&oc%tes these small "hite blood cells play a large role in defending the body

against disease. The t"o types of lymphocytes are B'cells "hich makeantibodies that attack bacteria and to&ins and T'cells "hich help destroyinfected or cancerous cells.

T&%,'s this small organ is "here T'cells mature. It maintains the production ofantibodies that can result in muscle "eakness.

Le'0oc%tes ' these disease'fighting "hite blood cells identify and eliminate pathogens and protect the body from harmful microorganisms

5eukocytes come in t"o basic types that combine to seek out and destroydisease'causing organisms or substances.

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E&ercise +True or 2alse.

MMMMM$. 2iltered sea "ater can be used to replenish lost "ater in the body.MMMMM%. Widney helps in the removal of to&ic "aste substance from the human bodyMMMMM(. Drinks like atorade can restore salts during heavy e&ercise.MMMMM). Salt is necessary to maintain the "ater content in the human body.MMMMM8. 0 change in the internal state of the human body can be fatal.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidneyshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomerular_filtratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormoneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidiuretic_hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldosteronehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiotensin_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidneyshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomerular_filtratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormoneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidiuretic_hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldosteronehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiotensin_II


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T&e t/o b#sic t%-es o+ (e'0oc%tes #"e+1. -)oc%tes cells that che" up invading organisms2. (%,-&oc%tes cells that allo" the body to remember and recogni!e previous

invaders and help the body destroy them

T&"ee 9in$s o+ I,,'nit%

0. Innate immunity ' or natural immunity. 6rimitive system of defense againstpathogens "hich are possess by all animals .

% parts of innate immunity a. humoral innate immunity ' involves substances found in humors or body

fluids "hich interfere "ith the gro"th of pathogens b. cellular innate immunity ' is carried out by cells called phagocytes that ingest and degrade pathogens and by so called

natural killer cells that destroy certain cancerous cells.

B. 6assive immunity ' is borro"ed from another source and it lasts for a short time. 2or e&ample antibodies in a motherGs breast milk give a baby

temporary immunity to diseases the mother has been e&posed to. This can help protect the baby against infection during the early years of childhood.

*. 0daptive immunity Q or active immunity develops throughout our lives. ItInvolves the lymphocytes and develops as people are e&posed todiseases or immuni!ed against diseases through vaccination.

Immune response is the defensive reaction of the adaptive immunesystem.

0daptive immunity "orks "ith innate immunity to provide vertebrates "ith aheightened resistance to microorganisms parasites and other intruders that could harm

them. ,o"ever adaptive immunity is also responsible for allergic reactions and for therejection of transplanted tissue "hich it may mistake for a harmful foreign invader.

Ho/ I,,'ne S%ste, 3o"0s


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cell& (! y;e o lym;-ocye

!!c


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chemicals called neuro'transmittersto be released at junctions called synapses. 0 cellthat receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be e&cited inhibited or other"isemodulated. The connections bet"een neurons can form neural circuits and also neuralnet"orks that generate an organismGs perception of the "orld and determine itsbehavior.

0long "ith neurons the nervous system

contains other speciali!ed cells called )(i#( ce((s"hich provide structural and metabolic support.

0mong the most important functions of glial cellsare to support neurons and hold them in place tosupply nutrients to neurons to insulate neuronselectrically to destroy pathogens and remove deadneurons and to provide guidance cues directing thea&ons of neurons to their targets.lial cells are themost abundant cell types in the central nervous system. Types of glial cells includeoligodendrocytes astrocytes ependymal cells Sch"ann cells microglia and satellitecells.

P#"ts #n$ F'nctions o+ t&e *"#in :$. cerebral corte& Q analy!es data learn ne"

information form thoughts makedecisions

%. corpus collosum ' communication bet"een theleft and right hemisphere

(. frontal lobe Q cognition and memory). hypothalmus Q controls maintenance functions

such as eating8. temporal lobe Q auditory reception and

interpretation;. pituitary gland Q master endocrine gland

7. pons Q controls arousal and regulatesrespiration

:. medulla Q controls heartbeat and breathing>. spinal cord Q controls simple refle&es$?.parietal lobe Q body orientation$$.thalamus Q relays messages bet"een lo"er brain centers and cerebral corte&$%.cerebellum Q coordinates voluntary movement and balance

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E&ercise +

2ill in the blank "ith the correct ans"er.

$. 0mong the nervous system cells MMMMMMMMMMMM cells are the most abundant .

%. The central nervous system consists the MMMMMMMMMM and the MMMMMMMMMMMM.

(. Signals are send to the other cells by MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM.

). /euron cells are hold in their position by MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM.

8. The peripheral nervous system is made up of MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network_(biological)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network_(biological)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network_(biological)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network_(biological)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen


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Lesson .+ *OD IN !OTION

#bjectives +$. To describe the functional relationship of the muscular and skeletal system

%. To be familiari!ed "ith the parts of the muscular and skeletal system

!'sc'(#" S%ste,The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal smooth and

cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body maintains posture and circulatesblood throughout the body. The muscular system in vertebratesis controlled through thenervous system although some muscles such as the cardiac muscleF can becompletely autonomous. Together "ith the skeletal systemit forms the musculoskeletalsystem "hich is responsible for movement of the human body.

!'sc(es4uscle tissues are formed from speciali!ed

cells called muscle fibers that joined together toconstitute the muscular system. These tissues aretough and elastic and their predominant function iscontractibility. 4uscles attached to the bones orinternal organs and blood vessels are responsible formovement. /early all movement in the body is theresult of muscle contraction. 4uscles could either bevoluntary or involuntary. Involuntary muscles non'striated Fare muscles that cannot be controlled by the

conscious thought of the organism "hile voluntary muscles striated muscles Fcan be.E&amples of non'striated muscles are the heart and the smooth muscles. ,andand leg muscles are striated muscles.

There are appro&imately ;(> skeletal muscles in the human body.

I,-o"t#nce o+ ,'sc(es4uscles provide strength balance posture movement and heat for the body to

keep "arm. The integrated action of joints bones and skeletal muscles producesobvious movements such as "alking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce moresubtle movements that result in various facial e&pressions eye movements andrespiration.T&"ee t%-es o+ ,'sc(es :

A. S,oot& ,'sc(e' found lining the "alls of blood vessels visceral organs such as the digestivetract and uterusF and are also found attached to hairs in the integument

*. C#"$i#c ,'sc(e' are found solely in the musculature of the heart "all' cardiac muscle does not fatigue readily "hich is a desirable trait in the muscles

that maintain circulation of bloodC. S0e(et#( ,'sc(e

' skeletal muscles are closely associated "ith the skeleton and are used in

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musculoskeletal_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musculoskeletal_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_bodyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musculoskeletal_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musculoskeletal_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body


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locomotion' fibers are closely associated "ith connective tissues and are under voluntary

control by the nervous system ' there are appro&imately ;(> skeletal muscles in the human body

S0e(et#( S%ste,

Skeletal system is the system of bones associated cartilages and joints ofhuman body. Together these structures form the human skeleton. Skeleton can bedefined as the hard frame"ork of human body around "hich the entire body is built.

0lmost all the hard parts of human body are components of human skeletal system.oints are very important because they make the hard and rigid skeleton allo" differenttypes of movements at different locations.

F'nctions o+ &',#n s0e(eton:,uman skeleton performs some important functions that are necessary for survival ofhuman beings.

1. STRENGTH8 SUPPORT AND SHAPE: It gives strength support and shape tothe body.


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$!r& o -e S


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0nimals move through four types of environment + #'#ticin or on "ater F

te""est"i#(on ground or other surfaceF +osso"i#(undergroundF and #e"i#(in the airF.

CHAPTER TEST:

Identify the "ord being described by the given statement.

MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM$. muscles that cannot be controlled consciously by an organismMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM%. the frame"ork of the human bodyMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM(. a fibrous tissue that connects bone to boneMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM). give shape to the bodyMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM8. It is "here the ne" blood cells are produced.

;. thehard protective covering of the brain

MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM7. It is made up of collagen and calcium phosphate.

MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM:. It pertains to bones of the arms and hands.

MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM>. the part of the brain that is responsible for cognition and memory

MMMMMMMMMMMMMM$?. part of the brain that controls heartbeat and breathing

MMMMMMMMMMMMMM$$. immunity develops throughout our lives

MMMMMMMMMMMMMM$%. It is used to store energy obtained from nutrients.

MMMMMMMMMMMMMM$(. the system in the circulatory that distributes blood

MMMMMMMMMMMMMM$). blood vessels that take o&ygen'rich blood a"ay from the heart

MMMMMMMMMMMMMM$8. It is the measure of the tendency of the "ater to move into one

solutionfrom another by osmosis.

CHAPTER : HO3 PLANTS SURVIVE

Lesson .1: PLANT FOR! AND FUNCTION

#bjectives +$. To identify the parts of a plant%. To describe the function of the different plant organs

Hie"#"c&% o+ ce(('(#" #"c&itect'"e o+ (ivin) o")#nis,s 0t the lo"est level are ce((s

o E&ample+ 6arenchyma Sclerenchyma vessel elements

*ells are organi!ed together to form tiss'es

o E&ample+ &ylem phloem

Tissues are organi!ed together to form o")#nst"o or more tissues performing

specific functionsF

o E&ample+5eaves stamens

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_animalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_animalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossorialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_animalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_animalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossorialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis


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#rgans are organi!ed together to form o")#n s%ste,s

o E&ample+ 2lo"ers shoots

P(#nt Ce((s #n$ Tiss'es

0 mature vascular plantany plant other than mosses and liver"ortsF contains

several types of differentiated cells. These are grouped together in tissues. Some tissuescontain only one type of cell. Some consist of several.

0. 4eristematic tissues Q the main function is mitosis . The cells aresmall thin'"alled "ith no central vacuole and no speciali!edfeatures. It is located at the gro"ing points of roots and stems.

B. 6rotective tissuesQ cover the surface of leaves and the livingcells of roots and stems. Its cells are flattened "ith their top andbottom surfaces parallel. The upper and lo"er epidermis of theleaf are e&amples of protective tissue.

. 6arenchyma cells Q large thin'"alled and usually have largecentral vacuole. They are often partially separated from eachother and are usually stuffed "ith plastids. In areas not e&posedto light colorless plastids predominate and food storage is themain function.

=. Sclerenchyma Q the "alls of these cells are very thick and built

up in a uniform layer around the entire margin of the cell. #ftenthe cells dies after its all "all "as fully formed. Sclerenchymacells give mechanical support to other cells types.

/. *ollenchyma cells Qhave thick "alls that are specially thickat their corners. These cells provide mechanical support forthe plant. They are found in areas that are gro"ing rapidlyand need to be strengthened. The petiole of leaves is usually

reinforced "ith collenchyma.

F. Xylem Q conducts "ater and dissolved minerals from the roots to all the other parts of the plants. These are thick'"alled tubes that can e&tend vertically through several feet of &ylem

tissues. It gives strength to a trunk.

. 6hloem Q transport sugars from one part to another. It is

made of sieve tube elements and companion cells.

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http://www.biology-pages.info/P/Plants.html#lycopsidshttp://www.biology-pages.info/P/Plants.html#lycopsids


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Lon)it("inal section Vasc(la *(n"le sho+in)

,co-$anion cell an" sieve t(*e the /yle- an" the $hloe-

P(#nt O")#n S%ste,s

In plants just as in animals similar cells "orking together form a tissue.


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stem elongation.E-i$e",isQ #uter layer of "a&'coated cells that provides protection and covering.Co"teQ 6rimary tissues of a stem e&ternally bound by the epidermis and internally by

the phloem.

V#sc'(#" b'n$(e+

?%(e, tiss'esQ Distribute "ater and minerals from the roots up through the plant.Xylem provides the structural support in plants becoming the

C"oody K tissue.C#,bi', tiss'esare the single'celled layer of meristematic dividingF tissues that

continually divides to form phloem tissues to"ard the outside and&ylem tissues to"ard the inside. *ell division of the cambium tissueadds "idth to the stem.

P&(oe, tiss'esinner barkF Q distribute sugars pro'ducts of photosynthesis F throughoutthe plant. It is important to understand"hat happens "hen the phloem isblocked as "hen a tree is girdled "ith

a tie or rope. The stem often enlargesjust above the blockage due to thesugars moving do"n from the leavesfor distribution throughout the plant. Tissuesbelo" the blockage slo"ly starve. -oots dieback eventually leading to death of the plant.

Pit&Q *enter of dicot plant stems. In some plants the pith breaks do"n forming a hollo" stem. In older "oody plants the pith is filled "ith rigid &ylem "ood fiber.

!onocot o" Dicot4onocot and dicot stems differ in the arrangement of

their vascular system. In monocot stems the &ylem and

phloem are paired in bundles "ith bundles dispersedthroughout the stem. 4onocot and dicot stems differ in thearrangement of their vascular system . In monocot stems the&ylem and phloem are paired in bundles "ith bundlesdispersed throughout the stem.

In "oody dicot plants the rings gro" to make a complete ring around the stem.Xylem gro"th makes the Cannual ringsK used to tell a trees age. In "oody dicot plants"ater and mineral movement occurs in the more recent years of &ylem rings. Droughtreduces the si!e of the annual rings si!e of &ylem tubes F and thus the potential for"ater and nutrient movement. 4ulti'year droughts "ith their corresponding reduction in&ylem si!e have long'term impacts on plant gro"th potential.

c"osssection o+ $icot ste,

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cross(section of

monocot&tem


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5eft+ herbaceous@ -ight+ "oody


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/ode and Internode Terminal bud scars or annualgro"th rings

*'$ t%-eThe type of bud is also used in plant identification.

Co,,on T%-es o+ Ste,s

3oo$% P(#nts:S&oot Q 2irst year gro"th on a "oody or herbaceous plant.T/i) Q


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S-'" Q =ery compressed fruiting t"ig found on some apples pears cherries and ginkgo.

T/inin) ste,sQ 4odified stems used for climbing.Some t"ist clock"ise hops honeysuckleF

others t"ist counter'clock"ise pole beans Dutchmans pipeF.

T'be"Q Enlarged rhi!ome containing stored food. The CeyesK of an Irish potato are the modified buds.F

T'be"o's ste,Q Short flattened modified storage stem tuberous begonias dahliasF.1nlike tubers "hich have buds scattered all over tuberous stems only haveleaf buds on the up end.

*. Re-"o$'ctive -#"t

$. F(o/e" is the reproductive organ of plants classified as angiosperms. 0ll plants havethe means and corresponding structures for reproducing se&ually. The basic function ofa flo"er is to produce seeds through se&ual reproduction. Seeds are the ne&tgeneration and serve as the primary method in most plants by "hich individuals of thespecies are dispersed across the landscape.

St"'ct'"e o+ # F(o/e" :Pisti( Q *entral female organ of the flo"er. It is generally

bo"ling'pin shaped and located in the center of of the flo"er.Sti),#Q receives pollen typically flattened and stickySt%(eQ connective tissues bet"een stigma and ovaryOv#"%Q contains ovules or embryo sacsOv'(esQ unfertili!ed immature seedsSt#,en Q ,ale flo"er organ

Ant&e"sQ pollen'producing organsFi(#,entQ stalk supporting anthersPet#(s Q 1sually colorful modified leaves that make up the Cflo"erK collectively called

the co"o((#. They may contain perfume and nectar glands.Se-#(s Q 6rotective leaf'like enclosures for the flo"er buds usually green collectively

called caly&. Sometimes highly colored like the petal as in iris.Rece-t#c(eQ base of the flo"erPe$ice(Q flo"er stalk of an individual flo"er

!onocot o" Dicot F(o/e"The number of sepals and petals is

used in plant identification. Dicotstypically have sepals and petals infours fives or multiples thereof.4onocots typically have flo"er partsin threes or multiples of three.

Te",s De+inin) F(o/e" P#"ts

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Complete floweris a flo"er containing sepals petals stamens and pistil "hile"ncomplete flower lacks those parts. #erfect flowercontains male and female parts"hile imperfect flowerlacks either male or female parts. #istillate flowercontains onlyfemale parts "hile staminate flowercontains only male parts.

. F"'it. 2ruit evolves from the maturing ovary follo"ing pollination and fertili!ation.

2ruits can be either fleshy or dry. They contain one or more seeds. It is the structural partthat typically surrounds the seed "hich contains the germ of life of the ne&t generation.2ruit is the actual agent of dispersal in most flo"ering plants.

F"'it St"'ct'"e2ruit consists of carpels "here the ovules seedsF develop and the ovary "all or

-e"ic#"- "hich may be fleshy as in applesF or dry and hard as in an acornF. Somefruits have seeds mature ovulesF enclosed "ithin the ovary apples peaches orangessAuash and cucumbersF. The peel of an orange the pea pod the sunflo"er shell andthe skin flesh and pit of a peach are all derived from the pericarp.

#ther fruit have seeds that are situated on the periphery of the pericarp corncobstra"berry fleshF.

In apples the ovary "all becomes the fleshy part of the fruit. /otice the small fruitstructure in the blossom.

F"'it T%-es :

2ruits are classified according to the arrangement from "hich they derive. Thereare four types L simple aggregate multiple and accessory fruits. Simple fruits developfrom a single ovary of a single flo"er and may be fleshy or dry. 6rincipal fleshy fruittypes are the berry in "hich the entire pericarp is soft and pulpy e.g. the grape tomatobanana hesperidium and blueberryF and the drupe in "hich the outer layers may bepulpy fibrous or leathery and the endocarp hardens into a pit or stone enclosing one ormore seeds e.g. the peach cherry olive coconut and "alnutF. 0n aggregate fruit e.g.blackberry and raspberryF consists of a mass of

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