excerpt from the book: Marko B. Popovic, Biomechanics and Robotics, Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd., 2013 (No of pages 351) Print ISBN: 9789814411370, eBook ISBN: 9789814411387, DOI: 10.4032/9789814411387 Copyright © 2014 by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.

Chapter 6.

Evolution of Legged Machines and Robots

Chapter outline:

Early Legged Machines in the 19th Century 193

Legged Machines in the First Half of the 20th Century 195

Legged Machines during 1950–1970 196

Legged Robots during 1970–1980 197

Legged Robots during 1980–1990 199

Legged Robots during 1990–2000 204

Legged Robots since 2000 208

References and Suggested Reading 214

[chapter content intentionally omitted]

References:

About AIBO, http://www.sonyaibo.net/aboutaibo.htm. Retrieved July 2012.

Asimo by Honda, history, http://asimo.honda.com/asimo-history/. Retrieved July 2012.

ASIMO—Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIMO. Retrieved July 2012.

BBC News—Robotic cheetah breaks speed record for legged robots, (BBC News Technology 6 March 2012)

http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-17269535. Retrieved July 2012.

Big Muskie’s Bucket, McConnelsville, Ohio, http://www.roadsideamerica.com/story/2184. Retrieved July

2012.

Boston Dynamics: Dedicated to the Science and Art of How Things Move;

http://www.bostondynamics.com/robot_bigdog.html. Retrieved July 2012.

Chavez-Clemente, D., “Gait Optimization for Multi-legged Walking Robots, with Application to a Lunar

Hexapod”, PhD Dissertation, the Stanford University Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics,

January 2011.

Cox, W., “Big muskie”, The Ohio State Engineer, p. 25–52, 1970.

Cyberneticzoo.com. Early Humanoid Robots, http://cyberneticzoo.com/?page_id=45. Retrieved July

2012.

Cyberneticzoo.com. Walking Machines inc. Steam Man Timeline,

http://cyberneticzoo.com/?page_id=164. Retrieved July 2012.

Fackelmann, K., “Dinosaurs walk again, thanks to technology” (on robotic dinosaur Troody created by

Peter Dilworth – the last Leg Lab’s robot), USA Today, 08/20/2001,

http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/2001-08-20-robo-dinosaur.htm. Retrieved July 2012.

Folkard, C. (ed.), The Guinness Book of Records 2005, Special 50th Anniversary Edition, Bantam Books,

New York, 2005.

Goldman, D., Komsuoglu, H., and Koditschek, D., “March of the SandBots: A new generation of legged

robots will navigate the world’s trickiest terrain”, April 2009, IEEE Spectr.,

http://spectrum.ieee.org/robotics/robotics-software/march-of-the-sandbots/2. Retrieved July 2012.

Gregorio, P., Ahmadi, M., and Buehler, M., “Design, Control, and Energetics of an Electrically Actuated

Legged Robot”, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern., 27(4), 1997.

Hildebrand, M., “Symmetrical gaits of horses”, Science, 150, pp. 701–708, 1965.

Hirai, K., “Current and Future Prospective of Honda Humanoid Robot”, Proceedings of the IEEE/RSJ

International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Grenoble, France, pp. 500–508, 1997.

Hirai, K., Hirose, M., Haikawa Y., and Takenaka T., “The Development of Honda Humanoid Robot”,

Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Leuven, Belgium, pp.

1321–1326, 1998.

Hirose Fukushima Lab, http://www-robot.mes.titech.ac.jp/robot/walking/walking_vehicle. Retrieved July

2012.

Hirose, S., and Umetani, Y., “Some Consideration on a Feasible Walking Mechanism as a Terrain Vehicle”,

Proceedings of the 3rd RoMan Symposium, Udine, Italy, 1978.

Hirose, S., and Umetani, Y., The Basic Motion Regulation System for a Quadruped Walking Vehicle, ASME

Publication 80-DET-34, pp. 1–6, 1980.

History Making Mobile Robots, adapted by Buckley, D., 30 May 2011, from the Reuben Hoggett’s

collection. http://davidbuckley.net/DB/HistoryMakers.htm. Retrieved July 2012.

HOAP— Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HOAP. Retrieved July 2012.

Honda E series—Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_E_series.

Retrieved July 2012.

Honda P series—Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_P_series.

Retrieved July 2012.

Humanoid Robotics Project—Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanoid_Robotics_Project. Retrieved July 2012.

In pics: the singing, dancing she-bot, http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/2603.html#2603-3.html.

Retrieved July 2012.

Inventing the Sketchpad and Sutherland’s Other Pioneering Contributions | Kyoto Prize USA, (Kyoto,

Japan, June 22, 2012) http://kyotoprizeusa.com/inventing-the-sketchpad-and-sutherlands-other-

pioneeringcontributions/. Retrieved July 2012.

Ivan Sutherland—Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Sutherland.

Retrieved July 2012.

Kajita, S., Kanehiro, F., Kaneko, K., Fujiwara, K., Harada, K., Yokoi, K., and Hirukawa, H., “Biped walking

pattern generation by using preview control of zero-moment point”, IEEE International Conference on

Robotics and Automation, ICRA ‘03, 2003.

Kajita, S., Nagasaki, T., Kaneko, K., Yokoi, K., and Tanie, K., “A hop towards running humanoid biped”, IEEE

International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA ‘04, 2004.

Kato, I., “Development of WABOT 1”, Biomechanisms, 173–214, 1973.

Marc Raibert, http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/old-leglab/people/mxr.html. Retrieved July 2012.

Marko B. Popovic, the MIT Media Lab Presentations page:

http://web.media.mit.edu/~marko/presentations.html other robots added at

http://walltrust.com/MarkoBPopovic/presentations.htm. Retrieved July 2012.

Matsuoka, K., “A mechanical model of repetitive hopping movements”, Biomechanisms, 5, pp. 251–258,

1980.

Matsuoka, K., “A Repetitive Jumping Model”, Biomechanism 5, University of Tokyo Press, pp. 4501–4509,

1985.

Matsuoka, K., “Sustained oscillations generated by mutually inhibiting neurons with adaptation”, Biol.

Cybern., 52, 345–353, 1985.

McGhee, R. B., “Some finite state aspects of legged locomotion,” Math. Biosci., vol. 2., pp. 67–84, 1968.

McGhee, R. B., and Frank, A. A., “On the stability properties of quadruped creeping gaits”, Math. Biosci.,

3(3–4), 331–351, 1968.

McGhee, R. B., and Ishwandi, G. I., “Adaptive locomotion of a multilegged robot over rough terrain”, IEEE

Trans. Syst. Man, Cybern., 9, 176–182, 1979.

MIT Leg Lab Robots, http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/robots-main.html. Retrieved July

2012.

Miura, H., “Dynamical walk of biped locomotion”, Robotics Research: 1st International Symposium on

Robotics Research (ISRR1), pp. 303–325,

Miura, H., and Shimoyama, I., “Dynamic Walk of a Biped”, IJRR, 3(2), 60–74, 1984.

Paluska, D. “Design of a Humanoid Biped for Walking Research”, Master’s Thesis, Mechanical Engineering

Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2000.

Popovic, M. B., Goswami, A., and Herr, H., “Ground Reference Points in Legged Locomotion: Definitions,

Biological Trajectories and Control Implications”, Int. J. Robot. Res., 24(12), 2005.

Pratt, G. A., and Williamson, M. M., “Series Elastic Actuators”, Proceedings of IEEE/RSJ IROS ‘95, pp. 399–

406, Pittsburgh, PA, 1995.

Pratt, G. A., Williamson, M. M., Dillworth, P., Pratt, J., Ulland, K., and Wright, A., “Stiffness isn’t

everything,” Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Experimental Robotics, Stanford, CA, 1995.

Pratt, J., “Virtual Model Control of a Biped Walking Robot”, M. Eng. Thesis, Department of Electrical

Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

1995.

Pratt, J., Dilworth, P., and Pratt, G., “Virtual Model Control of a Bipedal Walking Robot”, Proceedings of

ICRA ‘97, Albuquerque, NM, 1997.

Pratt, J., and Pratt, G., “Exploiting Natural Dynamics in the Control of a Planar Bipedal Walking Robot”,

Proceedings of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing,

Monticello, IL, USA, September 1998.

Raibert, M. H., and Sutherland, I. E., “Machines That Walk”, SciAm, 248(1), 44–53, 1983.

Raibert, M. H., Brown, B. H., and Chepponis, M. Jr., “Experiments in Balance with a 3D one-Legged Hopping

Machine”, Int. J. Robot. Res., 3( 2), 75–92, 1984.

Raibert, M. H., Legged Robots That Balance, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986.

Robinson, D. W., Pratt, J. E., Paluska, D. J., and Pratt, G. A., “Series Elastic Actuator Development for a

Biomimetic Walking Robot”, IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics,

Sept. 19–22, Atlanta, GA, USA, 1999.

Robotics—Introduction, Kawada Industries Inc., http://global.kawada.jp/mechatronics/index.html.

Retrieved July 2012.

Sano, A., and Furusho, J., “Analysis of Dynamic Quadruped Locomotion Based on Quasi-Angular-

Momentum”, T-SICE, 24(12), 1299–1305, 1988.

Sano, A., and Furusho, J., “Dynamic Control of Biped Locomotion Robot Using Optimal Regulator”, Trans.

Jpn. Soc. Mech. Eng. C, 54(504), 1804–1811, 1988.

Sano, A., and Furusho, J., “3D Steady Walking Using Active Control of Body Sway Motion and Foot

Pressure”, Proceedings of the USA-JAPAN Symposium on Flexible Automation, 2, 665–672, 1988.

SONY Dream Robot, http://www.sonyaibo.net/aboutqrio.htm. Retrieved July 2012.

Stunning Video of PETMAN Humanoid Robot From Boston Dynamics, IEEE Spectr., (posted by Guizzo, E.,

October 31, 2011) http://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/humanoids/stunning-video-of-

bostondynamics-petman-humanoid. Retrieved July 2012.

Sutherland, I. E., and Ullner, M. K., “Footprints in the Asphalt”, Int. J. Robot. Res., 3(2), 29–36, 1984.

Todd, D. J., “Walking machines: An introduction to legged robots”, Kogan Page, London, 1985.

Tomovic, R., and Karplus, W. J., “Land Locomotion Simulation and Control”, Proceedings of the 3rd

International Analogue Computation Meeting, Opatija, Yugoslavia, 385–390, 1961.

Vukobratovic, M. and Juricic, D., “Contributions to the synthesis of biped gait”, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.,

BME-16, 1969.

Yamada, M. Furusho, J. and Sano, A., “Dynamic Control of Walking Robot with Kick-Action”, Proc. of ‘85

International Conference on Advanced Robotics, pp. 405–412, 1985.

Waldron, K., and McGhee, R., “The Adaptive Supension Vehicle”, IEEE Control Syst. Mag.,6(6), 7–12, 1986.

Williamson, M., “Series Elastic Actuators”, M.S. Thesis, M.I.T. Department of Electrical Engineering and

Computer Science, 1995.