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Early Modern Age Foods

ContentsArticles

History of chocolate in Spain 1Columbian Exchange 6

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 14Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 15

Article LicensesLicense 16

History of chocolate in Spain 1

History of chocolate in Spain

A woman (Aline Masson) drinking a cup ofchocolate, in a canvas by Raimundo Madrazo

Typical 17th-century scene showing thepreparation of chocolate

The history of chocolate in Spain is part of the culinary history ofSpain as understood since the 16th century, when the colonisation ofthe Americas began and the cocao plant was discovered in regions ofMesoamerica, until the present. After the conquest of Mexico, cocoa asa commodity travelled by boat from the port of Nueva España to theSpanish coast. The first such voyage to Europe occurred at anunknown date in the 1520s. However it was only in the 17th centurythat regular trade began from the port of Veracruz, opening a maritimetrade route that would supply the new demand from Spain, and laterfrom other European countries.[1]

The introduction of this ingredient in Spanish culinary traditions wasimmediate, compared with other ingredients brought from LatinAmerica, and its popularity and acceptance in all sectors of Spanishsociety reached very high levels by the end of the 16th century. Sinceits inception, chocolate was considered by Spaniards as a drink andretained that perception until the beginning of the 20th century.

From the early stages, the cocoa was sweetened with sugar cane, whichthe Spanish were the first to popularise in Europe. In pre-ColumbusAmerica chocolate was flavored with peppers and was a mixture ofboth bitter and spicy flavours. This made it an acquired taste andlimited its appeal to the Spanish conquistadors, who were soonencouraged to sweeten it with sugar brought from the Iberian Peninsulain addition to heating it.

Over a 100-year period since its first appearance in the ports ofAndalusia, chocolate became popular as a drink in Spain, where it wasserved to the Spanish monarchy. However for a time the formula wasunknown in the rest of Europe. Later chocolate spread from Spain tothe rest of Europe, with the first countries to adopt it being Italy andFrance.

The great popularity of the drink in Spanish society from that time until the 19th century is attested to in variousreports written by travellers who visited the Iberian peninsula. It was said that "chocolate is to the Spanish what tea isto the English".[2] In this way chocolate was converted into a national symbol.[3] The unusual fondness for this drinkmeant that coffee remained relatively unpopular in Spain compared to other European countries.[4]

In Spain, chocolate was exclusively considered a refreshing drink, and it was rarely used in other ways—thoughthere are older Spanish dishes that use cocoa. After the Spanish Civil War the custom declined in favour of coffeeconsumption.[5] In modern Spain, traces of the history of the drink can be seen in the chocolate companies, thechocolate shops and museums.

History of chocolate in Spain 2

Pre-Columbian era

Mayan writing referring to cocoa.

The Mesoamerican origin of the cacao tree (to which Linnaeusgave the scientific name Theobroma cacao in 1753) is disputed bymodern botanical historians[6] since there are different hypothesesabout the region from which it comes. Thus, some theories point tothe Amazon region;[7] however, it is estimated that the plant alsogrew in the wild in other parts of Americas, including the plains ofthe Orinoco Basin. It is very likely that the Olmecs knew the cacaoplant, in 1000 BC and transmit its use and cultivation to theMayans,[8] who were the first to describe cocoa in theirhieroglyphics. There is some link between the blood of humansacrifice and the intake of cocoa, and samples found in Mayantombs strongly imply that the drink was common in the noble

classes. The role played in religious ceremonies was explained by Diego de Landa, in his book List of Yucatanthings.

As currencyThe chronicles of the Spanish conquistadors contain numerous mentions of its use by the Aztecs as a form ofcurrency, which used the Aztec vigesimal system the use of which was widespread. There were specific names, suchas the countles consisting of four cocoa beans, the xiquipil consisting of twenty countles and the "burden," whichincluded three xiquipiles. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo noted:

"So in the province of Nicaragua, a Rabbit is worth ten kernels and for four kernels they give eight apples orloquat of that excellent fruit they call munonzapot; and a slave is worth more or less 100 of these kernels,depending on the negotiations between the parties involved."

Cocoa was also valued in other contexts such as religious rituals, marital rituals or as medicine (alone or mixed withother plants) as well as being a nutritious food. The widely held belief that it was "a gift from the gods" gave itappeal in pre-Columbian societies as a symbol of economic well-being. Its use as a currency was mostly in thepayment of taxes to the powerful.

The age of discovery

Cocao beans, which the Spanish thought similarin appaearance to almonds.[9]

The discovery of new foods or preparation methods went throughseveral stages of understanding.[10] Firstly cocoa was understood as afood and later as a pleasant taste. The latter was only possible throughadapting the food to flavours previously known. It is in these firstencounters of the Spanish Consquistadors with cocoa that we can seethat the preparation stage was adapted, it was sweetened and flavouredwith other spices such as cinnamon and served warm. After that theyhad a better understanding of the value of chocolate.[11] Those threesimple changes distinguished the chocolate consumed by the Spanishcolonisers from the chocolate consumed by the natives. The samepattern occurs in other foods enjoyed at the time by the natives andSpanish.[12] although none of those had an acceptance and a globaldemand in proportion similar to that of chocolate.

History of chocolate in Spain 3

Columbus' first encounterThe navigator Christopher Columbus, with the economic backing of the Catholic Monarchs, first reached the shoresof the New World on 12 October 1492, initially believing that he had reached India. This voyage was carried out toexpand markets by establishing new trade routes and therefore rival the Portuguese Empire, which was already wellestablished in Asia. Following the success of that first voyage to the New World, others were organised with theintention of exploring and creating new trade routes.[13] On his fourth voyage, Columbus, in 1502, met anunexpected storm and was forced to temporarily land on 15 August on the Bay Islands. In their first explorations ofthe area, Columbus' group came upon a boat of Mayan origin travelling from the Yucatán Peninsula. The Spaniardswere surprised by the large size of the vessel. Colombus detained the vessel and examined the cargo, whichcontained cocoa beans that he called almonds in his diary. However, he did not attach importance to these, and afterthis original inspection he let the boat proceed with its cargo.[14]

In the later period from 1517 to 1519, the Spanish conquistadors Bernal Díaz del Castillo (who referred to the use ofcocoa by Aztecs in his book Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España) and Hernán Cortés both triedthe drink and found it to have both bitter and spicy tastes due to the use of achiote. On occasions cornmeal andhallucinogenic mushrooms were also added to the drink.[15] Thereafter the Spaniards knew that cocoa beans wereconsidered legal tender by the locals. Fray Toribio de Benavente (nicknamed Motolinía) mentioned the existence ofcocoa in his works such as Memorias or Libro de Cosas de la Nueva España o de los naturales de ella.

Encounters in New SpainAfter the conquest of Mexico, the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, offered Hernán Cortés and his companions fifty jarsof foaming chocolate. According to the account of Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, the great emperor had a stockpileof several thousand 'charges' (tens of thousands of cocoa "kernels").[16]

The Italian Girolamo Benzoni in his book La Historia del Mondo Nuovo (1565) that "...chocolate seemed more like adrink for pigs than a drink to be consumed by humans" noting that he had never tasted it despite residing there forover a year.[17] Despite these caveats, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo characterised it as an interesting ingredient,while showing some reluctance to describe how some Indians, after drinking, had stained his lips as if they hadingested human blood. The perceptions of the Spaniards were changing, in part, due to their increasing reliance onnative ingredients. The tortillas made with cornmeal or (tamales), heated without the use of fat did not appear tosatisfy the tastes of the conquerors used to pork and culinary techniques based on frying in fat, or sauteed with liberaluse of olive oil or bacon.[13] Foods popular in Spain at the time such as cheese were unknown to the inhabitants ofthe New World.As the Spanish settlers began to run out the stocks they brought with them, they had to find substitute foods. Theytherefore began to plant vegetables, such as chickpeas, cereals such as wheat and fruits like oranges or pears.Additionally they introduced the cultivation of olives, grapes and sugar cane. The latter ingredient became important,as from the end of the 16th century onwards it began to be added to the cocoa paste leading to greater acceptance ofcocoa among the Spanish settlers.During this settling in period, around the 1520s, the Spaniards had to get used to new foods and flavours while theyattempted to adapt old world cultivation methods to the new climate. Equally however the new ingredients broughtby the Spanish settlers such as wheat and chickpeas struggled to find acceptance among the native populations whopreferred their own homegrown dishes.[18]

Those Spaniards from humble economic backgrounds often married richer Aztecs aften as concubines. They thustended to eat food influenced by Aztec gastronomy.[13] This hastened the spread of cocoa among both cultures.Bernal Díaz del Castillo mentioned that in a banquet held at the Plaza Grande in Mexico (built on the ruins of theAztec capital) to celebrate peace between Carlos I of Spain and Francis I of France chocolate was served in goldentablets. The wide acceptance of cocoa by the Spanish conquistadors, especially the women, was also described bythe Jesuit José de Acosta in his book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (published in 1590).[19]

History of chocolate in Spain 4

As a result, after the initial aversion to cocoa had disappeared, supplies were sent to Spain. The second majortransformation of chocolate at the hands of the Spanish was in the serving method: the cocoa was heated until itbecame liquid. This was in contrast to the natives of the New World, who generally drank it cold or at roomtemperature.[20] The third change was the addition of spices from the Old World like cinnamon, ground black pepperor aniseed.

Naming the new product

The grinding stone, or cocoa grinding stone,widely used in Spain until the 19th century.

The Aztec language, Nahuatl, was difficult for the Spanish troopsstationed in Mexico to pronounce. The common ending tl sounded likete. Hernan Cortes' difficulties with the language was evident in theletters he sent, where he writes "Temistitan" instead of Tenochtitlanand the tribal god Huitzilopochtli as "Huichilobos." Coexistencebetween the two cultures led to the Spanish language borrowing certainMesoamerican phrases or words such as coyote or maiz.

Many dictionaries suggest that the word chocolate comes from theNahuatl chocolatl, based on an evolution from -tl to -te, however, thereare problems with this hypothesis. Firstly Coe argued that the wordchocolatl does not appear in the Aztec cultural writings of the time,[13]

similarly the word is not found in the work of Alonso de Molina, a lexicographer of the time, who wrote a bookabout the grammar of the Aztec language in 1555. It is also absent from Bernardino de Sahagún's encyclopedia andfrom the Huehuetlatolli ("The words of the ancients") a guide to moral conduct.[21] In all these works the wordcacahuatl (cocoa water) is used. In his periodic letters, Hernán Cortés refers to 'cocoa'. At an indeterminate time inthe 16th century, the Spanish of New Spain began to use the word chocolatl.

The Royal Family's physician Francisco Hernández de Córdoba already knew this name in the 1570s, describingchocolatl as a drink consisting of cocoa beans and pochotl, a type of tree seed, both ground to powder.[22] José deAcosta and his contemporaries also used the name chocolatl in Nueva España and the Yucatán making the word aneologism. However others have suggested that the word chocolatl came from xocoatl, where xoco means bitter andatl means water.[23] Another possible explanation comes from the colonial habit of making hot cocoa,[9] with manyMayan dictionaries of the time explaining that "the drink called chocolate" comes from chacau haa (literally 'hotwater') which is phonetically close to chocolatl.[9][24]

First deliveries to SpainIn 1520 the caravels began delivering Spanish cacao to Spain and the pirates with a letter of marque from England,perhaps due to ignorance of the new ingredient, burned and discarded the contents of the Spanish ships which theyseized.[6] No one knows for certain when cocoa first arrived in Spain, however it was considered a valuable materialin the mid-16th century. The value which the product had can be seen in the strength of the Spanish galleons whichcarried the first cacao seeds to Spanish ports to prevent their theft.[25]

There is no evidence that Hernan Cortes himself brought any cacao back to Spain on his return trip, as when he metCarlos I, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor in 1528, cacao was not listed among the gifts brought back fromthe New World. The first deliveries to Spain were made by small galleys, which took advantage of the "Chocolatewind", as the favourable North wind in the Gulf of Mexico was known.The first documentary evidence of chocolate in Spain comes from a delegation of Dominican monks led by Fray Bartolome de las Casas, who tavelled to the Iberian peninsula in 1544 to visit Prince Philip, future Emperor Philip II.[26] During the meeting, gifts of sweetgum, corn, and cocoa are documented. It also refers to a chocolate milkshake that was served, this being the first documented case of the presence of chocolate in Spain.[26] The

History of chocolate in Spain 5

Dominican monks' familiarity with this type of food may have facilitated the transmission of cocoa from themonasteries of Mesoamerica to Spain. Studies show that, prior to the reception, Father Aguilar would be the first inSpain to prepare jars of chocolate for the Abbot of the Piedra Monastery, Don Antonio de Alvaro.[27]

Other authors refer to the Benedictine monks as the first importers of chocolate in 1532. The first deliveries werebrought by the Maria del Mar galley through the port of Cadiz and were delivered to the Convent of the ThirdFranciscans of Seville. A quote from the Benedictines of the time was: "Do not drink the cocoa, anyone but friar, siror brave soldier." In 1585, an embassy of Japan, visiting the Emperor Philip II in Alicante, was impressed by theoffer of chocolate made by the nearby convent of the Poor Clares of Veronica. From the beginning, Spanish priestswere the chocolate experts who spread their recipe among congregations. In 1601, the confessor of the court in thecity of Cordoba, Serven Serrietz, inserted small amounts of chocolate in vegetables.[11]

He attempted to plant cocoa in the Iberian Peninsula but the result was a complete failure, leading to the realisationthat cultivation was best in latitudes between 20 degrees north and 20 degrees south.[20] The expansion and the needto seek a favorable climate for growing new food meant that cocoa trees flourished in Fernando Poo (in SpanishGuinea) and from there spread across the African continent. At that time preparation of sweets and confectionerywas largely in the hands of pharmacists who used chocolate in various secret recipes and pharmaceuticalapplications. The nutritional use of chocolate was debated in those early times, and possible medicinal uses of cocoawere investigated from the beginning: an example can be found in the Badianus Codex, written in 1552.[28]

Chocolate and confectionery was served in Madrid in the seventeenth century, and locals in those establishmentsasked for the "drink that came from the Indies.'[29] Reference to the public availability of chocolate is made byseveral visitors in the eighteenth century.[30] In 1680 cocoa was served in combination with melted ice to the noblespresent at the Auto-da-fés.[22] The writer Marcos Antonio Orellana makes reference to its popularity at the time in abrief rhyme:[31]

¡Oh, divinochocolate!que arrodilladote muelen,manos plegadaste bateny ojos al cielo tebeben.

Sources• This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed

in the version of 3 August 2012.

References[1] William H. Prescott (1860), History of the Conquest of Mexico, Boughton Press.[2] Graciela Ascarrunz De Gilman; Marian Zwerling Sugano (1984), Horizontes culturales y literarios, p. 63.[3][3] Ángel Muro (1890), El Practicón, Madrid[4] Carrie Evangeline Farnham (1921), American travellers in Spain: The Spanish inns, 1776-1867, Columbia University Press.[5] Rosario García Cruz (2000),Spanish companies in international markets, ESIC Editorial , p. 186.[6] Kenneth F. Kiple (2000), «Cacao», The Cambridge World History of food, Cambridge University Press, Volume I, section III.e.[7] Louis Grivetti, Howard-Yana Shapiro (2009),Chocolate: History, Culture, and Heritage , Willey. ISBN 0-470-12165-3[8] Bogin, B. (1997),The evolution of human nutrition. The Anthropology of Medicine: From Culture to Method,Romanucci-Ross, L., Moerman,

D. E. & Tancredi, L. R eds., Bergin and Garvey, Westport, CT, pp. 98-142.[9][9] René F. Millon (1955), When Money Grew on Trees. A Study of Cacao in Ancient Mesoamerica, Doctoral dissertation, Department of

Anthropology, Columbia University

History of chocolate in Spain 6

[10] Claude Lévi-Strauss (1964), Le Cru et le cuit, París.[11][11] Rafael Montal Montesa (1999), El chocolate «Las semillas de oro», Government of Aragón[12] John Germov, Lauren Williams (1999), A sociology of Food and Nutrition, Oxford University Press.[13] Sophie D. Coe, Michael D. Coe (1996), The true History of Chocolate, Thames & Hudson.[14] Alfred M. Tozzer (1941), «Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán», Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 18,

Harvard University, Cambridge Mass.[15] Xavier Castro (2001), «Chocolate y Ayuno», in Ayunos y Yantares, Madrid, chapter 3.[16] Francisco Cervantes de Salazar (1936), Crónicas de Nueva España,México, 2 Vols., Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnografía, Vol

2:107[17] Girolamo Benzoni (1565), La Historia del Mondo Nuovo, Venice.[18] Benjamín Hernández Blázquez (2007), El viaje de los garbanzos, Madrid. ISBN 978-84-7392-672-0[19] José de Acosta (1590), Historia natural y moral, Madrid.[20] Stephen T. Beckett (2008), The Science of Chocolate, RSC Publishing, 2nd ed., p.6.[21] Lyle Campbell, Terrence Kaufman (1976), «A linguistic look at the Olmec», American Antiquity, vol. 41, nº 1, pp. 80-86.[22] Joseph del Olmo (1680), Relación histórica del Auto General de Fe que se celebró en Madrid este año de 1680, Madrid[23] Karen Dakin and Søren Wichmann (2000), «Cacao and Chocolat», Ancient Mesoamerica, 11:1:55-75, doi:10.1017/S0956536100111058[24] Santamaría (1959), Diccionario de mejicanismos[25] María del Carmen Simón Palmer (1997), La Cocina del Palacio, Madrid, Castalia, p. 61.[26] Augustine Estrada Monroy (1979),El mundo kekchí de Vera-Paz,, Guatemala, Ed Army, p. 195.[27] Luis Montreal Tejada (1990), Apología del chocolate, Ed. Nestlé.[28] Teresa L. Dillinger et al. (2000), Food of the Gods: Cure for Humanity? A Cultural History of the Medicinal and Ritual Use of Chocolate,

American Society for Nutritional Sciences.[29] Manuel M. Martínez Llopis (1989), Historia de la Gastronomía de España, Alianza Editorial, p. 256.[30] George Borrow (1983), La Biblia en España, Alianza Editorial, 2nd ed.[31] Gregorio Mayans (1733), Manual de fabricacion industrial de chocolate, Valencia, 11 page booklet with verses dedicated to chocolate.

Columbian Exchange

Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to growtraditional Andean staples, such as quinoa and

potatoes, alongside wheat, a European introduction.

The Columbian Exchange also known as the Grand Exchangewas a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants,culture, human populations (including slaves), communicabledisease, and ideas between the Western and Eastern Hemispheresfollowing the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in1492.[1]:163 The term was coined in 1972 by Alfred W. Crosby, ahistorian at the University of Texas at Austin, in his same-titledwork of environmental history.[2][3]:27 The contact between thetwo areas circulated a wide variety of new crops and livestockwhich supported increases in population in both hemispheres.Explorers returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes,which became very important crops in Eurasia by the 18th century.Similarly, Europeans introduced manioc and the peanut to tropical Southeast Asia and West Africa, where theyflourished and supported growth in populations on soils that otherwise would not produce large yields.

Columbian Exchange 7

Influence

Portuguese trading animals in Japan; detail ofNanban panel (1570-1616)

In the biological and ecological exchange that took place followingSpanish establishment of colonies in New World, people of Europe andAfrica settled in the New World, and animals, plants and diseases ofEurasia and the Western Hemisphere were introduced to each area inan interchange.This exchange of plants and animals transformed European, American,African, and Asian ways of life. New foods became staples of humandiets, and new growing regions opened up for crops. For example,before AD 1000, potatoes were not grown outside of South America.By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that a diseasedcrop led to the devastating Irish Potato Famine.[4] Since beingintroduced by 16th-century Portuguese traders, who brought them fromthe Americas,[5] maize and manioc replaced traditional African cropsas the continent's most important staple food crops.[6] New staple crops that were introduced to Asia from theAmericas via Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributed to thepopulation growth in Asia.[7] European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery ofquinine, the first effective treatment for malaria.[1]:164

One of the first European exports, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes on the Great Plains,allowing them to shift to a nomadic lifestyle based on hunting bison on horseback.[8] Tomato sauce, made from NewWorld tomatoes, became an Italian trademark and tomatoes were widely used in France, while coffee from Africaand sugar cane from Asia became the main commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced toIndia by the Portuguese, chili/paprika from South America is today an integral part of Indian cuisine, as are potatoes.

New World native plants. Clockwise, from topleft: 1. Maize (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum

lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4.Vanilla (Vanilla) 5. Pará rubber tree (Heveabrasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7.

Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)

Before regular communication had been established between the twohemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectiousdiseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were strikinglylarger in the Old World than in the New. Many had migrated west withanimals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases oftwo continents were suffered by all. While Europeans and Asians wereaffected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in thosecontinents over centuries caused many people to acquire immunity. Bycontrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating impact on NativeAmerican populations because they had no natural immunity to thenew diseases. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have resulted inthe largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars[9]

and far exceeding the mortality from the Black Death.[1]:164 It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of theNative American population was decimated within the first 100–150 years following 1492; the most affected regionsin the Americas lost 100% of their population.[1]:165

Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary,no tomatoes in Italy, no potatoes in Germany, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees inAfrica, no cattle in Texas, no donkeys in Mexico, no chili peppers in Thailand or India, and no chocolate inSwitzerland.

Columbian Exchange 8

Arrival and Acceptance of Tomatoes in the Old WorldIt took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become readily accepted. In fact, of all theNew World plants in Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due tosixteenth-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of"melancholic humors." In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoesmight be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato wasgiven its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo de' Medici, the grand duke of Tuscany,wrote to the Medici private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely." At this time the label pomid'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.[10]

Tomatoes were grown mainly as ornamentals early on after their arrival in Italy. For example, the Florentinearistocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only ingardens or flower beds. In fact, tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or sofollowing their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the headgardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote that "it issaid [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamentalpurposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce only dates back to the latenineteenth century. There are around 32,000 acres of tomatoes cultivated in Italy today and there are still areas whererelatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.[10]

Old World native plants. Clockwise, from topleft: 1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malusdomestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango(Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee(Coffea); 7. Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice

(Oryza sativa)

Examples

It is difficult to imagine what the cuisines ofSouth and Southeast Asia would be like without

the chili pepper

Type of organism Domesticated animals Domesticated plantsInfectious diseases Old World to New World• cat (domestic - wild species already present)•• camel•• chicken•• cow•• donkey•• ferret• goat (domestic - wild species already present)• goose (domestic - wild species already present)•• honey bee

•• horse•• rabbit (domestic)

Columbian Exchange 9

•• pig•• rock pigeon• sheep (domestic)•• silkworm•• water buffalo•• guineafowl•• ackee•• almond•• apple•• apricot•• artichoke•• asparagus•• banana•• barley•• beet• bilberry ("blueberry", "blaeberry")•• bitter melon•• black pepper• Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables

• kale and collard greens•• broccoli•• cabbage•• brussels sprouts•• cauliflower

•• cantaloupe•• carambola•• cardamom•• carrot•• cinnamon•• clove•• coffee• citrus (orange, lemon, etc.)•• cucumber•• date palm•• fig•• flax•• garlic• grape (fox grape and other species used as rootstocks)•• hazelnut• hemp (including cannabis/marijuana)•• kiwifruit•• kola nut•• lettuce•• mango•• millet•• nutmeg• oats

Columbian Exchange 10

•• okra•• olive•• onion•• opium•• peach•• pea•• pear•• pistachio•• radish•• rhubarb•• rice•• rye•• soybean•• sugarcane•• taro•• tea•• turnip•• wheat• walnut (English)•• watermelon•• Wine grape• yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato")•• bubonic plague•• chicken pox•• cholera•• common cold•• diphtheria•• influenza•• leprosy•• malaria•• measles•• scarlet fever•• smallpox•• typhoid•• typhus•• whooping cough•• yellow fever•• yawsNew World to Old World•• alpaca• American Mink (fur farming)•• guinea pig•• llama•• Muscovy Duck•• turkey•• agave

Columbian Exchange 11

• amaranth (as grain)•• arrowroot•• avocado• common beans (pinto, lima, kidney, etc.)•• black raspberry•• bell pepper• blueberry (not to be confused with bilberry, also called blueberry)•• canistel•• cashew•• chia•• chicle•• chirimoya• chili peppers• cranberries (large cranberry, or bearberry species)•• coca•• cocoa• cotton (long staple species)•• custard apple• guava (common)•• huckleberry•• Jerusalem artichoke•• jicama• maize (referred to in North America as "corn")• manioc (cassava, tapioca, yuca)•• papaya•• passionfruit•• peanut•• pecan•• pineapple•• potato•• pumpkin•• quinoa•• rubber•• sapodilla•• squash• strawberry (commercial varieties)•• sugar-apple•• sunflower•• sweet potato•• tobacco•• tomato•• vanilla• wild rice (Indian rice, not directly related to Asian rice)•• yerba maté•• yucca• zucchini (courgette)•• bejel

Columbian Exchange 12

•• Chagas disease•• pinta•• syphilis

Unintentional introductionsFurther information: Introduced species, Invasive species, and List of invasive speciesPlants that arrived by land, sea, or air in "ancient" times (or before 1492 in the U.K.) are called archaeophytes, andplants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. In addition to the diseases mentioned above,many species of organisms were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world accidentally orincidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of thepre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.[11]

Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds(Salsola spp.) and Wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the Kudzu vine introducedin 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in thenew environment. Fungi have been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing Americanelms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive specieshave become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments. Notethat most of these detrimental invasions were from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Western.A beneficial, although probable unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible forlager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.[12]

Introduced feral populationsEscaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, oftendisplacing native species.Gray squirrels have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now befound in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American Minkhave extensive populations in the Old World.In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common.

References[1] Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/

25703506). Journal of Economic Perspectives 24 (2): 163–188. .[2][2] Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972.[3] de Vorsey, Louis (2001). "The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange". In McIlwraith, Thomas F; Muller, Edward K. North America: The

Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. "Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbianexchange' is now widely used…"

[4] "The Impact of the Potato" (http:/ / www. history-magazine. com/ potato. html), History Magazine[5] "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa" (http:/ / researchnews. osu. edu/ archive/ suprtubr. htm), The Ohio State

University[6] "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem" (http:/ / scitizen. com/ biotechnology/

maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925. html), Scitizen, August 7, 2007[7] "China's Population: Readings and Maps" (http:/ / afe. easia. columbia. edu/ china/ geog/ population. htm), Columbia University, East Asian

Curriculum Project[8] This transfer reintroduced horses to the Americas, as the species had died out there prior to the development of the modern horse in Eurasia.[9] "The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ gunsgermssteel/ variables/ smallpox. html), Guns,

Germs and Steel, PBS Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5mr1L9bc6) 17 January 2010 at WebCite[10][10] A History of the Tomato in Italy Pomodoro!. David Gentilcore (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2010).

Columbian Exchange 13

[11] Hoddle, M. S.. "Quagga & Zebra Mussels" (http:/ / cisr. ucr. edu/ quagga_zebra_mussels. html). Center for Invasive Species Research, UCRiverside. . Retrieved 2010-06-29.

[12] Elusive Lager Yeast Found in Patagonia (http:/ / news. discovery. com/ history/ lager-yeast-pagatonia-110823. html), Discovery News, Aug23, 2011

External links• The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds (http:/ / www. eoearth.

org/ article/ Columbian_exchange:_plants,_animals,_and_disease_between_the_Old_and_New_World) in theEncyclopedia of Earth by Alfred W. Crosby

• Worlds Together, Worlds Apart (http:/ / www. wwnorton. com/ worlds/ index/ ) by Jeremy Adelman, StephenAron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.

• New study blames Columbus for syphilis spread (http:/ / uk. reuters. com/ article/ oddlyEnoughNews/idUKN1443055520080115) from Reuters Jan 15, 2008

• Foods that Changed the World (http:/ / www. accessexcellence. org/ RC/ Ethnobotany/ page5. html)• The Columbian Exchange (http:/ / www. shmoop. com/ intro/ history/ us/ the-columbian-exchange. html) study

guide, analysis, and teaching guide• NBC News piece on Columbian Exchange (http:/ / www. icue. com/ portal/ site/ iCue/ flatview/ ?cuecard=1518)

Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsHistory of chocolate in Spain  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515605182  Contributors: BD2412, Bearcat, Dhnlin, Hmains, Lionhead99, Malleus Fatuorum, Mervyn,Mogism, Optimist on the run, Rjwilmsi, SchreiberBike, Steel1943, Thecheesykid, Valenciano, WhisperToMe, Woohookitty, 4 anonymous edits

Columbian Exchange  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515679062  Contributors: 10metreh, 1exec1, 1hko, 21655, 2602:306:38C1:6900:ED8F:903F:95FE:1C7,99mrdisturbed, Acebulf, Acroterion, Adamrmoss, Adashiel, Addihockey10, Afc, Ajraddatz, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Anakin101, Anaraug, Andrew Nutter, Androsyn, Angel ivanov angelov,AnonMoos, Antandrus, Antigrandiose, Antinomy123, Antiver, Apl1, Aprildog18, Aqariumperson, ArielGold, Armchairslugger, Arria Belli, Arthena, Astirmays, AuburnPilot, Avg, Az1568,Balloonguy, Bcasterline, Beano, Beeboobop124, Beland, Benlisquare, Bgpaulus, Bigtimepeace, Blanchardb, Blehfu, Bloofly, Blueelectricstorm, Bmicomp, Bobblehead, Bobcrankins, Bobo192,Bogey97, Bonadea, Boy in the bands, Braincricket, Breawycker, BrianKnez, Brunnock, Bryantoneal, Burntsauce, BusterD, Butterflychaser0613, CQ, CWii, Calabe1992, Calliopejen1, CalmerWaters, Calor, CambridgeBayWeather, Camipco, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianPenguin, Carpet Anchor, Catgut, Cburns1492, Ceradon, CharlotteWebb, Chasingsol, Chill doubt, ChrisQ, Cleared as filed, Clementina, Clemmy, Closedmouth, ClovisPt, Cncplayer, Colonies Chris, Conjuringrock, Conscious, Courcelles, Cremepuff222, Crystallina, Curtis Clark, Cybersavior,DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DASonnenfeld, DVdm, Da.bus56, Dana boomer, Daniel Case, DanielDemaret, DarkAudit, Darth Panda, Davehuffdady1, DavidWBrooks, Davish Krail, Gold Five,DeadEyeArrow, Denisarona, Dentren, Dhartung, Diannaa, Dimadick, Discospinster, DivineAlpha, Dmitri Lytov, Doc glasgow, Dode123, Doomsdaykywifi, Drmies, Dtc2002, Dusti, Dwo,Dybryd, Dyfrgi, Dysepsion, ESkog, Ebyabe, Ecoloog, Editfromwithout, Elockid, Emilychiu7, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Ermeyers, Escape Orbit, EurekaLott, Excirial, FF2010, Falcon8765,Fanzine999, Faradayplank, Favonian, Fieldday-sunday, Figureskatinpro, FinnWiki, Fishal, Flamingspinach, Fluffernutter, Fly by Night, Fresheneesz, Friginator, Frozen4322, FrozenPencil, Fæ,GOP904, GS3, GWhitewood, Gail, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Garycompugeek, Gatewaycat, Gilliam, Glane23, GreenFeather, Gregjgrose, Gromlakh, Gurch, HarryHenryGebel, Hello71, Hersfold,HexaChord, Hires an editor, Hmains, Hoo man, HueSatLum, Husond, Hydrogen Iodide, IAmAgentMunky, IRP, Igoldste, Intelati, Iridescent, Isis4563, Italia2006, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JCarlos,JForget, JLaTondre, JRHuntATX, JaGa, Jamesontai, Jauerback, Jbergste, Jennavecia, Jet66, JhanCRUSH, Jim1138, Jimijimi77, JimmyGribbin, Jjhake, JodyB, John254, Johnmc, Johnnycapahala,Josh3580, Josiah Rowe, Jovianeye, Jrbond99, Juanaquena, Jusdafax, KJthe hawk, Kaanatakan, Katalaveno, Katarighe, Katieh5584, Kbdank71, Ketiltrout, Killiondude, King of Hearts,Kkciolkosz, KnowledgeOfSelf, Krshwunk, Kuru, Kyriakos, LFaraone, Lankylars, Lawbaw99, Lee S. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 15

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Raimundo Madrazo - Hot Chocolate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raimundo_Madrazo_-_Hot_Chocolate.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:user:RlbberlinFile:Xocolatada - Madrid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xocolatada_-_Madrid.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: TamorlanFile:Kakaw (Mayan word).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kakaw_(Mayan_word).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VVVladimirFile:Chocolaterie-nestlé-broc-fèves-cacao-torrefiées.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chocolaterie-nestlé-broc-fèves-cacao-torrefiées.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: SuperManuFile:Metate et mano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Metate_et_mano.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors:YelkrokoyadeFile:Intikawan Amantani.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Intikawan_Amantani.jpg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Conscious, Juiced lemon, PhJ, RojkFile:Namban-15.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Namban-15.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Fg2, Rama, UxbonaFile:New World Domesticated plants.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Tabac_rustique.jpg: Atilin Cacao-pod-k4636-14.jpg: Original uploader was Kbh3rd at en.wikipedia VegCorn.jpg: ? Potato_and_cross_section.jpg: ? Latex_dripping.JPG:AxelBoldt Bright_red_tomato_and_cross_section02.jpg: ? Vanilla_6beans.JPG: ? derivative work: A111111 (talk)File:Old World Domesticated plants1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_World_Domesticated_plants1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: GntMango2.jpg: Original uploader was Gnt at en.wikipedia Picture_in_Picture_(Photomontage).jpg: Andreas -horn- Hornig CoffeeDetail.jpg: User:FCRebeloRice_growing_at_village.JPG: Ariful Islam Yellow_onion_with_x-section.jpg: Original uploader was Andrew c at en.wikipedia Apples_and_Bananas.JPG: Original uploader was Wilrondeau atfr.wikipedia derivative work: Uxbona (talk)File:Thai peppers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thai_peppers.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Daniel Risacher

License 16

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/