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Transcript of Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture
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ARC 110History of Architecture I
Module 8Early Christian & Byzantine Architecture
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Module Outline Lecture 27
Historical Background Location and period Social characteristics and beliefs
Architecture of the Civilization Early Christian Architecture
Lecture 28 Early Christian Architecture Byzantine Architecture
Lecture 29 Byzantine Architecture
Architectural Characteristics Buildings and other architectural elements Building materials, construction and technologies Architectural Organizing principles
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Learning Outcomes We should expect to learn the following
about the civilization The evolution of the Christian place of
worship and the architecture of the Early Christian periods
Architectural response to religious requirements and worship modes
Byzantine structural and architectural developments and principles
Examples of Byzantine architecture
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Module 8 Lecture 27Early Christian & Byzantine Architecture
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Outline of Lecture
Lecture 27 Historical Background
Location and period Social characteristics and beliefs
Architecture of the Civilization Early Christian Architecture
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Historical Background
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Historical BackgroundLocation
The Early Christian and Byzantine architecture started in two prominent locations centered at Rome and Byzantium or Constantinople
Early Christian architecture occurred in Rome and in areas around Rome
Byzantine architecture was centered at Byzantium
From the two focal points Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture spread to other areas in the European and Asian region
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Historical BackgroundPeriod
The following is a time line of events for the Early Christian and Byzantine period: 29 A.D. Passing of Isa (AS) and
beginning of Christian Religion 286 A.D. Emperor Diocletian reorganizes
the Roman Empire splitting it into two; the Eastern and the Western part
313 A. D. Emperor Constantine recognizes the Christian religion and adopts it as a state religion
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Historical BackgroundPeriod
324 A.D. Emperor Constantine reunited the Roman Empire with a new capital at Byzantium
364 A. D. Rome finally splits into two; the Western and Eastern Empire
476 A. D. Rome is sacked by Visgoth and Vandals
632 A. D. Muslim begin an advance on the Byzantine empire
1453 A. D. Byzantium falls to Sultan Muhammad II ending the Byzantine Empire
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian Religion The single most important social
phenomenon of the early Christian and Byzantine period was the spread and acceptance of the Christian religion
Early During the period from the first century to the
third century after the death of Jesus, Christianity was a secret society
It was considered dangerous and subversive by the government
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian Religion Christians met secretly in tombs and
private houses Gradually, however, it spread and became
widely accepted in Asia minor and in Rome itself
By the third century, Rome had a population of 50,000 Christians
The religion was tolerated but it was still illegal
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian Religion The third century was for the Roman Empire a
period of political instability and decline The Empire was split into a Western and
Eastern Empires In A.D. 313, the Emperor Constantine issued
the Edict of Milan making Christianity legal He also adopted it as a state religion and he
became the first Christian emperor
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian Religion The acceptance of the religion by the emperor
fueled its expansion It also led to the early development of places
of worship for the new religion Constantine was able to unite the Roman
Empire during his reign He established the capital of the new empire
at Byzantium, renamed Constantinople or the city of Constantine
After his death, the Empire was again split
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian Religion The Western Empire was sacked by Vandals
and Visigoths in 476, leading to its disintegration
The Eastern Empire with Constantinople as its capital survived for a thousand years,
Although the Eastern Empire was not yet "Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity would become one of its defining characteristics
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian Religion The empire was a multinational state Greek became the everyday language as well
as the language of the church and everyday commerce in this empire
The general identity of the Eastern Roman Empire was a combination of Roman statehood, Hellenistic culture and Christian religion
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
Architecture of the Period With Christianity widely accepted as a state
religion in Rome it was necessary for architecture to respond to the demands of the religion for worship space
Mode of worship was the most important determinant of the form of the church
Requirement for church design was centered on worship and burial
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
Architecture of the Period The requirements include:
A path for processional entry and exit of the clergy An alter area, where the clergy celebrate mass A space for the segregation of the clergy from the
congregation during procession and communion Burial space
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
Architecture of the Period The focus of both Early Christian and
Byzantine architecture is on the Christian church
Before the legal recognition of the new faith, Christian places of worship were of necessity inconspicuous with no fixed architectural form
Afterward, however, imposing cult edifices were erected in many parts of the Roman Empire, especially in its major cities
Early Christian builders adapted structures that had been used in the Roman world
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
Architecture of the Period The basilica, consisting of a nave flanked by lower
aisles and terminated by an apse, was adopted as the standard structure in Christian congregational worship
This was not however the only form adopted More centralized plans which were of round,
polygonal, or cruciform shapes were adopted occasionally
Martyria were erected on sites connected with certain events in the life of Jesus and other places held to be sanctified by the sacrifice of the martyrs
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Historical Background Social Characteristics & Beliefs
Architecture of the Period In such buildings the martyrium structure and basilica
were combined, creating a new formal synthesis of great significance for Christian religious architecture
Development of the Christian church continued during the Byzantine era
In the Byzantine period focus shifted from the rituals or practices of worship to the building as an embodiment or symbols of the majesty of the faith
Innovative structure was combined with light and decoration to create fascinating interiors
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Architecture of the Civilization
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Early Christian ArchitectureIntroduction
The term early Christian architecture refers to the architecture of the early Christian churches of the roman era
This is further divided into two types; the basilica church and the alternative church plans
With Christianity accepted as a state religion in Rome and expanding in influence, it became necessary for architecture to respond to the space demands of the new religion
A building used for Christian worship had to provide a path for the processional entry and exit of the clergy, an alter area, where the clergy celebrated mass, a space for the segregation of the clergy from congregation during the procession and communion
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Early Christian ArchitectureBasilica Church Type
Apart from administering to the spiritual needs of the living, some churches also provided burial spaces for the dead
The early churches were generally simple and functional in their design
The emphasis was centered on the act of Christian worship
The architecture of the church that developed was not a completely new style, but the use of available Roman forms to satisfy a new program need
The form chosen for the early church was the Roman basilica
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Early Christian ArchitectureBasilica Church Type
It was suitable for use as a church with no serious modification and it could be easily and rapidly built at low cost
The Basilica was also preferred because of the emphasis on participation in mass.
The most common form of the early churches had a rectangular hall with a timber trussed roof
It also had one or two isles on each side of a central nave and an apse at one end facing the principal entrance located at the other end
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Early Christian ArchitectureBasilica Church Type
The apse of the basilica was used as a location for the alter
The nave was used as a sitting for the clergy
Common people sat in the isles The early churches may have a courtyard
or atrium in front of it A fountain is usually located in the center
of such an atrium; This was used for baptism
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Early Christian ArchitectureBasilica Church Type
Most of the early churches had clerestory lighting
Clerestory windows were developed to give light to the central part of the interior
Gradually, the clerestory windows became a symbol of the transcendence and grace of god
Variations in the character of the early church reflected differences in local resources and traditions
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Early Christian ArchitectureS. Giovanni in Laterano AD 313-320
A typical example of the early Christian church is S. Giovanni in Laterano Rome
It was the first church commission by Emperor Constantine
It was built as the Cathedral of the Bishop of Rome
It was remodeled several times
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Early Christian ArchitectureS. Giovanni in Laterano AD 313-320
The image is a reconstruction of the original church
The church consists of a central nave flanked by two narrow isles and separated from them by a monumental colonnade
The central nave rose above the isle roof, and the inner isle rose above the outer
The nave terminated at an apse
The structure was of brick faced concrete covered with simple trussed-timber roof.
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Early Christian ArchitectureS. Peters, Rome AD 333
St Peter was the most important of the basilica churches built by Constantine
The church has a triple entrance gate leading to an atrium
The church like S. Giovanni discussed earlier is a five isles church
The Basilica had a wooden roof of interlocking rafters
The nave did not lead directly to the apse but instead ends in a transverse space that is as high as the nave
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Early Christian ArchitectureS. Peters, Rome AD 333
The nave terminated in a triumphal arch that framed the curve of the apse
Some of the early churches were built over the tomb of martyrs and are known as martyrium
St Peters is one of the earliest and most important of the matyrium churches
It was built over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter who was a disciple of Jesus
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Early Christian ArchitectureChurch Of Nativity, Bethlehem
This is the church of the nativity Bethlehem
It was built at the place where Jesus, (Isa alayhisalaam), is believed to be born
Here we also find the standard features of a basilica church
These include: A central nave 2 isles on each side of the
nave
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Early Christian ArchitectureChurch Of Nativity, Bethlehem
An apse at the head of the nave
An atrium before the entrance
The use of clerestory lighting The most significant aspect
of this church is a large octagon at its head covered by a conical roof
This is the exact location where Jesus, Isa Alayhisalaam, was born
It is therefore a palace of pilgrimage for the Christians
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Early Christian ArchitectureChurch of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem AD335
This is the church of the holy sepulcher in Jerusalem
Affected by the constrain of site, it has a very short atrium
It is a 5 isle church terminating at a nave articulated by 12 columns
The side isles had a gallery on top
The outer isles lead to a long peristyle court closing in a curve
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Early Christian ArchitectureChurch of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem AD335
This court is believed to frame the holy sepulcher where Christians believe Jesus is believed to be buried
The isles therefore provide access for pilgrims to go round the holy sepulcher
In general, churches that cater for pilgrims usually have a slightly different form
Some of these churches also serve as burial spots for those who want to be buried along with the saints they commemorated
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End of Module 8 Lecture 27
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Module 8 Lecture 28Early Christian & Byzantine Architecture
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Outline of Lecture Lecture 28
Early Christian Architecture Alternative church forms
Byzantine Architecture Introduction Domes and Domes on Pendentives Early Prototypes Hagia Sophia
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Early Christian ArchitectureAlternative Church Form
The rectangular basilica was not the only form adopted for the early church
Alternative more centralized plans, with a focus on a central vertical axis rather than a longitudinal horizontal one were also adopted occasionally
The reasons for their adoption is not very clear The centralized churches were of two broad types There were the completely circular churches These had a circular or octagonal space surrounded by
an ambulatory Examples of these include Saint Constanza Rome, the
lateran Baptistery Rome and Saint Stefano Rotondo
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Early Christian Architecture Alternative Church Form
The second type of centralized church was the lobed or four-lobed form set within an overall pentagon or square
Examples of this include Holy Apostle Milan and St Lorenzo Milan
In the early years of Christianity, the alternative form was common both in the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, but later the Basilica Become more popular in the West and the centralized alternative form more popular in the Eastern Empire
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Round Alternative Form St Constanza
This was a church originally designed as a mausoleum for Emperor Constantines daughter
It was designed as a centralized monument
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Round Alternative Form St Constanza
It is symmetrical in plan with a domed central space
The domed central space was ringed by an arcade with 12 pairs of double colonnade
Beyond the arcade is an encircling ambulatory
A barrel vault is used to roof the ambulatory
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Round Alternative Form Lateran Baptistery
The lateran Baptistery was built by Emperor Constantine in A.D. 315
It was designed to mirror S. Constanza
The circular scheme of S. Constanza was in this church changed to two octagonal rings
A ring of trabeated colonnade defined the central space
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Round Alternative form St Stefano Rotondo
It was built in A.D. 468 and was the first circular church in Rome
It is the largest circular church, having diameter of about 36 meters
The plan of the church blends the cruciform with a circular plan
It has a huge central nave
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Round Alternative form St Stefano Rotondo
The central nave is encircled by ionic columns and is lit by 22 clerestory windows
An ambulatory surrounds the colonnade of the nave and opens to four chapels used to define a cruciform shape
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Lobed Alternative form Holy Apostle, Milan AD 370
This is basically a square form church with a central plan
It was built as the church of the imperial palace, when the capital of the Western Empire moved to Milan
It had a square central space 23.5 meters wide extending in all four directions
The central space was defined by a 2-storey columnar screen supporting some half domes
Several subsidiary octagonal structures are grouped around the main church
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Lobed Alternative Form St Lorenzo Milan
This church was laid out as a huge cross shaped structure
It has a single aisle nave opening through columnar screens into its transept arms
Each of the arms terminate with a projecting portal hall
The building is a martyrium, holding relics of apostles in a casket beneath the alter
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Byzantine Architecture Introduction
By the end of the 5th century AD, Rome had completely declined
It had been sacked twice and was then under occupation Its influence was significantly reduced and the Impetus
for architectural innovation shifted to the Byzantine Empire
This shift also marks the movement from early Christian civilization to the Byzantine civilization
Under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine style of architecture evolved
His interest in church building led to the discovery of the groin vault and the evolution of the Byzantine style
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Byzantine Architecture Introduction
Although it is impossible to identify two similar Byzantine churches, it is still possible to identify the basic characteristics of an ideal Byzantine church
The attributes of the ideal church included: The use of a centralized church plan The use of surrounding isles The use of pendantives and dome on pendentives And the use of a complex program of interior
structure, lighting and decoration to create fascinating interiors
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Byzantine Architecture Domes and Domes on Pedentives
Byzantine architecture gave us the pedentive domes and the dome on pedentives
The pendentive dome and the dome on pendentivesprovided the Byzantine architects with a unique way of adjusting the circular form of a dome roof to a square or polygonal plan
This type of dome was invented by the Romans but was seldom used by them
It was the Byzantine builders who used it to create dramatic interiors
In the Pantheon in Rome, the Dome roof had to be supported by a circular plan
The walls of the plan had to be thick to counterbalance the forces from the Dome
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Byzantine Architecture Domes and Domes on Pedentives
The pendentive dome is derived by trimming the sides of a regular dome over a square plan as shown in A.
The pendentive dome enables the transfer the total load of the dome to the four corners of a building, meaning that only the four corners need to be reinforced
This allows the dome roof to be adapted for a square building as shown in B
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Byzantine Architecture Domes and Domes on Pedentives
Additionally, the top of the pendentive dome can be trim to introduce another dome on top of it as shown in C
The additional dome can further be raised to introduce a cylinder between the pendentive dome and the additional dome as in D
Windows can then be introduced in the cylinder enabling architects to creating dazzling interior light effects
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Early Prototypes St Vitale Ravenna AD 526-547
Byzantine architecture has its early prototypes in two churches, San Vitale (526-47), Ravenna and in Saint Sergiusand Saint Bacchus in Constantinople
Ravenna once served as the seat of the Roman Empire
The church is among the most important monument of Byzantine architecture
It was also the prototype for the Hagia Sophia which was built 10 years later
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Early Prototypes St Vitale Ravenna AD 526-547
The church is octagonal in plan
It has a domed octagonal core surrounded by ground level ambulatory with a gallery above it
The outer wall of the ambulatory is also octagonal
It has an apse which extends from the central core to one of the 8 sides of the outer octagon
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Early Prototypes St Vitale Ravenna AD 526-547
The domed roof of the church is raised on a drum allowing it greater height and lighting
The dome has a diameter of 17 meters and a height of 30 meters
The Byzantine characteristics of the church include:
Its central planning The structural arrangement of its
central dome The use of surrounding isles And the way structure, lighting and
decoration have been integrated in the interior of the church
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Early Prototypes St. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople
It was built as a palace church between A.D. 527-536
It is based on the four-lobed alternative church plan of early Christian architecture
The church in plan consist of an octagonal core set in a very loose rectangular form
The form of the church was not a perfect square
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Early Prototypes St. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople
The central space was covered by a dome
The octagon of the central dome has a small but true pendentivedome
This church was constructed very shortly before Hagia Sophia and was believed to be a experiment
The dome, its adaptation to a squarish form, the use of pendentive and the lighting and decoration scheme in the interior gives it its Byzantine characteristics
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia or the church of the holy wisdom is the most accomplished master piece in the history of architecture
The church was constructed in 532 A.D. by Emperor Justinian in Constantinople now Istanbul
Hagia Sophia was the greatest vaulted space without intermediate supports that has ever been built and it remained so throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
Its architects were Isidoreof Miletus and Anthemiusof Tralles, professors of geometry at the University of Constantinople
The church provides an expert solution to the problem of how to place a dome on a square base
The solution was to use pendantives
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia is covered by a central dome 102 feet (31 m) across, slightly smaller than the Pantheon's
The dome seems rendered weightless by the unbroken arcade of arched windows under it, which help flood the colorful interior with light
The dome is carried on pendentives
The weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive piers at the corners
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
Between them the dome seems to float upon four great arches
These four concave triangular sections of masonry solved the problem of setting the circular base of a dome on a rectangular base
The church form is a combination of centralized and longitudinal structure
Longitudinal direction is defined by domes to the east and west
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
At Hagia Sophia, two opposing arches on the central square open into semi domes, each pierced by 3 smaller radial semi-domes
At the west (entrance) and east (liturgical) ends, the arched openings are extended and by great half domes carried on smaller semi-domed exedras
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
Thus a hierarchy of dome-headed elements build up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the main dome, a sequence never seen before in antiquity
Of great artistic importance was its decorated interior with mosaics and marble pillars and coverings
The combination of interior decoration with lights flooding from its domes creates a glittering internal environment
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
Hagia sophia dominated church architecture after the 6th century AD
For over 900 years it was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for imperial ceremonies
Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque at the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mohammad II in 1453
Its rich figurative mosaics were covered with plaster and replaced by Islamic motifs
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Byzantine Architecture Hagia Sophia
It was for almost 500 years the principal mosque of Istanbul
Hagia Sophia served as model for many of the great Ottoman mosques of Constantinople such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rustem Pasha Mosque
After continuing as a mosque for many years, it was in 1934 turned by Turkish authorities into the Hagia Sophia Museum
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End of Module 8 Lecture 28
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Module 8 Lecture 29Early Christian & Byzantine Architecture
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Outline of Lecture Lecture 29
Byzantine Architecture Byzantine in Other places
Architectural Characteristics Buildings and other architectural elements Building materials, construction and
technologies Architectural Organizing principles
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesIntroduction
Byzantine churches, each with a central dome opening into surrounding semi domes and other vault forms and accompanied by the characteristic iconography proliferated throughout the Byzantine Empire Greece, Balkans, Asia manor, part of north Africa and Italy
It also influenced the design of churches in western Christendom
The later churches however lacked the power and vigor of the Hagia Sophia and were of a smaller scale compared to it
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesIntroduction
As Byzantine architecture spread, it also developed with a regional flavor
Many cities built Byzantine churches that were reflective of regional practices
Some of the most prominent ones are Santa Sophia Kiev, Saint Basils Moscow, Monastry of Hosios Loukas, and Church of Graenica Yugoslavia
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesSanta Sophia, Kiev
Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev was named after the HagiaSophia cathedral in Constantinople
The first foundations were laid in 1037 by prince Yaroslav
The church measures 37 X 55 meters
The cathedral has 5 naves, 5 apses, and 13 cupolas (domes)
It is surrounded by two-tier galleries from three sides
In 1934 the cathedral was confiscated by the Soviets and turned it into an architectural and historical museum
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesSt Basils, Moscow AD 1551-1536
Commission by Ivan the Terrible of Russia and built as the capitals main parish church
The ground plan is an eight pointed star at the center of which is a rectangular chamber and an apse
Eight domed tower chapels are distributed around the central chamber
In Saint Basil Moscow, the Byzantine dome finally became onion shaped tops of towers,
The Byzantine program of interior lighting and decoration was also lost
Instead, it was replaced by the use of brilliant exterior colors
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesMonastry of Hosios Loukas
Built around 1020 A.D.
It has a complex plan with 8 piers carrying its large central dome
The church plan integrates a cross in square with an octogan dome scheme
The result is an effect of interpenetrating space
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesMonastry of Hosios Loukas
Combined with lights from its dome and its decoration it give a clear expressing of its Byzantine character
On the outside, its construction materials reflect local practices
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesSt Marks, Venice
St Mark is also a notable example of Byzantine architecture
It lies on St Mark's Square, one of the most famous squares in the world
The church has five domes each toping a square
The church is based on a Greek cross floor plan, based on part on the HagiaSophia and the Basilica of the Apostles, both in Constantinople
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Byzantine Arch. in Other PlacesSt Marks, Venice
Each arm of the cross is of the same length and is covered by a dome
A dome also covers the square space at the center
While the basic structure of the building has been little altered, its decoration changed greatly over time
The front faade is Gothic and was added much later
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Architectural Characteristics
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Buildings & Other Arch Elements
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Buildings & Other Arch. Elements
Early Christian and Byzantine architecture was a continuation of the Roman Empire
Buildings and building practices continued from the Roman period to the Early Christian and Byzantine period
All Roman civic and Residential buildings were used during the Early Christian and Byzantine period
The only new element and the focus in the examination of the Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture is the Christian church
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Buildings & Other Arch. Elements
The spread of Christianity in Rome led to the evolution of the Christian place of worship
The form of the early church was not new but an adaptation of the Roman Basilica
This form later evolved into an alternative church plan that was either round or lobed
The Byzantine church form evolved much later than the Early Christian church forms
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Materials, Const. & Tech.
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Materials, Construction & Tech. The Early Christian and Byzantine period also
had access to similar building materials and construction technology as the Roman civilization
Building Materials were common between the two locations
Where materials were not available, they were imported from colonies of the empire
In construction technology, the greatest contribution during the Early Christian and Byzantine era was the discovery of the pendentive and Dome on pendentive
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Materials, Construction & Tech.
Using pendentives and Dome on pendentive, Byzantine architects were able to adapt the circular profile of a dome roof to a square plan
By using several overlapping domes, Byzantine architects were able to create an intricate interior structural system and external roof system
Intricate interior structural systems combined with decoration and lighting created fascinating interior effects
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Materials, Construction & Tech. Technology
The Early Christian and Byzantine period saw the most extensive use of clerestory windows
From early basilica churches to Byzantine churches, clerestory windows were used to provide lighting in the interior of churches and together with decoration enabled the creation of interesting interiors
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Principles of Arch. Organization
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Principles of Arch. Organization Introduction
It is possible to understand forces and principles shaping Early Christian and Byzantine architecture by examining the following issues: Religious Ritual Symbolism Construction Technology
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Principles of Arch. Organization Religious Rituals
The various ritual that comprise Christian religious worship played a fundamental part in the evolution of the Christian place of worship
Design closely mirror rituals of the religion The initial choice of the Basilica was because of
its easy adaptability to a Christian church Later when practices started changing, the
alternative church forms evolved Ritual practices and function played a more
significant influence on church form during the Early Christian period than during the Byzantine period
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Principles of Arch. Organization Symbolism
Symbolism also played a significant role in the evolution of the form of the Christian church
Spirituality and mysticism were integrated into the experience of church spaces
During Christian architecture, Symbolism in the experience of space become a predominant issue in design
The use of light and decoration to create fascinating interiors but function still predominated
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Principles of Arch. Organization Symbolism
During the Byzantine period the Church itself became a symbol of the faith
The Church is viewed as a house of god and its design and construction as a reflection of this symbolism
The scale of the church was therefore increased and its decoration became more complex
In this respect we see a contrast between an overriding emphasis in Early Christian architecture on function and rituals, and in Byzantine architecture on symbolism
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Principles of Arch. Organization Construction Technology
Construction technology was a major influence on Church form during the ECB period
The Basilica was chosen during the Early Christian period partly for its ease of construction
Ease of construction means places of worship could be provided for the expanding believers
During the Byzantine era, discovery of pendentives and dome on pedentives changed technology for church construction
Provided means to achieve church forms that reflected the significance of churches as house of God
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End of Module 8 Lecture 29