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Ü IF M U§TIC ISSN 1022-9299

NEWSLETTER No. 10, October 1996

Contents

Editorial

Celestin Deliege Review of Schoenberg, A. (1) Coherence, 2 Counterpoint, Instrumentation, lnstruction in Form (2) The Musical /dea and the Logic, Technique, and Art of its Presentation

Gery d'Ydewalle Review of Evers, F. , Jansma, M., Mak, P. & de Vries, 5 8 . (eds.) Muziekpsychologie: Musica/e ontwickeling, schepping, be/eving, waameming

Nicola Phillips Review of Christensen, E. The Musical Timespace: 8 A Theory of Music Listening

Patrik Juslin, Conference review of 4th International Conference 13 Alison McNeil and on Music Perception and Cognition, Montreal, Matthew Royal Canada, August 1996

Elena Ungeheuer Conference review of 12th Annual Meeting of the 19 German Society for Psychology of Music and 2nd International Symposium of Music Psychology,

. Freiburg/Bremen, September 1996

Elizabeth Giai<oumaki Molhering in tune to women's musical preferences 21 in the immediate post-parturn period: a musical, exploratory approach

Announcements 27

The Newsletter is the official communication of the European Society tor the

Cognitive Seiences of Music.

Executive Council : John Sloboda, president Marta Olivetti-Belardinelli,

vice-president lrene Deliege, permanent secretary Andre Riotte, treasurer lan Cross, Newsletter Editor Alt Gabrielsson, organiser ot the next

ESCOM Conterence Andrezj Rakowski, member

Associate Editors: Daisy Bertrand Alexandra Lamont Mare Melen

(University of Keele, UK) (University of Rome "La Sapienza", ltaly) (University ot Liege, Belgium) (University ot Liege, Belgium) (University of Cambridge, UK) (Uppsala University, Sweden)

(Chopin Academy of Music, Warsaw,

Poland)

(University of Liege, Belgium) (University of Cambridge, UK) (University of Liege, Belgium)

Information about the Society and subscriptions can be obtained trom:

ESCOM Secretariat 16 Place du Vingt Aout B-4000 Liege Belgium

This is the final issue of the ESCOM Newsletter. The World-Wide Web page ot the Societ at http://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/ESCOM/ a~d t~e Journ~l . of the Soc~ety, Music~e Scientiae, will continue to publish contnbut1ons t_hat 1n111ate or contlnue debate on topics in the field of the cognitive sciences of mus1c.

Gontributions to the World-Wide-Web page must be in English and in French; a version in both languages should be submitted . They gener~lly should not exceed

2500 word s. They should be submitted by e-ma1l to l an Cross at

ic1 08@ cam.ac.uk.

Information tor contributors to Musicae Scientiae can be tound on page 34 of

the Newsletter, or on the World -Wide-Web page.

Editorial

This is the last issue of the ESCOM Newsletter in its present form . II is intended that the functions of the Newsletter - to present research and revi ews of books and confe rences by members, and to inform members of the activities of ESCOM and of other re lated bodies - will be Iaken over in part by ESCOM's new journal, Musicae Scientiae , and in part by the ESCOM World-Wide Web page which is accessible at:

http://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/ESCOM/

This last issue of the Newsletter presents reviews of recently published works by Arnold Schoenberg, of a new book by Eric Christensen, and of the first Dutch textbook (edited by Evers, Jansma, Mak and de Vries) on psychology of music, as weil as reviews of the 4th ICMPC held in Montreal in August 1996 and of the 12th Annual Meeting of the DGM in Freiburg in September 1996. While the review of the ICMPC implies !hat the different discipl ines !hat make up the cognitive sciences of music are beginning to grow ever more close, that of the Freiburg Conference suggests that deep divergences of method and of ideology are still to be found . We have thus two different views of the state of the evoluti on of our domain of research ; perhaps in such a broad field it is inevitable !hat such different views will be found. Nevertheless, the different perspectives revealed in these two reviews point up the continuing need for ESCOM to act as a bridge facilitating effective communication and understanding between different disciplines and research traditions in the cognitive sciences of music, and as an umbrella under which these different disciplines and traditions can grow and interact. We hope that these aspirations will be continue to be met by Musicae Scientiae and by our pages on the World-Wide Web.

We apologise to readers of Elizabeth Giakoumaki's paper in Newsletter 9 (April 1996) and to the author herseit for a printing mix-up in the Engli sh version of this paper, and have reprinted the entire article within this issue.

!an Cross Newsletter Editor

Daisy Bertrand Alexandra Lamont Mare Melen Associate Editors

Book Review: Arnold SCHOENBERG: (1) Coherence, Counterpoint, Instrumentation, lnstruction in Form.

Zusammenhang, Kontrapunkt, Instrumentation, Formenlehre) (ZKIF). Severine Netf, ed., trans. by Ch. Cross & S. Neff. University of

Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1994, lxxii + 135 pp. (2) The Musicalldea and the Logic, Technique, and Art of its

Presentation. ( Der musikalische Gedanke, und die Logik, Technik, und Kunst seiner Darstellung) (MGKD). Patricia Carpenter & Severin Neff eds., trans, and Commentary. Columbia University Press, New York,

1995, xxiv + 462 pp.

Celestin Deliege

This review is concerned with two previously unpublished volumes by Schoenberg from the archives of the Schoenberg Institute. 8oth texts will be of interest to anyone with a serious interest in music. They will be referred to here respectively by their German initials: ZKIF and MGKD. The editions are in both German and English, and the editorials are in English. The bilingual sections are laid out on facing pages, thus making it easy to compare the vocabulary employed, which may help to clarify problems of terminology !hat previous works only in eilher English or French have not managed to resolve.

Historians will find the opportunity for a new approach in understanding the genesis of Schoenbergian concepts in these two manuscripts dating from 1917 (ZKIF) and 1934-6 (MGKD) . The two works can be read in two different ways : the way preferred by the editors, which is to arrange the material according to thematic content conforming to the index established by Schoenberg, or according to a chronological reconstitution which is not only possible but both tempting and easy due to the meticulousness of the author in dating and paginating his manuscripts.

Psychologists, in approaching these texts, will become aware that Schoenberg, who is ollen reproached for the invention of a system which is unrelated to perception, has often been misrepresented. Perception was, on the contrary, one of his obsessions: as a primary concern for him since the time of ZKIF, the issue of coherence is related to !hat of comprehensibility. And psychoanalysts, no less than historians, may find it fruitful to reconsider the texts chronologically. We know quite weil that Schoenberg was a tormented man and there is a good chance that the chronicles of this "involuntary patient" might provide a roundabout route to the discovery of the unconscious origins of some of his works.

Finally, it is teachers, and primarily teachers of musical composition, who should pay most attention to these manuscripts, and especially to the writings in MGKD which are more developed and comprehensive than Models for Beginners in Garnposition and Fundamentals of Musical Composition. Of course these do not replace these works but complement them, especially in clarifying the more obscure issues -meaning those which primarily concern the author's motivations.

So who might not gain anything from reading these texts? Perhaps scientists. Schoenberg seemed to delight in moving in scholarly circles; a photograph shows him with Einstein at Carnegie Hall in 1934 (MGKD, full page plate), and we know from Willgenstein that amongst the members of the Wienerkries he hirnself was a

c. Deliege E-3

keen foliower of the activities of the musician. However, Schoenberg's remarks on science are no more sophisticated than those of the man in the street:

"The difference between art and science lies herein: that even where both aim to represent the same area, science must try to include all conceivable cases, whereas art confines itse lf to those that are characteristic, appropriate, or otherwise 'f itting'. While science will therefore have to place every case in the clearest light, art may change the relationships of meaning to heighten their effect. While science proceeds toward an all-encompassing and all-explaining goal, through the laying down and ordering of its principles, art will focus on bringing its main points into the foreground of attention through its manner of presentation. II science provides facts that it orders according to common principles, art produces images in which facts are freely joined to common principies, so that the sense of what is to be stated can be clearly grasped and at once' (MGKD : 114-15).

"How does one become a man on one's own?", Schoenberg wendered one day; "by thinking beyond any reference point", one might misch ievous ly have suggested . Few scientists would be content with such comparative definitions.

The archives of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute contain twelve manuscripts defining or developing on the theme of musical thought and its presentation which were drafted between 1917 and 1937, including two undated manuscripts (MGKD : xv­xvi). ln their commentary (ibid.: 1-86), the editors review this collection by evaluating its relationship with the different perspectives considered by the author in his desire to unify music theory. Three appendices outline these manuscripts; the contents of the tenth (transcribed and translated in MGKD) are indexed in their order of succession. Figures and musical examples support and clarify the theory.

Why did Schoenberg write these manuscripts and why did he proceed with so much care and assiduity, when his perspicacity as a composer would appear to have been able to Iead him towards effective teaching activities without the need to follow !hat particular path? II seems likely that the answer lies as much in the domain of logic as in that of psychology. The 1917 manuscript (ZKIF) can be seen as a lesson plan written down by the master for his own use, as something !hat he could refer to throughout his life.

ln 1917 Schoenberg was in Vienna, had just been demobilised, and was preoccupied with the project of founding the future Private Society of Musical Execution and with researching a grammatical system which for him became confounded with a primary concern for coherence relating to both writing and form through counterpoint and variation. He Iook up this manuscript in April, and left it at the stage of a sketch, which, with no aim of publication in mind, may have seemed sufficient for him. When other manuscripts were added to this in the 1930s, the ideas and educational project were virtually unchanged, but new explanations and digressions enriched the context.

One comment which might be made by scholars of Schoenberg's writings is !hat there is nothing truly new in these materials in comparison with what we already know from reading previously published texts by Schoenberg. This can be countered straight away by noting that the 1917 manuscript enables us, through its 75 pages, to follow the process of generation of ideas and that often the calendar of the most fundamental propositions appears as a sequence of implications, each of which can be explained by the preceding one or Ieads to the following one. The works known

E-4 c. Deliege

to date extend the oral pedagogy of the master; the bringing to light of these manuscripts, due to Severine Nelf and Patricia Carpenter, gives us access to the methodology whilst complementing the more familiar material.

The 200 pages of the 1934-6 manuscript, viewed from a time in which composition lessons have a tendency to be reduced to trivial discussions of drall scores, serve as a reminder of how, if interpreted by a particular strategy, they could fulfil a function that is today highly desirable. in my opinion an intel ligent application of this manuscript, which seems to me to be the best treatise of composition conceived to date, provides a means of recreating a pedagogy which is itself coherent and diversified . Without a doubt, Schoenberg's theoretical thought remains linked to the logic of classical music, but this is not to imply pastiche. Invention is never an object of learning; if it were otherwise, it would be ruined immediately. Yet coherence, logic, the techniques of writing and orchestration still call for schooling and transition through the model. As the ed itors note at the conclusion of their

commentary:

"Schoenberg believed that the art ist's gilt could not be taughl. Nevertheless, in this manuscript, with his delineation of the organic nature of the musical work he provides a basis for the construction of a viable work, for the relalion of functional parts within the whole, and for the derivation of its unity from an inner necessity, a 'life principle'" (ibid .: 73).

Several well-known concepts in Schoenberg's thought find here a useful clarificat ion: thus, Grundgestalt versus Motif, the first relates to the construction of the phrase, the second to thematic structure; Gestalt versus Phrase (MGKD: 168-71 ). Analher issue is the necessity of recourse to constant variation, which perhaps Webern alone out of the members of the Viennese School made perceptible without swamping it; he perfectly understood that the idea of constantly developing variation originated with Schoenberg from its opposite, an obsession with repetition. The source of coherence for Schoenberg is delinitely there, but as much as he wanted to have it he still distrusted it; without variation, repetition could only be a sterile element:

"One may say: coherence is based on repetition, inasmuch as parts of A recur in 8, C, etc. And: Coherence comes into being when parts that are somewhat the same, somewhat different, are connected so thatthose parts that are the same become prominent. Cantrast (relational) is likewise based on coherence, insofar as the same parts as mentioned above are connected so thatthe unlike parts predominanlly attract attention. Change and varia tion are based on repetition, insofar as several of the like parts as weil as several of the dissimilar parts become discernible. Development is one such succession of related ideas, in which disparate parts that are initially subordinate in importance gradually become the principal ideas. (ZKIF: 20· 23)

Translated into English by Alexandra Lamont

Book Review: Muziekpsychologie: Musica/e ontwickeling, schepping, beleving, waarneming F. Evers, M. Jansma, P. Mak & 8. de Vries (eds}, van Gorcum/Koninklijk Conservatorium: The Hague. 1994, pp 293-312 (ISBN 90 232 2879 0)

Gery d'Ydewalle Department of Psychology, Leuven University

Muziekpsychologie: Musikale ontwickeling, schepping, beleving, waarneming [Music psychology: Musical development, creation, experience, perception] is a large book, about 340 pages in unusually small print, including a compact disc. lt involves contributions from 17 authors, mainly from Europe (8 from the Netherlands, 5 trom United Kingdom, 1 from Poland, 1 from ltaly, 1 from Germany) and one trom outside Europe (from Argentina) . One wonde rs why such a book has been published in Dutch, which necessarily Iimits the circulation of the book due to this rather small language community . However, the primary goal of the book is to reach the lecturers and students at music schools in the Netherlands. ln fact, the book developed from an initiative in the 1980s by the Deputy Director of the Royal Music Conservatory in Den Hague who wished to make the research Iiterature from various scientifi c disciplines available to this audience. Considering the nature of this audience, the choice of language is perfectly understandable. I do congratulate the publisher for having accepted the risk of publishing such a large book for a rather limited number of readers. Several chapters were obviously written in another language, and I found the Iransialions excellent. As I found the book of high quality (excepting a Iew critical comments, see below), it is on ly hoped that an English version will be made available in the near future so that more readers can benefit from this major publication enterprise.

As stated by the editors (F. Evers, M. Jansma, P. Mak, and B. De Vries, al l from the Netherlands) in the preface, the book aims to achieve four subgoals: (1) to acquaint the readers with the most recent developments in the field of music perception and cogn ition research; (2) to provide a Iiterature database, allowing lecturers and students to have access to new developments; (3) to develop course materials which are then available for music education; and finally (4) to publish introductory surveys from various approaches and disciplines written by national and international experts.

The introductory pages by Konrad Boehmer give a valuable summary of the several contribut ions which I will also summarise here to give a flavour of the content of the book. The book is divided into four main sections: musical development, aptitude , and learning; creation of music; socio-cultural and emotional dimensions in the musical experience; and the perception of music. ln the first sect ion, Hargreaves proposes several distinctive stages of musical (or more generally, artistic) development in children with their implications for the educational practice. Although the chapter is informative and weil written, it is, at Iimes, highly specu lative and not tightly based on sulficient empirical bases. Thereafter, Sloboda defends his wel l­known thesis on the importance of motivation, sustained practice and other external factors to explain music achievements, beyond the doubtful issue of innate talents . Considering his exce llent and detailed research in this field, I found it rather a pity that the chapter remains at the Ievei of generalities. Miklaszewski focuses on learning processes themselves. Unfortunately, he starts with a rather outd ated

E- 6 G. d'Ydewalle

definition of learn ing as a more or less permanent change in behaviour whi ch occurs as a resu lt of practice. He does not Iake into account recent progress in cognitive psychology and information processing models, giving a much more articulated view on the process involved in learning. He makes a useful distinction between three domains of music learning: "audition" (i.e. nonverbal and emotional processing of acoustic information), music literacy, and music performance. Some interesting empirical studies are described, but I was rather surprised not to see references to some better known "classic" studies (e.g. Kramer). From an educational perspective, Tafuri highlights the complicated interaction between children 's performance, the educational practice and the teaching goals.

ln Section 2, Mak and Jansma explore several ways to provide analytic means in unravelling the processes involved in composition and improvisation. One of these is to rely on verbal reports from composers . ln the introduction to the book, Boehmer expresses strong doubts about the value of such verbal reports. I do not share this opinion. Analysing verbal reports can give us useful clues. 01 course, composers are ollen unaware of the processes involved in their composing activities. Nevertheless, their conscious experiences, accumulated over several years of composing practice, may reveal some of the problems they are facing, suggesting underlying unconscious ongoing mental activities. Clarke successfully applies generative theories to explain expression in music performance. This chapter contains good descriptions of some empirical studies in support of generative theories . The chapter by Widlund is almost a clinical one, providing useful suggestions concerning how to overcome performance anxiety, tension and stress. She also points to the positive effects of those negative emotional factors . ln the education of improvisation, Hemsy de Gainza strongly emphasises the developmental aspects, distinguishing three stages: the syncretic (i.e. the encoding of music sensation), analytic (the differentiation into music components), and finally synthetic stages. She encourages educators not to dissociate the learning of improvisation skills from general music training.

Section 3 starts with a chapter by Heins on music in its cultural context. This chapter may almost be considered as an introduction to the other chapters in the section. The author's main thesis is that music belongs to a collective, societal setting rather than to individual aesthetic assessment. Logically, there follows a chapter by Mayer on music sociology, defining the discipline and exemplifying the functional and structural relationships in society as expressed in music. Jansma and de Vries analyse from a more psychological viewpoint how emotions are related to characteristics of music, and how those characteristics are able to generate emotions. The authors focus more directly on the emotions of listeners than on the emotions of music performers, acknowledging that research on the emotions of music performers is scarce, if not non-existent. The empirical research in the chapter is weil presented , to the point, and easy to follow. Bunt describes how in pre-modern Iimes music has been sometimes used as a therapeutic tool. He then introduces and defines modern music therapy, providing a single case as an example.

I found the last section of the book on the perception of music outstanding . The chapters, from psychoacoustics (Van Dijk), perception and production of rhythm (Povel), and perception of melody and harmony (Cross), are extremely weil written but at Iimes hard to follow. Their style is more in line with chapters in a handbook than with chapters in an introductory textbook such as this book aims to be . The

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section closes with a chapter by Evers on synaesthetic sensations, focusing on the sensory fusion of music perception and colour.

ln conclusion, I found the book excellent but as usual the quality varies from chapter to chapter. Some chapters are highly speculative, whilst other chapters are based on hardcore empirical evidence. The book is intended to be read and studied by our students in music schools, but I fear that some chapters will be too demanding.

Book Rev iew: E. Christensen (1996) The Musical Timespace: A Theo r'y of Music Listening. Aalborg: Aalborg University Press

Nicola Phillips Facu lty of Music, Cambridge University

Erik Christensen's The Musical Timespace: A Theory of Music Listening is a briet work, presented in two volumes (the first introducing a theory of music li stening, the second the associated music examples), dealing with a topic that may attract the interest of cognitive psychologists, musicologists and keen music listeners alike. The th eory is written with the express aim of answering lngm ar Bengtsson's question, "What kind of theory will you apply to this (contemporary] music?" (p.B), and in doing this, Christensen claims that the book seeks to "illuminate connections between music theory and the findings of research in music psycho logy." (p.B) Observing that, "There is a gap between classical music theory and the theories of contemporary music," Christensen boldly states his "intention to contribute to the closing of that gap." (p.B) Following this ambitious preface, the contents page promises discussion of diverse issues, ranging from: "lntensity, the arousal of attention," (p .11) and "Pitch height is an aspect of timbre" (16) to "Fiow, expansion and emotion" (p .130), and "Ludwig van Beethoven: Eroica (1804) -- A symphonic fairy tale" (p .11 0). For the musicalog ist or avid music- li stener, the Ii st of works analysed is impressive bait: Xenakis' Metastasis and Pithoprakta, Ligeti 's Apparitions, Atmospheres, Confinuum and the 2nd String Quartet, lves' The Unanswered Question and Centrat Park in the Dark, Schoenberg's Summer Morning by a Lake (Co/ors), Lutoslawski's Livre pour orchestre, Langgaard's The Music of the Spheres and Train Moving Away, Reich's Music for 18 Musicians, Nielsen's Jans Vejamd, Messiaen's The Abyss of the Birds from Quar1et for the End of Time, N0rgard 's Second Symphony, Beethoven's Eroica, Pink Floyd's Set the Cantrots for the Heart of the Sun and Coleman Hawkins's Body and Soul.

Christensen presents a theory of music listening that is predicated on ecological precepts . lt re lies upon the assumption that "Hearing is not designed for music li stening. Hearing is designed for survival in a natural environment."(p .1 0) ln adopting this ecological perspective (somewhat reminiscent of Shepard 's (1981) theory of "psychophysical complementarity"), Christensen argues that hearing (as it is employed in music listening) may be described in terms of "li stening dimensions" that are determined by the needs of interpreting the physical natu re of the sound . He posits that there are live li stening dimensions, which he identifies as intensity, timbre, space, movement, and pulse . These are embedded in a !wo-dimensional model, which segregates "macrotemporal" and "microtemporal" listening dimensions. According to Christensen, timbre and pitch height space are microtemporal; pulse and movement are macrotemporal, while intensity is "placed in the center of the model .. . the core of all listening dimensions. Understood as a physical phenomenon, the natural continuum of sound is nothing but a continuum of energy spectra of variable intensity distribution , which can be measured as air pressure varying in time." (p.21)

Christensen describes perceptual thresholds for each listening dimension (see page 20), however this is without satisfactory reference or discussion of the problems of establishing such absolute thresholds. Apart from these meagre qualifications provided in the early section of the account, his accounts of pitch perception, timbre

N. Ph illips E-9

perception, pulse and movement perception , and intensity perception are thoroughly inadeq uate. The most conspicuous deficit in this regard is the Iack of detailed reference to and examples from the cognitive-scientific literature. Speculative content ions are frequently presented as fact, with neither acknowledgement of the Iiterature nor of the multifarious issues pertinent to discussion of each perceptual phenomenon. For example, Christensen states that, "Distinct pitch height is a prominent feature in the art music of Europe and the Western World . Consequently, pitch height is often considered the basic element in music and music perception, but as a matter of fact, it is not. Timbre is the substance of music, and pitch height is an aspect of timbre ." (p . 16) without any reference to the cognitive sc ientifi c Iiterature in support of this bald assertion

Christensen develops his discussion of "listening dimensions" with an account of what he calls "secondary" listening dimensions. These dimensions are melody, rhythm , and harmony, constituting subdivisions which "arise from the interactions of basic dimensions." (p.21) He asserts that melody is the spatial aspect of movement, rhythm the temporal correlate of movement, while harmony is an "emergent" quality, "a rising between the source-specific quality of timbre and the focusing qualities of several pitches." A ninth listening dimension "micromodulation" is characterised as arising "from the interaction between timbre and pulsat ion." (p .144) According to Christensen, "Micromodu lation conveys musica l expression" (p .14 7; this statement is made without discussion of the complex topi c of perception and cognition of emotion in music). A major pitfall with Christensen's characterisation of the listening dimensions is that the simplistic descriptions of temporal and "spatial" aspects of music perception and cognition are vague and insufficiently informed by research findings in cognitive science to allow empirical testing of Christensen's assertions.

Armed with characterisations of the "listening dimensions" , Christensen introduces his centrar concept, that of the "musical timespace", a "virtual" space. The musical works discussed are conce ived as originators of this "virtual space". According to Christensen, "Music does not "unfold in time." Music creates time. " (p .48) This concept simply enables Christensen to describe his own experience of the works analysed in terms of his intuitive understanding of the "time" they create. As with Christensen's discussion of the basic and the secondary li stening dimensions, the microtemporal and the macrotemporal, the discussion of the "musical timespace" is insufficiently founded in research in music perception and cognition, philosophy or musicology to provide a convincing argument. Citation to support his more speculative assertions and introspections might not make Christensen's account more credible for the cognitive psychologist or musicologist, but at it would enab le the reader more readily to understand the source or rationale of his convictions.

With the notion of "virtual timespace" (p.40), Christensen's theory is arguab ly too indulgent in its reception and promotion of the intuitive/introspective theories generated by composers' accounts of thei r compositional practice. One particularly damaging oversight in this regard is the Iaiiure to cons ider the influence of ideology in compositional practice . Christensen appears to conclud e that composit iona l theory equals compos itional practice, and that arti stic practice and introspective rational isation of practice by composers correlate in a necessary and fund amental way with perceptual and cognitive processes. Discussion of the relation ship between the products of introspection in listening and percept ion and cognition may

E- 10 N. Phillips

have yielded a st imulating debate. Ch ristensen appears neither to recognise the problems involved in extrapo lating a general musical analysis or lheory of music listening from introspective rationalisation of personal listening experience, nor to acknowledge the melhodological significance in lhis reg ard of the cogn itive psychology/folk psychology dichotomy. This flaw undermines the entire bas is for Christensen's theory.

The analyses of musical works refer to specific recordings, and timings of recordings are used for reference, rather than detailed musical examples in score formal. Whilst this practice enables Christensen to indicate with accuracy the moments in the "musical timespace" which he is discussing in his analyses, it is unhelpful if the reader is unable to acquire these recordings. Additionally, in discussing at some length the timbral qualities exhibited in specific performances, Christensen is entering into a practice which he neither acknowledges nor appears aware of. Christensen's descriptive, introspective accounts of the works analysed amounts to performance analysis . Especially when one is using specific performances alone to produce an analysis, and when considerable emphasis is placed on such subjectively­determined perceptual phenomena as timbre, then the ideological aspects of performance analysis should be discussed. Christensen's work is by no means the first to undertake performance analysis (see, e.g ., Cook, 1996), and the Iack of reference to other accounts which have attempted to unite theories of music psychology and of analysis is another major oversight. As Christensen, in working with specific recordings, is conducting performance analysis, 1 it is appropriate that the ideology surrounding performance analysis, the problems and the advantages should be discussed.

Christensen 's music analyses consist of descriptive, chronological catalogues of instrumental entries and effects, and perceived divisions during the "m usical timespace" of each piece. in view of the nature this analytical method, detailed consideration of the work of Bregman (1990) and others in the field of auditory scene analysis would be informative for the reader; however no such reference is made .2 This produces a theory of music listening which, in its attempt to relate music theory to ecological perspectives, implies !hat perception of rhythm, melody and harmony is insignificant in a listener's experience of the "musical timespace". Even if one does accept Christensen's assertion !hat in purely physical terms, the perception of pitch is nothing more complex than variety of timbre, then one could claim that in terms of perception and cognition (!hat is to say, in terms of the listening processes adopted by the average listener brought up in weslern culture who is likely to be exposed to the works Christensen analyses), the perception of pitch, harmony and rhythm within the context of possession of theoretical understanding gained through varying degrees of formal training in and exposure to, music, are too important tobe neglected in this way.

Additionally, Christensen does not deal with the philosophical issues involved in the development of a theory of music based in music listening. Cultural factors and the interaction of conceptually-driven and data-driven processing are not addressed. Christensen recommends the reader should Iisten to each of the pieces he describes at least seven Iimes. lt is almost as though he says, "Listen to these pieces alten enough, read what I say, and eventually you too will hear what I hear." This method may be fruitful in guiding the novice listener, but it merely supplies a personal account of what Christensen hears, with little insight into the more stimulating

N. Phi llips E-11

questions of why and how this is heard . Christensen's method and theory is incapable of explicit ly describing experience of such "subjective" phenomena as the organisation of intens ity, pitch, rhythm and timbre in the works discussed . Similar attempts to formulate an analytical method capab le of investigating musica l structures in terms of what may be heard in music listening have been attempted . Pascal! (1996) has produced a "pattern-matching" model of analysis which aims to elucidate the "hearable in music", rather than the "heard". Based in a synthesis of findings from research into music perception and cognition and analytical theory, Pascall's theory provides a more persuasive account of music listening than Christensen 's. Pascall's is a theory of music analysis based in music listening that contributes to closing of the gap between music theory and music psychology, thanks to integration of ideas from music theory with research findings in pattern perception in music listening. The strength of Pascall's account is the integration of the theoretical model and analytical method, a synthesis !hat Christensen fails to achieve.

Christensen's theory is undermined at its foundations . First, Christensen fails to integrale his theory of music listening and his music analyses persuasively, resulting in tendentiously linked theoretical and analytical material. Rather than closing the gaps between music theory and music psychology, contemporary music theory and classical music theory, Christensen forges the gaps anew. As Lydia Goehr describes the problem, "a basic tension in analysis regards the chasm it threatens to force between philosophical theory and practice (p. 69). Inslead of addressing the problern of unifying theories of music and of music listening, Christensen neglects discussion of the considerable musicological (Cook, 1994), philosophical (Goehr, 1992) and music-psychological (Ciarke, 1989) Iiterature regarding the gaps he describes in his preface.

Following the fulsome promises of its opening, the book is an anti-climax. For the music psychologist , the proliferation of speculative statements claiming psychological-scientific insight (in the absence of citation) is likely to become infuriating. Many issues of central importance to discussion of music perception and cognition are thrown up by Christensen's discussion, only to be ignored or skirted araund as though there were no debate and answers too obvious too mention. For the musicologist, the agenda of canon-formation will be apparent in Christensen's rhapsodic description of many of the works (see, for example the discussion of Ligeti's Atmospheres, p.86, or of Schoenberg's Summer Morning by a Lake (Calors), p. 87). For the music ana lyst, the production of a series of loosely connected, "closed" analyses, based in descriptions of unfolding timbre may seem a somewhat shallow and naive attempt to formulate a theory for analysis of contemporary music based in music listening.

The music listener without formal music train ing may find the theory easy to read and grasp, for it is indeed very concisely formulated and, at the surface, simply presented (it is only when one asks questions about the Christensen's specu lations !hat the incredible vagueness of the theory becomes apparent) and may find that it helps their understanding of the music discussed, in which case it has performed an evangelical function. However, it does little to advance our understanding of perception and cognition of contemporary music. This book is recommended for anyone seeking readily accessible ana lyses of contemporary music to read while listen ing or for the twentieth-century music fan. The musicalogist or cognitive

E- 12 N. Phillips

psychelog ist may find thi s book infuriating in its repeated Ia iiure to address the questions clearly posed by its assertions about music listening.

References Bregman, A.S. (1990) Auditorv Scene Analysis Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Clarke, E.F. (1989) 'Mind the gap: formal structures and psychological processes in music'

ln Contemporary Music Review, 3, pp.1-13 Cook, N. (1994) ln R. Aiello and J. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical Perceptions Oxlord: Oxford

University Press Cook, N. (1996, forthcoming) 'Analysing performance, and performing analysis'. ln N.

Cook and M. Everist {eds .), Rethinking Music Oxlord: Glarendon Press Goehr, L. (1992) The lmaginary Museum of Musical Works Oxford: Glarendon Press Krumhansl, C.L. (1990) The Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch Oxford : Oxlord

University Press McAdams, S. and Bigand, E. (1993) Thinking in Sound - The Cognitive Psychology of Human

Audition Oxford: Glarendon Pascall, R. (1996) Paper presented at Graduale Research Seminar, University of Garnbridge Shepard, R.N. (1981) 'Psychophysical Complementarity' ln M. Kubovy and J.R. Pomerantz

{eds.), Perceptual Organization Hillsdale, N.J. : Erlbaum. pp. 279-341

1 This methodological deviation occurs in spite of the fact that Christensen was aiming to delineate a theory of music listening based in "listening of contemporary music" {p .8), which has inadvertently been diverted in its early stages to a theory of music listening based in compositional theory. 2 There appears to be an almest wilful avoidance of the most appropriate texts for discussion; for example, in discussion of pitch perception, discussion of the work of Krumhansl (1990) appears imperative. ln discussion of auditory stream segregation, the most appropriate reference volume must surely be Bregman (1990), but no such reference is made. Christensen apparently prefers to rely upon the summaries of relevant topics in music perception and cognition provided by, for example , McAdams and Bigand (1993), rather than rigorously investigating the primary reference literature.

Conference Review: Fourth International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition (ICMPC), McGill University, Montreal, Canada,

11 -15 August 1996

The Fourth International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition in Montreal comprised a varied but integrated set of presentations and posters on music perception and cognition, psychoacoustics, rnu sic performance, mu sical development, music modelling, music analysis, neuropsychology, psychomusicology and music sociology. The Conference was distinguished by the ease with which participants working in different research areas communicated with each other, lead ing to the conclusion !hat a unified field of research is beginning to emerge.

ln a briet review it is impossible to do justice to the range and the quality of the presentations; accordingly, "snapshots" of the Conference by three young researchers are presented below in order to give a flavour of the work !hat was presented and of the quality of the research reported. (Details of the availability and price of the complete Conference Proceedings (on CO-ROM) can be obtained by e-mailing brp@music.mcgill.ca) .

The last decade has seen a steady increase of interest in the important albeil notoriously difficult issue concerning music and emotion. The Fourth ICMPC in Montreal featured several noteworthy contributions, in particular during the session on "expression and emotion".

First, Emory Schubert presented his Two Dimensional Emotion Space (2DES), a computer program for continuous registration of a listener's perception of the emotional expression in music or other stimuli (apparently, a similar device has been developed by Clifford Madsen) . Based on the two emotion dimensions, arousal and valence, found in multidimensional studies of emotion similarity by James Ausseil and others, the 2DES allows a listener to indicate his or her real time judgements of the emotional expression directly onto the !wo-dimensional emotion space. The device was criticised on the grounds !hat a quick change in the listener's perception of the expression only can be registered as a gradual move through a number of intermediate points, and not as a move directly from one point to another . Nonetheless, it seems !hat this innovative tool can turn out to be high ly useful in the exploration of musical experience, especially if combined with physiological measurements of emotional reactions.

Tobey and Fujinaga presented a conductor-following software system for use in live interactive performance and in the training of student conducto rs. Continuous extraction of data from the conductor's baton is used to interpret the conductor's expressive intentions. This allows the system to effect real -time control over such musical parameters as tempo, dynamics, and articulation . While it is arguably the case !hat conducting involves more than merely arm movements, this system represents a fascinating attempt to digitise musical expression.

Commenting on the previous Iack of studies concerned with how singers express emotions in pertormance, Ohgushi and Hattori reported a study in which three singers were instructed to perform a piece of music so as to convey four bas ic emotions ("sorrow", "joy", "anger", and "fear") or a "neutral " expression to

E- 14 P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal

li steners. ln the foll ow ing experim ents , it was revealed !hat recognition of the emotional expression was best when subjects were provided wi th both audio and vid eo rec ordings of the perform ances. However, the video recordings were surprisingly more influential than the audio reco rdings on the li steners' judgements of the expre ssion. Performance measurements are also in progress, and the results trom these will be presented at the joint meeting of ASA and ASJ in Hawaii, 2-6 December 1996. This wi ll allow for some interesting cross-cu ltural camparisans with the results from earlier studies of emotional communication in music performance.

Same charming sound examples were given in the paper by Adachi and Trehub. Children, 8-10 years old, were instructed to sing simple melodies (e.g., "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star", "The Alphabet Song") to make the experimenter "sad" or "happy" . Gestural, vocal, linguistic, and musical attributes of their performances were coded from video and audio recordings . lt was found !hat the children's expressive devices included manipulations of facial expressions, eye/head positions, body posture, tempo, rhythm, and articulation. Good singers differed from ord inary singers in their use of subtle gestures, such as breathiness.

This is just a sample of the papers on music and emotion. However, all of these papers testify to the importance of music as a means of emotiona l expression and communication.

Patrik N. Juslin Department of Psychology Uppsala University Sweden

The distribution between sess ions of posters and papers concerned with the significance of listening skil ls for the performing musician - my own special area of interest - was diverse yet pleasingly integrated. lt can be argued that not since the Iimes in which Helmholtz was writing have psychologists, musicians, educationalists, physicists, acousticians, and physiologists exhibited so much ability to communicate with each other in a common language . At previous events of this type it has seemed that ideas to be communicated have been presented in forms that are too widely disparate; this conference has greatly advanced the project of uniting our understanding of music gained from these scientific domains.

Warrier and Zatorre's paper, entit led 'The Effect of Melodie Gontext on lnteractions Between Pitch and Timbre', was delivered with zeal and charisma; the audience much amused by the presentation of experimental stimuli . Based upon the interaction of pitch and timbre within differing contexts, Warrier and Zatorre extend the research of Se mal and Demany (1991) and of Singh and Hirsh (1992). The dependence of pitch perception upon timbre was examined using the presentation of two ISI Iones in isolation, and in the context of a familiar melody. Three timbres were presented created by varying the relative intensities of 11 harmonics. Each timbre emphasised the lower, middle, and upper harmonics respectively. The fundamental frequency (Fo) of each complex tone ranged from 261-494 Hz. (C4-B4), all Iones being equated for loudness.

P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal E- 15

ln the isolation task, two Iones were presented where the second tone could differ in pitch and/or timbre, the Fo remaining the same or being altered so as to be 17, 35, or 52 cents higher than the first tone presented. Subjects were required to indicate whether the second tone was the same as or different from the first, making judgements on pitch percept ion only. ln the melodic context, the Fo and timbre of the last tone were altered as in the isolated context. The results indicate that in isolation, timbre influences pitch perception; in the context of a melody, this interaction is not significant. Subjects were non musicians.

The study continued by exploring the importance of reference pitch points within a melody and the application of Iang-term memory traces. Warrier and Zatorre found that when a pitch is a part of melodic context, or a familiar tune, subjects' ability to ident ify pitch was unaffected by timbre. However, in isolation, with no point of reference or memory trace, timbre differences eclipsed pitch perception.

Warrier and Zatorre assert that spectral elements of timbre can affect pitch perception, yet do not derive from their findings any practical implications for the realm of 'real' music and real musicians. Potentially, their study has great ramifications for applied musical training, particularly in respect of the design of aural assessment for performing musicians. II , in isolation, timbre does dominate pitch perception, then one must consider the implications for the assessment of aural ability of using a piano - the usual procedure - to present aural stimuli; indeed one must examine the whole concept of presenting lsolated melodies for the purpose of the aural assessment of performing musicians.

However, various issues need to be researched further before these results can be applied . Firstly, Warrier and Zatorre used non-musicians as subjects; a study comprising both musicians and non-musicians would be likely to yield much more reliable conclusions about the consequences of timbre differences and pitch perception for musicians (perhaps using performers, and composers, for example, as comparison groups). Secondly, the stimu li used were synthesised Iones, enabling easy manipulation of the harmonics within a given tone; however, musicians, particularly 'traditional' performing musicians, operate with 'real' timbres of acoustical instruments, not primarily with synthetic Iones. Utilising the timbre of a variety of real acoustical instruments could produce some interesting results for comparison. Thirdly, as this study examined the relation between pitch and spectral elements of timbre perhaps we need a broader context in order to determine these effects in the 'real' world of music.

Throughout this century, aura l skills have been assumed to be pertinent to a musicians' training. The assessment of performance ab ility , musicality, and musicianship all incorporate tests to assess aural ability through an oral response to aural stimuli. ln particular, aural acuity has been, and is, an expected part of a performer's ability, demonstrated through the variety of aural tests present in the assessment of performing musicians. A timely study that touched on central issues in aural acuity, splendid ly presented under the session heading 'Spectra and Tuning', was Perry Cook's paper on 'Hearing, fee ling, and performing: masking studies with trombone players' .

Examining the ro le of feedback and feedforward strategies used by experts whil st perform ing, Cook set out to identify the auditory, haptic, and memory control

E-16 P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal

mechanisms necessary to regu late an effective musical performance . Two conditions were presented: a masking task (using headphones emitting 11 OdB}, and a non masking task. Subjects, ranging from 7- 45 years of performing experience, prepared three short extracts based around the harmonic series of the trombone. These were rehearsed with a metronome at 72bpm, then at 96bpm. The extracts consisted of: a warm-up exercise; large execution of the slide; and large adjustments in lip tension. These were then performed, again with a metronome at 72bpm and then at 96 bpm, first non-masked and then masked for each condition.

Cook found that the number of missed notes between masked and non masked performances was negligible, the subjects immediately identifying the note they had played in place of the correct note, turning on its head similar research for vocal performers (Campbell & Michel, 1980; Sundberg, 1981; Ward and Burns, 1978; Ternstrom et al., 1983; Shipp et al., 1984). ln the masked task, all subjects performed louder than in the non masked task, with the exception of the expert with 40 years experience . However, this increase in intensity was not significant (mean increase in intensity = 3.75dB, sd=2.611 dB} . When deprived of auditory feedback the performance became rigid, notably with Iack of vibrato . All subjects performed with an increased sense of pulse during the masked task, reporting to play, primarily,

'by feel' .

Cook adduces that haptic channels dominate feedback or suffice when auditory feedback is inhibited, the rote of memory being important for setting up the pitch positions in order to produce a haptic sensory response (Seashore, 1939). Cook conc ludes that auditory feedback is not necessary for an expert trombonist to perform effective ly and musically. Contrary to Cook's findings, Sloboda (1988) suggests that our aura l faculties are vital for se lf monitoring and subsequent adjustment of our performance . Evelyn Giennie (1992}, asserts that whi lst performing we are continuously perceiving, responding, and adapting to what our ears are telling us, aural feedback being imperative for an effective musical rendition. Perhaps with the high Ievei of decibels used in the masking task (11 0) it is not surprising that brass players rely less on auditory feedback when performing. Cook's Observation of the 'rigid' performances elicited from trombonists during the masked condition may provide the key to this apparent disparity. Can one really classify an inflexible performance as musical? lndeed, has not this issue of defining musicality proved an area of !Iux and contention since Seashore (1919)? ln addition, Cook's subjects were presented with the stimuli in the same order, having performed the extracts unmasked first. Thi s may account for the Iack of auditory fe edback necessary to effectuate a performance as subjects had already been exposed to the auditory feedback. Randomisation of the presentation of conditions needs to be implemented before one can draw such conclusions .

One can argue that the masked trombonists reported to perform 'by feel', yet this must not be misrepresented. By 'feel', Cook's subjects were referring to their memory and haptic feedback mechanisms, not the ability to feel the music in an interpretative sense. One fundamental question arising out of Cook's research concerns aural abi lity. Gartsen (1969} in the JRME spring conference held at Reading University, UK., raised a question which is directly relevant to Cook's work: "We teach ear training and we have taught it for some time , but what degrees of perceptual faculty are required in order to be "effective" as a musician?"

P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal E-17

Echoes of Carlsen's question were noted in responses to Acker and Pastore's stud 'Melodyperception in homophonic and polyphonic contexts', in which one member :r the a.ud 1ence made the po int that 'we alt do ear tests but nobody knows why we do them to know111g laughs from the remainder of the audience. Wider issues generated from Cook's research must concern the issue of what aural skil ls we rely ?n 1n order to perform effect1vely as mus1cians. Sloboda (1987) notes how 1mportant 1t 1s for the performing musician to Iisten to him/herself, but what aural skllls/percept1ons are needed in order to achieve a responsive performance? Further resear~h employing less experienced musicians, and performers on other instruments 1s requ1red.

Alison McNeil Department of Music University of Huddersfield UK

The following papers from the 1996 ICMPC conference in Montreal have been chosen because they alt focus on the psychology of rhythm in some way, yet embody contrast111g approaches to that subject. These papers sample the increasingly wide vanety of methodolog1es used by researchers in music psychology: here we find examples of perceptual and performance experimentation, a neuropathological case study, computer modelling and music theory.

Using a ~ignal-detectio~ paradigm, Hasan Gürkan Tekman asked subjects to detect dev1ant t1me 1ntervals 1n predominantly isochronaus sequences . The inclusion of accented (louder) tones made Ionger deviant Iones more difficult to detect but not shorter deviant Iones. Accented Iones also lowered listener sens itivity but only when these accents occurred at regular (rather than irregular) intervals. Tekman's research bespeaks the perceptual interaction between loudness and duration.

Geoffrey Collier presented a study of the performance of the rhythm "crotchet, tnplet-crotchet, tnplet-quaver" (3:2: 1) by profess ional jazz drummers. The ?rummers were asked to play this rhythm at a range of tempi (from 25 to 280 bpm) 1n both "swing" and strict styles on a MIDI drum pad. The ratio of the 2:1 part of this rh~thm was analysed. ln the strict-rhythm condition, alt three drummers produced rat1os nearest to. 2:1 at moderate tempos, while at Iaster tempos they moved towards a 1:1 rat1o . ln the swing cond ition, there was a tendency for more extreme rat1os at moderate tempi. Contrary to popular belief, swing ratios were more extreme than strict triplets.

Willi S~einke related the case study of KB, a 66 year-o ld right -handed male with stroke-lllduced amusia without impairment of language abilities . Steinke et al found that KB cou l? correct ly identify pairs of rhythms as same/d ifferent and classify melod1es as 1n e1ther waltz or march time, both above chance Ievei, although his p~rformance was be low that of a control group of neurologically intact subjects of s1m 1lar age and mus1cal background. This difference between KB and the control group. was most marked on a further lest where subjects were asked to famili ar melod1e.s presented as rhythms on ly, a task which KB found impossible. tn terms of product1on, KB could tap back a lt but the two stowest of live metronome pulses, and could reproduce short rhythm1c patterns with mixed success. From these findings

E- 18 P. Juslin, A. McNeil , M. Royal

and from other tests of melody perception, Steinke et al conclude !hat KB has lost the use of a spec iali sed music processor and instead has to employ other (poss ibly speech-) processing mechanisms.

Leigh Smith reported research on the computer processing and analysis of musical rhythms. Using a continuous wavelet transform, rhythmic frequencies spanning 0.1 to 100 Hz were extracted from an input rhythm. The program generated two types of output, a scalogram, which represented the varying magnitude of different metric Ieveis over time, and a phasogram, which represented the phase relations of these metric Ieveis. Smith illustrated the operation of the program with the ostinato rhythm from Ravel's Bolero.

Justin London discussed the prevalence of simple binary over compound binary and ternary meters. London proposed !hat meters that group the shortest note value into threes are perceptually more problematic since they run counter to the basic tendency to mark alternating Iones as strong-weak-strong-weak etc. The meter of 9/8 is most difficult because, with alternating strong and weak quavers, a strong quaver and a downbeat will only coincide every two bars (every 6 dotted-crotchet beats) . London pointed out !hat the preference for duple metrical organisation has arisen since the rise of instrumental dance music in the Baroque era.

Dr Matthew Royal Faculty of Music University of Western Ontario Canada

Conference Review: The Future ln Retrospect: 12th Annual Meeting of the German Society for Psychology of Music (DG M) and 2nd

International Symposium of Music Psychology in Freiburg/Bremen (RFA), 12-14 September 1996

Elena Ungeheuer

There is nothing sentimental about the general title of this event, Musical Reception Across a Century, it rather indicates that it is possible to take a critical Iook at the evolution of an area where research has greatly expanded and is concerned with both the conditions of perception and also the relationships !hat professionals and amateurs have with music. Heiner Gembris (Münster) opened the debate by outlining the evolution of the discipline whilst also acknowledging a distance between his own research and research which is strictly cognitive in nature . He pinpointed the inherent polarisation within psychoacoustical sciences which divides the scientific community into two 'camps': the first, based on a "reductionist" science, is the benchmark, whilst the other, of a more philosophical or aesthetic nature, draws upon the social and biological sciences. So, Carol Krumhansl (lthaca, NY), one of the very Iew to have prolonged her visit in Europe following the JIC96 conference (Joint International Conference) in Bruges at the start of the week (where the true cognitivists were strongly in evidence), presented the results of a study where she attempted to measure the relevance of segmentation and 'musical tension' within a Mozart sonata at the same time. ln the discussion following her presentation, Gembris, looking for clarification about her interpretation of 'musical tension', received the reply that she took measurements before questioning complex meanings and the intricacies of words . Gembris' view, on the contrary, is that it is important to balance the Anglo-American predominance in this discipline, because this is responsible for limiting the field of investigation to the experimental approach . He proposed in Opposition to this approach those that explicitly Iake account of real-life Situations, socio-cultural contexts or individual circumstances, as weil as a historiography appropriate to research !hat focuses on reception which offers a perspective on the results of the research and of the circumstances in which they were obtained within the framewerk of an account of the evolution of the receptive viewpoint. From this standpoint it can be envisaged that the two research directions could progressively approach one another, particularly as breakthroughs can be seen in American research which 'revisits' the European pioneers of the discipline, such as Ernst Kurth.

Out of the three invited speakers, the presence of Robert Frances (Paris) should be noted, an almost mythical figure whose Perception of Music dates from 1958, but who, with the exception of the 3rd ICMPC in Liege in 1994, has not been heard from in such a context for several decades.

lt is clear !hat multimedia already exists as an artistic reality, and one which requires original lines of enquiry when considering its reception. However, we seem to be faced with a simple effect of method when, in a promisingly-titled presentation 'The Reception of Multimedia: A Framewerk for Analysis', Nicholas Cook (Southampton) lingered over record sleeves grandly promoted to the Ievei of multimedia arti stic phenomena. This seems especially true as one finds nothing but cliches; for example, the expression 'Cu bist Painting and Petroushka '. Besides, there is a confusion here between multimedia and the use of compositions already written as

E-20 E. Ungeheuer

film music. One wonders what is so unusual, from a multimedia perspective, about the sequence from Wall Disney's Fantasia where prehistoric Iimes are accompanied by extracts from the Rite of Spring, if we Iake into account that the issue to be solved is !hat of the rhythmic synchronisation between visual images and musical phrases. Furthermore, is Nicholas Cook truly unaware !hat Stravinsky - contrary to what one might have expec\ed - was in fact prepared to accept a mantage that "betrayed" his music (by omitting certain passages and repeating others), and that , even without comparing the original music with the 'comic-strip' version, this example is probably the most insane !hat could have been chosen as the basis of a 'framework for the analysis of multimedia'? lrrespective of the foregoing , the fundamental question remains: 'what about multimedia'?

Otherwise, the individual research presented in Freiburg provided an interest ing panorama of the discipline. Renata Müller (Ludwigsburg) gave some valuable indications of the possibilities and the real Iimits of computer analysis in empirical research . Ulrike Karrer (Würzburg) investigated 'relaxing music' cassettes, concluding that no particular or specific effect could be assigned to them . An extended study into advertising music was conducted by Klaus-Ernst Behne (Hanover), focusing on young people's habituation to classical music. The finding is !hat positive responses to classical music significantly increase alter an advertisement for yoghurt had used Tchaikovsky's famous piano concerto . Further research is needed to explore this phenomenon, which will be henceforth known as the 'Tchaikovsky-yoghurt-effect'.

Several studies expanded our knowledge of cognitive representation of music. One considered the predominance of global structures over local organisation in perception, and observed that they could undergo permutations without modifying the deep meaning (Barbara Tillmann, Dijon) . Another study focused on the consequences of repeated listening or the absence of any such kind of familiarisation , a topic which Christoph Louven (Cologne) stud ied on the basis of his own music using typical stylistic formulas : he thus approached the different phases of contact with the music and was ab le to compare different types of li steners. A further study, resulting from collaboration between researchers in Freiburg and Hanover, was presented by Willried Gruhn (Freiburg/Bremen); this study measured Ieveis of neural excitation whilst listening with a view to differentiating between different types of musical representation, the figural and global versus the formal , or rather, ana lytic, which is structured by linguistic princip les. These two types of representation are mirrored in the two kinds of education administered to children . Gruhn concluded !hat their results provided cortica l evidence in favour of formal education.

Whether their aims are oriented towards an artistic or a pedagogic reality, the research on reception was weil chosen to provide the full range of diversity at this second Internationa l Symposium for Music Psychology at Freiburg, which fortuitously followed directly alter the annual meeting of the DGM.

lntroduction

Molhering in tune to women's musical preferences in the immediate post-parturn period: a musical, exploratory approach

Elizabeth S Giakoumaki 1st Clinic of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Athens,

Alexandra Maternity Hospital, Athens, Greece

Sensitive mathering has been described as the matemal characteristic, promoting a chi ld 's emotional, social and cognitive growth (Ciarke-Stewart, 1978; Belsky, 1984; Bates et al, 1985). Therefore one of the most basic aims of hospital perinatal care services is to mediate in such a way to promote the mother's sensitive involvement with her baby from the very beginning.

Klaus & Kenneil (1982) suggested !hat hospital procedures separating mothers and their babies alter birth have an adverse effect on their relationship ' on the contrary, they advocated that the mother-baby relationship is promoted through the hospital procedure of 'early physical contact' (physical contact of molher and baby immediately alter birth) and 'rooming-in' (the baby is placed in its crib next to the mother's bed) . However, further research into this area suggests that these two hospital procedures supposed to band mothers and babies better do not seem to suffice for this (Siegel et al, 1980).

Parallel to this fact, mothers in the period following birth, i.e. the immediate post­parturn period , Iack in self-confidence and fee l ignorant as to how to tune in practically to the first steps of mathering (Giakoumaki, 1990). Molhering does not seem to be lived in tune to the woman's natural instincts, her intuitive behaviour and/or her matemal predispositions.

lt is this writer's opinion that there seems to be a need for more individuality in mothering. Perhaps mathering should be tackled in a more optimistic way; mothers should be helped to learn, to rely more on themselves, feeling confident while exercising this creative task, so that the expression of parental intuitive behaviour may be facilitated .

Music may be regarded as one option through which a mother can be helped to express her interest to her baby and her intuitive behaviour. Further, one may hypothesise !hat if a molher chooses the rhythmic pattern of her preference to escort the 'dance' (Stern , 1977) with her baby, then this may prove even more helpful for the expression of sensitive mothering.

The questions !hat may accordingly be formulated are: a) What kind of music mothers choose to escort their behavioural dance with their baby, and b) Whether music facilitates the expression of the mother's sens itive involvement with her baby from the very beginning.

The following data has to be considered as an exploratory approach that attempts to integrale developmental-clin ical issu es with music; therefore , it should be

E-22 E. Giakoumaki

regarded only as a pilot study, and as an option !hat demands thorough investigation.

Method

Nineteen Greek primiparaus mothers constitute the sample of the current study. The mothers' and infants' characteristics appear in Table 1.

Table 1· Mothers' and lnfants' Characteristics Mothers' Characteristics lnfants' Characteristics

. primiparaus . full-term . no history of abortion or . apgar score (Apgar 1953) miscarriage between 8 and 10 at 1 and 5 min . between the ages of 20 and 35 alter birth . uncomplicated pregnancy . with no disease or infection at the . delivered vag inally without time of birth or du ring the complications postparturn period

The mothers were video-recorded in a counterbalanced order on the 7th day alter the infant's delivery at home on two occasions: a) a 4-minute play session with no music and b) a 4-minute play session with music.

Apparatus

The apparatus used in the current study to assess the women's different musical preferences is a keyboard synthesiser. Music specific to this includes, among others, a hundred different rhythmic patterns, i.e. waltz, samba, etc; each rhythmic pattern has its own beat characteristic (i.e . 3, 4 beats) and its own preset tempo characteristic (!hat is the default initial setting, as produced by the manufacturer). However, the tempo for each rhythmic pattern may be adjusted within a range of 40 to 240 beats per minute as shown on the multidisplay screen of the instrument.

The triads used to implement all rhythmic patterns were those of C major (C-E-G), F major (F-A-C) and G major (G-B-D); the criterion for choosing particular chords is that, in music theory, the major triads (1, IV, and V) are considered to be prototypical of tonal structure (Schenker, 1906/1954) and represent a good, optimally stable structure occurring frequently in Western music (Trehub et al, 1990). The specific chords were changed every two bars of each rhythmic pattern .

Procedure

ln the play session with music, the mothers were instructed to Iisten to the 100 different rhythmic patterns; each rhythmic pattern was heard at the beat of its preset tempo and was accompanied by a C major triad.

Each woman selected her preferred rhythmic pattern, adjusting its tempo to a beat of her preference as weil. For the rhythmic pattern selected, the researcher played a sequence of C major, F major and G major triads, which were changed every two bars of the specific rhythmic pattern; then the rhythmic pattern selected accompanied by the specific chords was recorded for the 4-minute interaction time through the song memory of the instrument, and was then played back whilst video-

E. Giakoumaki E-23

recording of the mother-baby session was taking place. The intensity of the rhythmic patterns ranged between 50 and 59 dB; all the women were asked to choose the rhythmic pattern of their preference at the same time of day, namely 11am.

The factor of matemal sensitivity was defined in the current study through the behavioural pattern of 'body contact' !hat occurs between a molher and her newborn baby. The mother's contact behaviour with her baby, during interaction with the infant, is believed to be one of the techniques particularly important during this period (Winnicott, 1984). The mother's contact behaviour seems to be one index of matemal interest and/or affectionate behaviour towards her baby. And, according to Bowlby (1969) 'close body contact' is considered to be one of the most useful proximity-maintaining interactive behaviours.

For the play session, type of contact was subdivided into several behavioural categories on the basis of different types of contact, i.e. horizontal close contact, diagonal/vertical close contact, shoulder close contact, encompassing, or on mother's knees (Giakoumaki, 1990). The matemal behaviours assessed appear in Table 2. Matemal behaviour was evaluated at a time interval of every 10 seconds during each 4-minute play session.

Table 2: Maternal Behaviours Assessed in the Current Studv Close Physical Contact

Results

1. horizontal close contact 2. diagonal/vertical close contact 3. shoulder close contact 4. encompassing

No Close Physical Contact 5 . on mother's knees

Part A: Rhythmic Patterns Selected

Table 3 presents the rhythmic pattern selected by each woman, its preset tempo and the tempo selected.

Table 3: Frequency Distribution of Rhythmic Patterns Selected and their Corresponding Tempo (Preset and Selected) Rhythmic Pattern Preset Tempo N % Selected Tempo (bpm) Se Ieeted (bpm)_ Poo bailad 100 2 10 .5 94, 100 New Aae bailad 90 2 10 .5 100, 103 Techno Groovie 130 1 5 .3 73 Booaie Wooaie 2 140 1 5 .3 82 Booaie Wooaie 3 120 1 5.3 70 Jazz Baroque 130 3 15 .8 77, 102, 168 Tanao 100 1 5.3 71 Beauine 120 1 5.3 45 Lullabv 100 7 36 .8 62, 66, 69 , 75, 81' 91' 95

E-24 E. Giakoumaki

The rhythmic patterns selected by women are the most preferred out of the 1 00 ; the majority of warnen (1 2 out of 19) se lected soft rhythmic pattern s, i. e. ballads, tango, Iuiiaby.

To test the above suggestion further, a statistical analysis was carried out to examine whether the selected tempo of the preferred rhythmic patterns differs from the preset tempo. A Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks analysis showed statistically significant differences between the preset tempo for the specific rhythmic patterns and the selected tempo (Table 4) .

These results suggest !hat the women adjusted the tempo of the rhythmic patterns chosen to a slower beat than the corresponding preset one.

Part B: The Mothers' Behaviour Observed and Assessed during the Two Play Sessions

A series of one-way analyses of variance were conducted on 3 out of the 5 behavioural states; two matemal behaviours (shoulder close contact and horizontal close contact) were excluded because they were not observed in eilher of the two play sessions.

The resu lts (Table 5) revealed statistically significant differences between the two sessions on 2 out of the 3 behavioural measures. Specifically, whilst listening to the rhythmic pattern of their preference the mothers tended to place their baby more ollen in a close contact position (i.e. encompassing) and less often in a no close contact position (i.e. on mother's knees).

Table 5: Matemal Behaviour as Assesse mt e wo av d . h T PI S ess1ons Play session Play session F p with music without music I {1,181

Maternal Mean so Mean so behaviours Diagonal/vertical 6 .79 7.79 7 .63 8.24 0.17 NS contact Encom_])_assinCJ 11 .63 9.45 3 .21 6 .38 22.04 < .001 On mother's knees 3.26 6 .76 10 .58 10 .08 12.94 <.01

Even though we do not know about the infants' ongoing behavioural state and thus cannot proceed to any firm assumptions, we can however suggest !hat the mothers, while listening to the rhythmic pattern of their preference, seem to be preoccupied with their baby to a certain extent, sensitively involved with its presence, as demonstrated by the behavioural state of 'embracing' .

E. Giakoumaki E- 25

Discussion

The results of the current study can only be regarded as preliminary; however, they suggest the following conclusions:

a) The effect of music facilitated, to a certain extent, the mothers' sensitive involvement with their babies; the mothers seemed to be preoccupied with their babies, as demonstrated by the behavioural state of 'embracing'.

This finding is very important because, according to Bowlby (1969), 'close body contact' is considered to be amongst the most useful proximity-maintaining interactive behaviours ; Winnicott (1987) also suggests !hat 'holding' is very important in the establishment of personality, in the facilitation of maturational processes, as auxiliary ego-function and as communication.

From another perspective Papousek and Papousek (1987) consider 'body contact' as one behavioural category potentially significant for intuitive didactic interventions.

b) However, it is not any kind of music, but the music the mothers themselves prefer. Specifically, in the current study the mothers preferred slow rhythmic patterns to escort the play sessions with their babies; furthermore, they adjusted the tempo of the rhythmic pattern chosen to a slower beat than the corresponding preset tempo. One possible explanation is !hat mothers, whilst interacting with their babies, prefer to Iisten to softer melodies that make them feel more relaxed and therefore more emotionally open to the situation.

Therefore, music may be used as one didactic 'tool' to facilitate the initial requirements of the mother-baby relationship. However, two points require further research : the mechanism through which music facilitates the mother-baby behavioural 'dance', and the effect of music upon the baby's state, as weil as on mother-baby synchronicity.

Specific musical instruments may be used as exploratory tools: a) to facilitate several methodological difficulties inherent in the assessment of music and b) to assess different research hypotheses in a variety of settings in the area of psychology.

However, music should be viewed as only one option in the hospital perinatal practice to implement and facilitate a harmonious mother-baby interaction. This means !hat music should not be exercised unanimously, i.e. indiscriminately to all mothers (without reference to their personality, situational characteristics and their willingness to accordingly implement their relationship with their baby).

As we all know, human affa irs are extremely complex and vulnerable; therefore, a 'mis-step' in the mathering 'dance' may easily happen. Research should tune in harmonically to women's own preferences, allowing more space for individuality in mathering and then translating these preferences into corresponding research schemes.

E- 26 E. Giakoumaki

References Bates , J .E., Maslin , C.A . & Frankel, K.A. (1985) 'Attachment security, mother-child

interaction and temperament as predictors of behavior-problem ratings at age three years' in Breth erton & Waters {eds.) Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 5 0 , 1-2 (serial no. 209)

Belsky, S.M. & Ainsworth , M.D.S. (1972) 'Infant crying and maternal responsiveness' Child Oevelopment, 43, 83-96

Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Lass, vol. 1: Attachment London: Hogarth Press Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1978) 'And daddy makes three: The father's impact on molher and

young child' Child Development, 54, 185-193 Giakoumaki, E. (1990) Determinants of Mother-Newborn Interaction PhD Thesis,

University of Strathclyde Klaus, M. & Kennell, J. (1982) Parent-lnfant Bonding (2nd edition) London: Mosby

Company Papousek, H. & Papousek, M. (1987) ' Intuitive parenting : A dialectic counterpart to the

infant's integrative competence ' in Osofsky, J .D. (ed .) Handbook of Infant Development, (2nd edition) New York: John Wiley & Sons

Schenker, H. (1954) Harmony (Jones , 0 ., ed. , Borgese, E.M. transl.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (originally published in 1906)

Siege l, E., Bauman, K.E. , Schaefer, E.S. , Saunders, M.M. & lngram, D.D. (1980) 'Hospital and home support during infancy: impact on maternal attachment, chi ld abuse and neglect, and health care utilization' Pediatrics, 66, 183-190

Stern, D. {1977) The first relationship: infant and molher London: Fontana/Open Books Trehub, S.E., Thorpe, L.A. & Trainer, L.J . (1990) ' ln fants' perception of good and bad

melodies' Psychomusicology, 9, 5-19 Winnicott, D.W . (1984) The child, the family and the outside world Harmondsworth:

Penguin Books Winnicott, D.W. (1987) Babies and Their Mothers (Winnicott, C., Shepherd, R. & Davies,

M., eds.) New York: Addison-Wesley

ANNOUNCEMENTS

IMPORTANT

The telephone and fax numbers of the ESCOM office in Liege will be changed from NOVEMBER 1996.

Piease use the following numbers:

TELEPHON E: 32 4 223 22 89 FAX: 32 4 222 06 68

The e-mail address was changed in June and some people have experienced communication problems. Piease use the Permanent Secretary's address, which is

now:

i.deliege@ulg.ac.be

You should be careful to avoid any characters with accents when typing e-mail addresses.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS FOR APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY CALLS FOR PAPERS

The Scientific Program Committee for the 24th Internationa l Congress of Psychology, taking place August 9-14, 1998 in San Francisco, has issued the call for papers. Hosted by the American Psychological Association (APA) on behalf of the International Association of Applied Psychology, the Congress will feature an array of individual and group presentations on : organizational psychology; psychological evaluati on and assessment; psychology and national development; educational, instructional and school psychology; clinical and commu nity psychology; applied geronto logy; health psychology; economic psychology; psychology and law; political psychology; sport psychology; traffic and Iransportalion psychology; and other areas such as applied social, applied developmental, human factors and ergonomics, and social issues. To request a copy of the call, contact: Congress Secretariat, APA Office of International Affairs, 750 First Street, NE, Washington DC 200002-4242 ; fax 202-336-5956; e-mail icap@apa.org .

E- 28

Robert Walker

lrenc Deliege

Gerard Fogerty, Louise ßuttsworth and PhiHip Gearing

Susan O'Neill and Michael Bolton

Eugenia Costa-Giomi

ßruno Repp

Robert Cutietta and Grcgory Booth

Charles Schmidt and Moya Andrews

John Sloboda

Leslie Bunt

Announcements

PSYCHOLOGY of MUSIC Vol. 24, No. 2, 1996

FULL CONTENTS

103 Open Peer Commentary: Can We Understand the Music of Another Culture ? Commentaries by John Baily, Drek Blackman, David Huron and Neil Sorrell and reply by Robert Walker.

131 Cue Abstraction as a Component of Categorisation Processes in Music Listening.

15 7 Assessing Intonation Skills in a Tertiary Music Training Programme.

171 Boys' and Girls' Preferences for Musical Instruments: A Function of Gender ?

184 Mode Discrimination Abilities of Young Childrcn.

199 Pedal Timing and Tempo in Expressive Piano Performance: A Preliminary lnvestigation.

222 The lnlluence of Metre, Mode, Interval Type and Contour in Repeated Melodie Free-Recall.

237 Research Note: Case Study of a First-Year University Voice Major: A Multi·Discplinary Perspective.

244 Review of Genius: The Natural History of Creativity, by H. j. Eysenck.

245 Review of The Art and Science of Music Therapy, edited by Tony Wigram, ßrucc Saperson and Robert West.

248 Acknowledgmcnt of External Reviewcrs .

249 Announcements

~tJAI!® ilt> ISSN 030 5-7356

Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music Education

Announcements E- 29

ES C OM OFFI C I AL A NN O U NCEM E N TS

1. Not i ce of General Assemb ly 1997

Notice is hereby given that the third General Assembly of the European Society for the Cogn itive Seiences of Music will be held between 7 and 12 June 1997 in Uppsala, Sweden. All Full Members are entitled to attend, participate in discussion s, propose resolutions, and cast votes, in accordance with the Constitution and By­Laws, as detailed below .

2 . Nominations for the Executive Counc il

Nominalions are invited for the elected positions of President, Vice-President, Treasurer, and Newsletter Editor, to be received by the Permanent Secretary by 7 February 1997.

Only full members of ESCOM are eligible to hold office . The nomination of a candidate must be proposed by two Full Members of the Society who have previously obtained the consent of the cand idate. The nomination should be accompan ied by a commentary of not more than 500 words prepared and signed by the proposing members . ln general proposers should assure themselves that candidates have th e capacities, experience, time, and personal o r institulianal resources to carry out their duties effectively.

Voting for elected Council positions will be by secret ballot of all Full Members, who may appoint proxies to represent them at the meeting.

The President is the official representative of the Society. The President directs and supervises the activities of the Society and maintains permanent contact with its officers. The President's duties are to preside at the General Assernblies and Executive Counci! meetings. The President may not serve two consecutive terms.

The Vice-President serves in place of the President when necessary or as requested by the President. The Vice-President is responsible for actively seeking to increase the membership of the Society.

The Treasurer is responsible for the funds of the Society which can be disbursed upon his or her request and upon the signature of the Permanent Secretary. The Treasurer present to the Executive Council an account of the finances of the Society whenever requested to do so. At each General Assembly the Treasurer reports on the finances of the past triennium and presents a projected budget of the coming triennium.

The Newsletter Editor organises the publication of the official Society News/etter.

3 . Proposed amendments to the constitution and by-Jaws

Amendments to the Constitution or By-Laws may be proposed by th e Executive Council or in a petition signed by ten Full Members from at least three countries. A proposed amendment may be accompanied by a commentary of not more than 500

E-30 Announcements

words prepared by the proposers of the amendment. Any such proposals must be received by the Permanent Secretary on or before 7 February 1997.

Piease note that amendments to the Constitution are very expensive, and where possible members should try to achieve their ends by proposing amendments to the By-Laws.

Voting on proposed amendments will be by secret ballot of all Full Members, who may appoint proxies to represent them at the meeting.

4. Resolutions on matters of policy or procedure

Resolutions concerning other matters of policy or procedure may be discussed and voted upon the General Assembly provided that they are proposed and seconded by two Full Members and submitted in writing to the Permanent Secretary on or before 7 February 1997.

Amended Constitution

EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR

THE COGNITIVE SCIENCES OF MUSIC international society

ART/CLE 1. NAME. The name of the society is the European Society for the Cognitive Seiences of Music. This society is governed by the Belgian law dated 25 October 1919, modified by the law dated 6 December 1954.

ARTICLE 2. HEAD OFFICE. The registered office of the society is officially established at the Centre de Recherehes et de Formation Musicafes de Wallonie , a non-profit-making organisation, at place du Vingt-AoOt, 16, 4000 Liege, Belgium. This office may be transferred to any other place in Belgium by a simple decision of the General Assembly published in the Annexes au Moniteur Beige .

ARTICLE 3. OBJECTIVES. The objectives of the Society are as follows: a. the furtherance of theoretical , empirical and applied research and teaching in

the cognitive sciences of music, which are defined as those which study the perceptual and mental processes underlying musical experience and activity.

b. the development and dissemination of knowledge of music perception and cognition and the promotion of its practical applications.

c. the encouragement of European and international communication and CO­

operation wilhin the field of the cognitive sciences of music . This field is considered to include those sub-disciplines within musicology, music theory, psychology, acoustics, neuropsychology, philosophy, mathematics, artificial intelligence, pedagogy and any others that have as their central focus the cognitive sciences of music.

Announcements E-31

ARTICLE 4. ACTIVITIES. The society may undertake any lawful activity consistent with its objectives. These may include: encouraging the scholarly, educational and practical development of the cognitive sciences of music by holding reg ular meetings, furthering publications in music cognition, organising educational programmes, seeking resources to support young researchers in their training and research activities, establishment of good public relations and mainlenance of relationships wilh other national and international organisations !hat share lhe main goals described in the Constituti on. The Society operates on a non-profit-making basis .

ARTICLE 5. MEMBERSHIP. a. The Society is comprised of the founding members at the date of its

constitution and such other persons, corporations or organisations as shall have been thereafter admitted to membership.

b. The membership categories are: Full Member, Honorary Member, Student Member, Affiliated Member, and Sustaining Member.

c. To be eligible for active membership in the Society, an individual shall have shown interest in the aims of the Society through research, publications or training.

d. A new member of the Society may be elected by a majority vote of the Executive Council on submission of a completed application form. Membership will become effective upon payment of the appropriate dues. Elections to membership shall Iake place not less often than once a year.

e. No less than three quarters of the full members of the society must reside and work in a European country.

f . A member who has retired from major academic commitments may be proposed to the Executive Council for Honorary Membership in the Society. Honorary Members shall be elected by a unanimous vote of the Executive Council.

g. Students of institutes of higher education engaged in relevant training may be elected to Student Membership by the Executive Council.

h. ln the case where a quarter of the full members of the society are not resident or practising in a European country, individuals who meet the conditions of eligibility to full member status, but who are not primarily residing or working in a European country, may apply for Affiliate Membership.

i. Sustaining Members are those individuals, corporations, or organisations who give major donations to the Society and are elected to Sustaining Membership by the Executive Council. The Executive Council shall define "major donation."

j . Only Full Members have the right to vote upon reso lutions presented to the General Assembly and to hold office in the Society.

k. Membership may be terminated by the Executive Council if the membersh ip dues are more than one year in arrears. ln this case, the member has no rights with respect to the assets of the Society. The same holds for any person who ceases to be a member of the Society.

I. Any member may at any time resign from the Society by address ing a registered Ietter to the Permanent Secretary.

ARTICLE 6. GOVERNANCE. a. The society is governed by an Executive Counci l. The Council has the authority

to manage and administ rate the Society within the Iimits of its Constitution and By-Laws.

E- 32 Announcements

b. The Executive Council must contain nati onals of at least four European countries.

c. The members of the Executive Council are nominated by the General Assembly for a period of at least three years . The General Assembly also elects, for the same period, a Full Member of Belgian nationality as member of the Executive Council; this person is the Permanent Secretary of the Society. The Permanent Secretary is responsible for the archives of the Society, notably the Minutes. Furthermore, the specific structure of the Executive Council and mode of election are sei forth in the By-Laws.

d. The basic principles of the governance of the Society shall include maximal participation by the membership in all policy and operalienal decisions, and direct election of all Members of the Executive Council by the Full Membership.

e. All acts binding the Society must be signed by two members of the Executive Council, or by the Permanent Secretary, who are not obliged to justify to third parlies the rights centerred on them to this end.

f . Both plaintiff and defendant lawsuits will be made by the Executive Council, represented by its President or analher Council member assigned to this task by the Council.

g. The Executive Council can only validly deliberate if at least half of its members are present or represented . Resolutions of the Council are adopted by a majority vote of its members and are entered in the minutes of the Council meeting, signed by two members present.

ARTICLE 7. GENERAL ASSEMBL Y. a. The General Assembly has full powers to fulfil the Society's objectives. II shall

approve the policies of the Society as presented by the Executive Council. Officers' reports will be delivered and all major decisions required by circumstances and by the Constitution shall be undertaken.

b. All Full Members shall have the right to propese and second resolutions, having given due notice as required, and to Iake part in the discussions.

c. Election of officers of the Executive Council will also be conducted at General Assembly meetings as provided for in the By-Laws.

d. Members can be expelled and Executive Council officers can be dismissed by the General Assembly ruling by a two-thirds majority of the voting members alter having heard the defence of the party in question.

e. The General Assembly may only validly deliberate if at least half of the Full Members are present or represented. The deliberations of the Assembly are adopted by the majority of those voting unless otherwise required by provisions of the present Constitution. Deliberations are recorded in the minutes of the Assembly meeting, signed by two Full Members.

f . II less than half the Full Members are not present or represented at the General Assembly, the President may convene, without delay and by any means possible, a further General Assembly which may validly deliberate irrespective of the number of Full Members present or represented.

ARTICLE 8. FINANCES AND DUES. a. The fiscal year begins on 1 January and ends on 31 December. b. Every three years the Treasurer will submit a report on the financial position of

the Society, as weil as a triennial projected budget of income and expenditure, to the general assembly for approval.

Announcements E- 33

c. Every year the Treasurer will submit a statement of accounts and a pro jected budget to the Executive Council which, upon acceptance, submits it to the next General Assembly for approval.

d. The projected budget will contain a full record of income, particularly for dues for each membership category and for each country or region fixed by the General Assembly , as weil as the funds and subsidies for which the Executive Council is authorised to solieil from third parlies in support of the activities of the society.

e. On the request of the Executive Council, the Treasurer will submit a separate project budget for each official Seienlilie Conference of the Society, although the Executive Council may decide to make contributions to specific Conference activities from the general budget.

ARTICLE 9. BY-LA WS. a. The Executive Council may, by majority vote, adopt a By-Law which specifies

the internal organisation and the ways of functioning of the Society as weil as its activities. ln the same way it may also modify such a By-Law.

b. The Executive Council will inform each of its members of any modifications made to the By-Law.

c. The By-Law and any modifications are subject to the approval of the next General Assembly.

ARTICLE 10. AMENDMENTS. a. Amendments to the Constitution or By-Laws may be proposed by the

Executive Council or in a petition signed by at least ten Full Members from at least three countries. Amendments may only be executed at a General Assembly meeting held in accordance with Article 7. Approval of an amendment shall require a two-thirds majority of Full Members present or represented at the General Assembly.

b. Modifications to the Constitution will only Iake effect Bpon approval by Royal Decree and upon completion of the publication conditions as required by Article 3 of the Belgian law dated 25 October 1919.

ARTICLE 11. DISSOLUTION. Dissolution of the Society follows the same rules as amendments to the Constitution . The means of dissolution and Iiquidation are established by the General Assembly. Any net assets remaining to the Society shall be disposed of by the General Assembly on recommendation of the Executive Council. ln this case the assets of the Society must be donated to a non-profit Organisation pursuing aims similar to those of the Society, and may in no event be distributed among the members.

ARTICLE 12. GENERAL CLAUSES. Any item not specifically Ioreseen by the present Constitution and By-Laws shall be determined by the Belgian law dated 25 October 1919.

18 December 1990 Liege (Belgium)

Modilied 20 January 1991, upon request of the Belgian Minister of Justice Amended by the General Assembly of 17 December 1994.

E- 34 Announcements

MUS/CA E SC/ENTIAE INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS

MUSICAE SCIENTIAE (the Journal of the European Society for the Cognitive Seiences of Music) publishes empirical , theoretical and critical articles directed at increasing understanding of how music is perceived, represented and generated. Any systematic work within the domains of psychology, philosophy, aesthetics , music analysis, musicology, cognitive science, education, artificial intelligence, modelling and neuropsychology that advances that aim will be considered for acceptance.

Gontributions will be published in one of three languages, French, German, or English, with abstracts presented in all three languages as weil as in ltalian and Spanish. Articles should be submitted as eilher Reports (between 1000 and 2000 words in length) or as Papers (between 5000 and 7000 words); both categories of article must be accompanied by abstracts of between 200 and 250 words in length.

Material should be submitted in electronic form wherever possible. Text should be submitted on diskette (3.5" Mac or MSDOS!Windows formal) or by e-mail, while Figures should be submitted eilher as camera-ready hard copy or as PostscriptTM compatible files on diskette or by e-mail. All submissions on diskette or hard copy should be sent to the Editor, lrene DELIEGE, URPM, Laboratoire de Psychologie cognitive, 5 Bd du Rectorat, 8 32, B-4000 LIEGE (Belgium)

II hard copy is submitted live copies must be sent to the above address. Submissions by e-mail should be sent as attachments to the Editor at i.deliege@ulg.ac.be. Submissions must be in one of the following languages: English, French or German. Materials submitted must not have been published elsewhere nor should they be presently under review for publication in any other journal.

Submissions in hard copy must be typed double-spaced throughout (including references, figure captions, footnotes and tables), with margins of 2.5-4 cm on all sides. All submissions (electronic or hard copy) must Iake the following form: (a) pages should be numbered consecutively throughout, page 1 consisting of

the title of the article and the authors' names and affiliations, with the name and complete address for correspondence at the bot1om of the page.

( b) page 2 should consist of an abstract of between 200 and 250 words summarising the principal hypotheses, methodologies, finding s and conclusions of the article

(c) the full text of the article should start on a separate page; references, footnotes, table captions and figure captions should follow the main body of the text in the order given, each category of ancillary material starting on a new page, with Tables and Figures following , each on aseparate page.

All references should be provided according to the guidelines of the American Psychological Association, as per the following examples:

Frances, R. (1958). La perception de Ia musique. [The perception of music (W.J. Dowling, Irans.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988) Paris: J. Vrin.

Announcements E- 35

Meyer, L. B. (1 967). Music, the arts, and ideas. Patternsand predictions in twentieth century culture. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Longuet-Higgins, H. C. (1962). Letter to a musical friend. Music Review , 23 , 244-48.

Papousek, H. (1979) . From adaptive responses to social cognition: The learning view of development. ln M.H. Bornstein and W. Kessen (eds), Psychological development from infancy: Image to intention (pp. 251-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

End of the Engli sh part

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ÜIF

M1U§TIC ISSN 1022-9299

BULLETIN D'INFORMATION No. 10, Octobre 1996

Contenu

Editorial

Gelestin Deliege

Gery d'Ydewalle

Nicola Phillips

Patrik Juslin, Alison McNeil & Matthew Royal

Elena Ungeheuer

Annonces

Compte-rendu: Schoenberg, A. (1) Coherence, 2 Counterpoint, Instrumentation, lnstruction in Form (2) The Musicalldea and the Logic, Technique, and Art of its Presentation

Compte-rendu: Evers, F., Jansma, M., Mak, P. & de Vries, 8. (eds.) Muziekpsychologie: Musicale ontwickeling, schepping, beleving, waameming

Compte-rendu: Christensen, E. The Musical Timespace: A Theory of Music Listening

5

8

Compte-rendu de Ia 4e Conference sur Perception 1 3 et Ia Cognition de Ia Musique (ICMPC), Montreal, Canada, AoOt 1996

Compte-rendu de Ia 12e session annuelle de Ia 1 9 Societe allemande de psychologie de Ia musique et 2e symposium international de psychologie de Ia musique, Freiburg/Bremen, Septembre 1996

21

Le Bulletin d'lnformation est le periodique officiel de Ia Societe Europeenne des Seiences Cognitives de Ia Musique (ESCOM).

Conseil d'Administration John Sloboda, president Maria Olivetti-Belardinelli,

vice-president lreme Delh3ge, secretaire permanent Andre Riotte, tresorier lan Cross, editeur du Bulletin Alt Gabrielsson, organisateur de Ia

prochaine Conference de I'ESCOM Andrezj Rakowski, membre

Editeurs-associes : Daisy Bertrand Alexandra Lamont Mare Melen

Information et inscriptions a Ia Societe : ESCOM Secretariat 16 Place du Vingt Aoüt B-4000 Liege Belgique

(Universite de Keele, UK) (Universite de Rome "La Sapienza", ltalie) (Universite de Liege, Belgique) (Universite de Liege, Belgique) (Universite de Cambridge, UK) (Universite de Uppsala, Suede)

(Academie de Musique Chopin, Pologne)

(Universite de Liege, Belgique) (Universite de Cambridge, UK) (Universite de Liege, Belgique)

Ceci est le dernier numero du Bulletin d'lnformation de I'ESCOM. Le site WWW de Ia Societe (a l'adresse http://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/ESCOM/) et Ia Revue de Ia Societe, Musicae Scientiae, seront ouverts a toute contribution qui genere ou prolonge un debat sur des themes propres aux sciences cognitives de Ia musique.

Les articles pour le site WWW seront soumis en franvais et en anglais, les deux langu es officielles de Ia Societe. ll s n'excederont pas 2500 mots (sauf cas exceptionnels) . Toute copie d'article doit eHre soumis par courrier electronique a lan Cross: ic108@cam.ac.uk

lnstructions aux auteurs pour Musicae Scientiae se trouvent a Ia page 28 du Bulletin d'lnformation, ou au site WWW.

Editorial

Ceci es! le dern ier numero de Ia Nexsletter d'ESCOM dans sa forme actue lle. II es! prevu que les fonctions de Ia Newsletter qui est de presenter aux membres des recherches et commentaires a propos de livres et de conferences, ains i que de les informer au sujet des activites d'ESCOM et d'autres Societes, sera dorenavant repris en partie dans Ia nouvelle revue de I'ESCOM, MUSICAE SCIENTIAE, et en partie par Ia World-Wide Webpage de I'ESCOM, accessible a l'adresse suivante :

http://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/ESCOM/

Ce dernier numero de Ia Newsletter presente des commentaires a propos de travaux de Arnold Schoenberg recemment publies, un nouvel ouvrage de Eric Christensen, et un premier ouvrage collectif publie en neerlandais (sous Ia direction de Evers, Jansma, Mak and de Vries) sur Ia psychologie de Ia musique, ainsi que des rapports au sujet de Ia 4me Conference Internationale pour Ia Perception et Ia Cognition Musicales qui s'est tenue a Montreal en Aoüt 1996 et Ia 12me Rencontre annuelle de Ia DGM tenue a Freiburg en Septembre 1996. Alors que le rapport au sujet du ICMPC implique que les differentes disciplines qui constituent les sciences cognitives de Ia musique semblent tenter de se rapprocher, celui qui concerne Freiburg suggere que des divergences methodologiques et ideologiques persistent. Nous avons donc deux vues differentes de l'etat d'evolution de notre domaine de recherche ; peut­iHre dans un domaine aussi vaste est-il inevitable de rencontrer de telles differences? Neanmoins, les perspectives de ces deux rapports indiquent Ia necessite pour I'ESCOM d'agir en tant qu 'espace visant a faciliter Ia communication et Ia comprehension entre les differentes disciplines et recherches traditionnelles dans les sciences cognitives de Ia musique : une sorte de toile protectrice sous laquelle ces differentes disciplines et traditions pourront croitre et interagir. Nous esperons que ces aspirations seront poursuivies dans MUSICAE SCIENTIAE et dans notre World-Wide Web.

lan Cross Editeur du Bulletin d'lnformation

Daisy Bertrand Alexandra Lamont Mare Melen Editeurs Associes

Compte-rendu: Arnold SCHOENBERG : (1) Coherence, Counterpoint, Instrumentation, lnstruction in Form. {Zusammenhang, Kontrapunkt, Instrumentation, Formenlehre} (ZKI F). Severine Neff, ed., trans. by Ch. Cross & S. Neff. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1994, lxxii + 135 pp. (2) The Musical ldea and the Logic, Technique, and Art of its Presentation. { Der musikalische Gedanke, und die Logik, Technik, und Kunst seiner Darstellung}. Patricia Carpenter & Severin Neff eds., trans, and Commentary. Columbia University Press, New York, 1995, xxiv + 462 pp.

Celestin Deliege

Deux inedits de Schoenberg, provenant des archives du Schoenberg Institute. L'un et l'autre concernent taute personne entretenant avec Ia musique un rapport serieux. lls seront ici respectivement designes par les initiales allemandes : ZKIF et MGKD. L'edition est bilingue allemand-anglais et les textes des editeurs sont en anglais. La mise en page met les parlies bilingues en regard facilitant . ainsi le contröle du vocabulaire, lequel a parfois une certaine importance pour fixer une terminologie dont les ouvrages precedents unilingues anglais ou franc;:ais n'ont pas Iaujours dissipe les enigmes.

L'historien verra dans ces manuscrits datant de 1917 (ZKIF) et de 1934-36 (MGKD) l'occasion d'une nouvelle approche de Ia genese des concepts schoenbergiens. Les deux ouvrages permettent en eilet deux lectures : celle qu'ont privilegiee les editeurs et qui regroupe les matieres selon les contenus thematiques et conformement a l'index etabli par Schoenberg, ou selon une reconstitution chronologique que Ia minutie de l'auteur dans les datations et Ia pagination des manuscrits rend non seulement possible mais tentante et aisee.

Le psychologue, abordant ces textes, s'apercevra que Schoenberg, a qui on a reproche l'invention d'un systeme qui serait indifferent a Ia perception, tut souvent calomnie. La perception etait au contraire pour lui une obsess1on : son souc1 dominant de coherence des ZKIF, il le lie a celui de comprehensibilite . Quant au psychanalyste, non moins que l'historien, il pourrait trouver. quelque moisso~ dans une reprise chronologique des textes. Schoenberg, on le sa1t .suf11samment: eta1t un homme tourmente , et il y a bien peu de chance qu'on ne decouvre au detour des pages de ce patient involontaire l'origine inconsciente de quelque projet.

C'est enfin le pedagogue, et en taut premier lieu le pedagogue de Ia composition musicale, qui devrait porter le plus d'attention a ces manuscrits, et taut particulierement a ceux de MGKD qui en disent plus que ce qu'ont. dit I es Models for Beginners in Composition et les Faundamentals of Musical Compostflon. ~ertes, 1ls ne remplacent pas ces ouvrages, mais ils les completent et surtout en ecla1rent les points d'ombre - entendons ceux qui principalement concernent les mot1vat1ons de l'auteur.

Qui, finalement, pourrait ne pas trauver son campte a cette Ieeiure ? peut~etre le scientifique. Schoenberg frequ entai t probablement avec un certa1n pla1s1r les savants ; une photo (MGKD, hors texte) le montre en compagnie d'Einstein a Carnegie Hall en 1934, et a Vienne, on sait par Wittgenstein que, parmi les membres

c. Deliege F-3

du Wienerkreis lui , au moins, suivait les activites du musicien. Mais les propos de Schoenberg sur Ia science ne depassent pas ceux de l'homme de Ia rue :

" ... La diffe\rence entre art et science tient en ceci : que bien que l'un et l'autre aient comme but Ia repre\sentation d'un meme domaine, Ia science doit essayer d'inclure tous les cas pensables, tandis que l'art se confine lui-meme a ceux qui sont caracte\ristiques, approprie\s ou simplement "adaptables". Pendant <1ue Ia science devra e\clairer tous les cas de Ia plus grande lumiere, l'art transformera les relations de signification en vue de les e\lever. Et alors que Ia science tend vers Ia description et l'explication de Ia totalite\ par l'exposition et l'ordonnance de ses principes, l'art se focalisera sur les points principaux dans l'avant-plan de l'attention a travers son mode de pre\sentation. SI Ia science apporte des faits qu'elle ordonne selon des principes communs, l'art produit des faits qui sont joints a de tels principes, de sorte que le sens de ce qui est e\nonce\ peut etre clairement saisi imme\diatement ... " (MGKD: 114-15).

<< Comment devient-on un homme seul ? •• s'etait un jour demande Schoenberg ; ,, en pensant en dehors de taute reference "• aurait pu repondre le coquin. Peu de scientifiques se contenteront de telles definitions comparatives .

Les archives de I'Arnold Schoenberg Institute contiennent douze manuscrits precisant ou variant le theme de Ia pensee musicale et sa presentation dont Ia redaction s'echelonne de 1917 a 1937 en ce compris deux manuscrits non dates (MGKD : xv-xvi). Dans le commentaire (ibid. : 1-86), les editeurs en ont recense l'ensemble en les examinant en relation avec les differents aspects envisages par l'auteur desireux d'unifier Ia theorie musicale. Trois appendices decrivent les

manuscrits ; les matieres du 1 oe (transcrit et traduit dans MGKD) sont indexees dans l'ordre de succession. Des graphiques et des exemples musicaux appuient et explicitent Ia theorie.

Pourquoi Schoenberg a-t-il redige ces manuscrits et avec autant de soin et d'assiduite, alors qu'en fait son bagage de compositeur semblait pouvoir le conduire vers une activite pedagogique efficace sans en passer par Ia ? Probablement faut-il voir Ia une question de logique autant que psychologique . Le manuscrit de 1917 (ZKIF) apparait comme un plan de cours redige par le maitre a son propre usage, il pourra s'y referer sa vie durant.

En 1917, Schoenberg est a Vienne, il vient d'etre demobilise, il est preoccupe par le projet de fondation de Ia future Societe privee d'execution musicale et par I a recherche d'un systeme grammatical qui pour lui se confond avec un souci majeur de coherence touchant a Ia fois l'ecriture et Ia forme a travers le contrepoint et Ia variation. II entreprend le manuscrit en avril, et finit par le laisser dans un etat d'esquisse, ce qui , en dehors de taute idee de publication, put lui paraitre suffisant. Quand dans les annees 30 d'autres manuscrits viendront s'ajouter, les idees et le projet pedagogique n'auront guere varie mais de nouvelles explicitations et digressions viendront enrichir le contexte.

Une remarque des praticiens des ecrits de Schoenberg pourrait etre qu'il n'y a rien en ces matieres de bien neu! en regard de ce que l'on a pu Iire jusqu'ici saus Ia signature de Schoenberg. Cela demande de preciser immediatemehnt que le manuscrit de 1917 nous fait vivre, a travers ses 75 feuillets, le processus de Ia generation des idees et que souvent le calendrier des propositions les plus

F-4 c. Deliege

Iondamentales se donne comme une suite d'implications ou chacune s'exp lique par Ia precedente ou induit Ia suivante. Les ouvrages connus jusqu'ici prolongeaient Ia pedagogie orale du maTtre ; Ia mise au jour des manuscrits due a Severine Neff et Patricia Carpenter nous donne acces a Ia methodologie tout en completant une matiere plus familiere.

Les quelque 200 pages de manuscrit de 1934-36, a l'heure actuelle ou les cours de composition ont tendance a se reduire a de oiseuses discussions devant des partitions mises a l'essai, rappellent comment, interpretees avec quelque strategie, elles permettraient que soit rendue a l'ecriture une fonction aujourd'hui fort souhaitable . Je vois dans une application intelligente de ce manuscrit, qui m'apparalt comme le mei lleur traite de composit ion jusqu'ici convu. le moyen de recreer une pedagogie elle -meme coherente et diversifiee. Sans doute, Ia pensee theorique de Schoenberg reste-t-eile liee a Ia logique musicale classique, mais eile n'implique en rien le pastiche. Jamais l'invention ne sera un objet d'apprentissage ; s'il devait en etre autrement , eile serait aussit6t ruinee . Mais Ia coherence, Ia logique, les techniques d'ecriture et d'orchestration appellent encore l'ecolage et le passage par le modele. Comme le notent les editeurs en conclusion de leur commentaire :

" Schoenberg croyait que le don de l'artiste ne pouvait pas etre enseigne. Neanmoins dans ce manuscrit avec cette ebauche de Ia nature organique de l'oeuvre musicale, il apporte une base pour Ia construction d'une oeuvre viable dans Ia relation des parlies tonctionnelles a l'interieur du tout, et pour une derivation de cette unite a partir d'une necessite interne, un "principe de vie" » (ibid. : 73) .

Quelques notions familieres de Ia pensee de Schoenberg trouvent ici une utile clarification : ainsi Grundgestalt versus Motif, l'un relevant de Ia construction de Ia phrase, l'autre de Ia structure thematique. Gestalt versus Phrase (MGKD : 168-71 ). Aussi Ia necessite d'un recours a Ia variation constante que peut-etre seul Webern dans I'Ecole viennoise a rendue perceptible sans Ia noyer ; il avait parfaitement compris que l'idee de variation developpante et permanente etait nee chez Schoenberg de son contraire, une obsession de Ia repetition . La source de Ia coherence pour Schoenberg est bien Ia, mais autant il Ia voulait presente autant il s'en mefiait ; sans Ia Variation Ia repetition ne pouvait etre qu'un facteur de sterilite:

" On peut dire que Ia coherence nait de Ia nipetition aussi longtemps que les parlies de A soient recurrentes en B, C etc. Et : La coherence s'etablit quand les parlies partiell ement semblables et partiellement differentes s'enchainent de maniere teile que les parlies semblables dominent. La relation de contrasie est fondee sur Ia coherence aussi longtemps que les parlies semblables sus·mentionnees soient enchainees de maniere teil e que les parlies differentes emporlent l'attention. Transformation et Variation sont basees sur Ia repetition aussi longtemps que quelques parli es semblables aussi bien que quelques parlies differentes soient discernables Le developpement est une teile suite d' idees reunies dans lesquell es les parlies differentes initialement de signification subordonnee accedent aux parlies principales (ZKIF : 20-23) . 1

J'ai traduit de l'allemand les citations en franva is ; les citati ons en anglais sont Ia traduction des editeurs.

.----

Compte-rendu: Muziekpsychologie: Musica/e ontwickeling, schepping, be/eving, waarneming. F. Evers, M. Jansma, P. Mak & 8. de Vries (Eds), van Gorcum/Koninklijk Conservatorium: The Hague. 1994, pp 293-312 (ISBN 90 232 2879 0).

Gery d'Ydewalle Directeur du Laboratoire de Psychologie Experimentale

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

"M uziekpsychologie : Musicale ontwickeling, schepping, beleving, waarnem ing" (Psychologie de Ia musique : developpement, creation, experience, perception) est un gros ouvrage d'environ 340 pages ecrit en caracteres exceptionnellement petits et accompagne d'un disque compact. II reunit les cont ributi on de dix-sept auteurs dont seize europeens (huit originaires des Pays-Bas, cinq du Royaume-Uni, un de Pologne, un d' ltalie , un d'AIIemagne) et un non europeen (originaire d'Argentine) .

On peut se demander pourquoi un tel ouvrage es! publie en neerlandais, ce qui en Iimite necessairement Ia diffusion a cette communaute relativement petite. Cependant, le but premier de l'ouvrage est de taueher les professeurs et les etudiants des Academies de musique neerlandaises . En Iai! , le Iivre concretise une initiative prise dans les annees quatre-vingt par le Depute-Directeur du Conservatoire Royal de Musique de La Haye, pour rendre accessible a ce public Ia Iitterature scientifique emanant de divers domaines de recherche. Le public vise justifie donc pleinement Ia Iangue choisie. Je felicite vivement Ia maison d'edition d'avoir pris le risque de publier un si gras ouvrage pour un nombre aussi restreint de lecteurs.

Plusieurs chapitres ont manifestement ete ecrits dans une autre Iangue et, selon moi, les traductions sont exce llentes. Comme, a mon sens, le Iivre est de fort banne tenue (hormis quelques commentaires critiques, cl . infra) , il laut esperer qu'une version anglaise sera disponible dans un proehe avenir, afin qu'un public plus large puisse beneficier de cette publication majeure.

Comme precise dans Ia preface par les editeurs (F. Evers, M. Jansma, P. Mak, & B. de Vr ies, tous originaires des Pays-Bas), le Iivre poursuit quatre objectifs : 1) faire connaitre aux lecteurs les developpements les plus recents de Ia recherche en perception et en cognition de Ia musique ; 2) mettre a Ia di sposition des professeurs et des etudiants une base de donnees bibliographiques permettant d'acceder aux developpements les plus recents [de Ia recherche] ; tournir des instruments didactiques pour l'education musicale ; 4) publier des introductions a differentes approches et disciplines emanant d'experts nationaux et internationaux. Dans l'introduction, Konrad Boehmer dresse une banne synthese de plus ieurs contributions que je vai s egalement resumer, afin de donner un avant-gout de l'ouvrage. Le Iivre campte quatre sections : developpement musica l, aptitudes et apprentissage, creation musicale, dimensions socioculturelles et emotionnelles de Ia musique, perception musicale .

Dans Ia premiere sect ion, Hargreaves propose differents stades du developpement musical (et , plus generalement, du developpement artistique) chez l'enfant et precise leurs implications pour les pratiques educatives. Bien que le chapitre soit informatif et bien ecrit, il est parfois speculatif et ne repose pas Iaujours fermement su r des bases empir iques. Ensuite, Sloboda deiend sa the se bien connue, selon

F-6 G. d'Ydewalle

laquelle Ia motivation, Ia perseverance dans l'exercice et d'autres facteurs extrinseques sont plus importants pour le developpement de l'excellence musicale que les dons pretendus innes. Compte tenu de son excellente recherche approfond ie dans ce domaine, il es! dommage, a mon sens, que le chapitre n'aille pas au-de la d'un tel niveau de generalites. Mik laszewski s' interesse aux processus d'apprentissage eux-memes . Malheureusement, il part d'une definition assez depassee de l'apprentissage vu comme un changement plus ou moins permanent des comportements suite a l'exercice. II n'integre pas les recents progres de Ia psychologie cognitive ou des modeles de traitement de l'information, lesquels donnent une vision plus nuancee des processus d'apprentissage. II distingue utilement trois domaines d'apprentissage de Ia musique : I' audiation (c'est-a-dire le traitement non verbal et emotionnel de l'information acoustique), l'apprentissage de Ia Ieeiure et de l'ecriture, l'execution mu sicale . Quelques etudes empiriqu es interessantes sont decrites, mais je m'etonne que ne soient pas mentionnees des etudes classiques mieu x connues (p. e., Kramer) . Dans une perspective educationnelle, Tafuri illustre les interactions complexes entre l'interpretation par l'enfant, les pratiques et les objectifs educatifs.

Dans Ia section 2, Mak et Jansma explorent plusieurs voies, pour tenter de demeler les processus impliques dans Ia composition et l'improvisation. Un des moyens [proposes] es! de s'appuyer sur les rapports verbaux des compositeurs. Dans l' introduction du Iivre , Boehmer exprime de fortes suspicions a l'ega rd de leis rapports verbaux. Je ne partage pas cette opinion. Analyser les rapports verbaux peut fournir des indices utiles . Certes, les compositeurs sont souvent inconscients des processus impliques dans leurs activites. Neanmoins, leurs experiences conscientes, accumulees au cours de plusieurs annees de pratique compositionnelle, peuvent reveler certains problemes auxquels ils sont confrontes et suggerer des activites mentales inconscientes sous-jacentes. Clarke applique avec succes les theories generatives a l'explication de l'expression dans l'interpretation musicale. Le chapitre comprend une bonne description de quelques recherches empiriques confortant les theories generatives. Le chapitre de Widlund es! un chapitre presque clinique qui fournit d'utiles suggestions pour Iutter contre l'anxiete, Ia tension et le stress accompagnant l'interpretation . Eile souligne egalement les effets positifs de ces facteurs emotionnels negatifs. Dans l'apprenti ssage de l'improvisation, Hemsy de Gainza insiste fortement sur les aspects developpementaux et distingue trois stades : les stades syncretique (c'est-a-dire l'encodage de Ia sensation musicale), ana lytique (I a differenciation en composantes musicales) et, enfin , synthetique. Eile invite les educateurs de musique a ne pas dissocier l'apprentissage de l'improvisation de Ia formation musicale generale.

La section 3 s'ouvre avec un chap it re de Heins repla<;:ant Ia musique dans son contexte culturel. Le chap itre apparait quasiment comme une introduct ion aux autres chapitres de Ia section. La these principale de l'auteur es! que Ia musique releve davantage d'une situation societa le col lective que d'une evaluat ion esthetique individuelle. Su it alors, logiquement, un chapitre de Mayer a propos de Ia sociolog ie de Ia musique ou il definit Ia discipline et fournit des exemples sur Ia fa<;:on dont les relations sociales st ructurelles et fonctionnelles s'expriment dans Ia musique. Jansma et de Vries analysent, d'un point de vue plus psychologique, les Iiens entre les emotions et les caracteristiques de Ia musique et comment ces caracterist iques peuvent generer des emotions. Les auteurs se concentrent plus directement sur les emotions ressenlies par l' auditeur que sur celles vecues par l' interprete et

G. d'Ydewalle F-7

reconnaissent que les recherches relatives aux emotions de l'interprete sont rares , sinon inex istantes. La recherche empirique rapportee dans le chapitre est bien ecrite, pertinente et facile a sa isir. Bunt decrit comment Ia musique a parfois ete utilisee comme moyen therapeutique a l'epoque premoderne . II introduit et definit ensuite Ia musicotherapie actuelle et fournit un exemple d'etude de cas.

A mon sens, Ia derniere section, consacree a Ia perception de Ia mu sique , es! remarquable. Les chapitres relatifs a Ia psychoacoustique (Van Dijk), a Ia perception et a Ia production du rythme (Povel) et a Ia perception de Ia melodie et de l'harmonie (Cross) sont extremement bien ecrits mais parfois difficiles a comprendre. Leur style correspond davantage a celui d'un manuel qu'a celui d'un ouvrage d'introduction, ce vers quoi !end le present ouvrage. La section s'acheve par un chapitre d'Evers sur les sensations synethesiques qui met l'accent sur Ia fusion sensorielle entre Ia perception de Ia musique et des couleurs.

En conclusion, je trouve l'ouvrage excellent, meme si, comme d'habitude, Ia qualite varie d'un chapitre a l'autre . Certains chapitres sont tres speculatifs, d'autres s'appuient sur des bases empiriques solides. Le Iivre est cense etre Iu et etudie par nos etudiants de Conservatoire mais je crains que certa ins chap itres so ient trop exigeants.

Traduit de l'anglais par Mare Melen

Compte-rendu: Erik Christensen (1996). The Musical Timespace: A Theory of Music Listening. Aalborg: Aalborg Universty Press

Nicola Phillips Faculty of Music, University of Cambridge

The Musical Timespace: A Theory of Music Listening de Erik Christensen est un court ouvrage comportant deux volumes : le premier expose une theorie de l'ecoute musicale, le second comprend les exemples musicaux illustrant Ia theorie. Le Iivre aborde un sujet susceptib le d'interesser, !out a Ia fois , les psychologues cognitivistes, les musicologues et les melomanes. La theorie vise expressement a repondre a Ia question de lngmar Bengtsson "Quelle genre de theorie appliqueriez­vous a cette musique (contemporaine] ?" (p. 8). Ce faisant, le Iivre, selon Christensen, "fait Ia turniere sur les Iiens entre Ia theorie musicale et les resultats de Ia recherche en psychologie ." (p. 8) . Constatant que "il y a un hiatus entre Ia theorie de Ia musique classique et les theories de Ia musique contemporaine", Christensen enonce fermement son "intention de contribuer a combler cette faille" (p. 8). Apres cette ambitieuse preface, le sommaire promet des discussions sur des sujets divers, depuis "L'intensite, l'excitation de l'attention" (p. 11) et "La hauteur est un aspect du timbre" (p. 16} jusqu'a "Fiux, expansion et emotion" (p. 130) et "Ludwig van Beethoven: Eroica (1804) -- Un conte de Iee symphonique" (p. 11 0). Po ur le musicologue ou le melomane avide (de savoir], Ia Iiste des oeuvres analysees est un appät impressionnant : Metastaisis et Pithoprakata de Xenakis; Apparitions, Atmospheres, Continuum et le Oeuxieme Quatuor a Cordes de Ligeti ; The Unanswered Question et Centrat Park in the Dark de lves ; Summer morning by a Lake (Calors) de Schoenberg ; Livre pour Orchestre de Lutoslawski ; The Music of the Spheres et Train Moving Away de Langgaard; Music for 18 musicians de Reich; Jans Vejamd de Nietsen ; Le catalogue des Oiseaux et le Quatuor pour Ia fin des temps de Messiaen ; La Deuxieme Symphonie de N0rgärd ; Eroica de Beethoven ; Set the Contra/ for the Heart of the Sun de Pink Floyd ; Body and Soul de Coleman Hawkin.

La theorie musicale proposee par Christensen se fonde sur des preceptes ecologiques. Eile repose sur le postulat selon lequel "L'oreil le n'est pas con<;:ue pour ecouter de Ia musique. L'oreille est destinee a assurer Ia survie dans l'environnement nature I." (p. 1 0). Se Ion cette perspective ecologique (qui fait quelque peu echo a Ia theorie de Ia complementarite psychophysique de Shepard, 1981 ), Christensen decrit l'ecoute (teile qu'elle apparait dans l'ecoute de Ia musique) en termes de "dimensions d'ecoute" determinees par le besoin d'interpreter Ia nature physique du son. II postute cinq dimensions d'ecoute : l'intensite, le timbre, l'espace, le mouvement et Ia pulsation. Ces cinq dimensions sont integrees dans un modele a bidimensionnel distinguant les dimensions "macrotemporel les" et "microtemporelles". Se Ion Christensen, le timbre et l'espace des hauteurs sont microtemporels ; Ia pulsation et le mouvement sont macrotemporels, tandis que l'intensite est placee "au centre du modele ... le coeur de toute s I es dimensions d'ecoute. Compris comme un phenomene physique, le continuum naturel du son n'est rien d'autre que le continuum d'energie spectrale de Ia distribution variable d'intensite, lequel peut eire mesure comme une pression d'air variant dans le temps." (p. 21).

N. Phi llips F-9

Christensen decrit les seu il s perceptifs de chaque dimension d'ecoute (voir p. 20) , mais sans discussion satisfaisante des problemes lies au calcul de ces seu ils. Hormis quelques nuances mineures dans l'introduction, son resume de Ia perception des hauteurs, du timbre, de Ia pulsation, du mouveme nt et de l'intensite est completement inadequat. Le defaut le plus manifeste, a ce niveau, est l'absence de reference precise ou d'exemple emanant de Ia Iitterature en psychologie cognitive. Des affirmations specu latives sont souvent presentees comme des faits, sans mention de Ia Ii tterature ou des questions relatives aux differents phenomenes perceptifs. Par exemple, selon Christensen "Les hauteurs distinctes sont une caracteristique majeure de l'art musical europeen et occidental. En consequence, Ia hauteur est souvent consideree comme l'element Iondamental de Ia musique et de Ia perception musicale alors que, en realite, eile n'est pas un element IondamentaL Le timbre est l'essence de Ia musique et Ia hauteur est un aspect du timbre." (p. 16) . Or il ne eile aucune reference de psychologie cognitive pour etayer cette affirmation sans nuance.

Christensen poursuit sa discussion des "dimensions de l'ecoute" en exposant ce qu'il appelle les dimensions "secondaires" de l'ecoute. Ces dimensions sont Ia melodie, le rythme et l'harmonie . Elles constituent des Subdivisions "resu ltant des interactions entre I es dimensions fondamentales" (p. 21 ). Selon lui, Ia melodie est l'aspect spatial du mouvement, le rythme le correlat temporel du mouvement, tandis que l'harmonie est une qualite emergente "situee entre Ia qualite de timbre specifique a Ia source et I es qualites de focalisation de plusieurs sons" ( arising between the source-specific qua/ity of timbre and the focusing qualities of several pitches). Une neuvieme dimension musicale, Ia "micromodulation", est decrite comme resultant de "l'interaction entre le timbre et Ia pulsation ." (p. 144). Se Ion Christensen, "La micromodulation Iransmet l'expression musicale" (p . 14 7 ; cette affirmation est enoncee sans discussion du theme complexe de Ia perception et de Ia cognition en musique). La caracterisat ion des dimensions de Ia musique par Christensen presente un defaut majeur : Ia description simpliste des aspects temporeis et "spatiaux" de Ia perception et de Ia cognition musicales est vague et ne repose pas suffisamment sur les resultats des recherches en sciences cognitives pour permeitre une evalu ation empirique.

Apres avoir caracterise les "dimensions de l'ecoute", Christensen introduit son concept central, celui de "l'espace-temps musical", un espace "virtuel". Les oeuvres musicales discutee sont congues comme les sources de cet "espace virtue l" . Selon Christensen, "Ia musique ne 'se deroule pas dans le temps'. La musique cree le temps." (p . 48). Ce concept permet simplement a Christensen de decrire sa propre experience des oeuvres analysees en reference a sa comprehension du "temps" qu'elles creent. Tout comme Ia discussion des dimensions Iondamentales et secondaires de l'ecoute, le micro- et le macrotemporel, Ia discussion de "l'espace­temps musical" est insuffisamment fondee sur Ia recherche en perception et cogn ition musicales, en phi losophie ou en musicologie pour etre convaincante. Les citations etayant les affirmations les plus speculatives ne rendent pas l'expose de Christensen plus credible pour le psychologue cognitiviste ou le musicologue, mais elles rendent plus comprehensible au lecteur Ia source ou Ia logique de ses convict ions.

Avec cette notion "d'espace-temps virtue l" (p. 40), Ia theorie de Christensen est certainement trop prompte a relayer et a promouvoir les theories intuitivo-

F-10 N. Phillips

introspectives des compositeurs a propos de leur activite compositionnelle . Une omission particulierement regrettable, de ce point de vue, est de negliger l'influence de l'ideologie sur Ia pratique compositionnelle . Christensen semble conclure que les theories composit ionne lles equivalent aux pratiques composit ionnelles et que Ia pratique artistique ou Ia rationalisation introspective de Ia pratique par les compositeurs correle d'une maniere necessaire et Iondamentale avec les processus perceptifs et cognitifs. Une discussion des relations entre les produits de l'introspection de l'ecoute, d'une part, et Ia perception et Ia cognition, d'autre part, aurait pu conduire a un debat stimu lant. Christensen semble meconnaitre Ia difficulte d'elaborer une analyse musicale generale ou une theorie de Ia musique au depart des rationalisations introspectives de l'experience d'ecoute personneile ; de meme il semble meconnaitre l' importance methodologique de Ia dichotomie psychologie cognitive/psychologie na"lve. Ce defaut sape comp letement les bases de Ia tMorie de Christensen.

Les analyses des oeuvres musicales renvoient a des enregistrements specifiques et le chronometrage des enregistrements, plutöt que des exemples musicaux precis SOUS forme de partition, sert de reference . Si cette pratique permet a Christensen d'indiquer avec precision les moments de "l'espace-temps musical" dont il discute dans l'analyse, eile suppose que le lecteur acquiert ces enregistrements. De plus; en discutant assez longuement les qualites de timbre d'interpretations specifiques, Christensen adopte une approche qu'il ne reconnait jamais ou dont il ne semble pas conscient : ses analyses descriptives et introspectives des oeuvres reviennent a analyser l'interpretation . Fonder l'analyse sur Ia seu le interpretation et insister fortement sur des phenomenes aussi subjecti fs que le timbre, rendent particulierement souhaitable une discussion sur les aspects ideologiques de l'analyse et de l'i nterpretation . Christensen n'est pas du taut le premier a analyser l' interpretation (cf. Cook, 1996) et l'absence de reference a d'autres travaux tentant d'unifier les theories de Ia psychologie de Ia musique et de l'analyse musicale represente une autre omiss ion majeure. Puisque Christensen, en travaillant au depart d'enregistrements specif iques, realise une analyse de l'interpretation, 1 il convient de discuter l'ideo logie entourant l'analyse de l'interpretation, ses problemes et ses avantages.

Les analyses musicales de Christensen consistent en un catalogue descriptif et chronologique des entrees musicales, des effets et des divisions de "l'espace-temps musical" de chaque oeuvre. Campte tenu de Ia nature de Ia methode analytique, les travaux de Bregman (1990) et d'autres dans le domaine de l'analyse des scenes audit ives auraient ete informatifs pour le lecteur ; malheureusement cette reference manque.2 II en resulte une theorie de l'ecoute musica le qui , dans sa tentative de mettre en relation Ia theorie musicale avec des perspectives ecologiques, suggere que Ia perception du rythme, de Ia melodie et de l'harmonie ne part icipe pas a l'experience qu'a l'auditeur de "l'espace-temps musica l". On peut peut-etre admettre l'aff irmation de Christensen selon laquelle, en termes purement physiques, Ia perception de Ia hauteur n'est qu'une variete du timbre. Mais il n'en reste pas moins que, en termes de perception et de cognition (c'est-a-dire en termes de processus d'ecoute adoptes par l'auditeur moyen eleve dans Ia culture occidentale susceptible d'etre expose aux oeuvres analyses par Christensen) , Ia comprehension theorique de Ia perception de Ia hauteur, de l'harmonie et du rythme progresse gräce a l'apprentissage formel et a l'exposition a Ia musique d'une maniere si importante qu'i ls ne peuvent etre negliges de cette far;:on. Au surp lus, Christensen

N. Phillips F-11

ne ira ite pas des questions philosophiques lies a l'elaboration d'une theorie de Ia musique. Les facteurs cu lturels et l'interaction entre les elements derives des faits et ceux derives de Ia theorie ne sont pas abordes. Christensen recommande au lecteur d'ecouter chaque oeuvre decrite au moins sept fois. Ce la revient presque a dire "Ecouter ces morceaux assez souvent, lisez ce que je dis et finalement vous aussi vous entendrez ce que j'entends". Cette methode peut etre benefique pour guider l'auditeur naH. Mais ei le fournit simplement un campte rendu personnel de ce que Christensen entend et renseigne peu sur le pourquoi et le comment ce la est entendu. La theorie et Ia methode de Christensen sont incapables de rendre exp licite l'experience de pMnomenes "subjectifs" tels l'organisation de l'intensite, de Ia hauteur, du rythme et du timbre des oeuvres discutees. D'autres auteurs ont egalement suggere des methodes pour analyser les st ructu res musicales en termes de ce qui peut ei re entendu a l'ecoute de Ia musique. Pascal! (1996) a propose un modele d'analyse de type "appariement de patterns" qui tente d'expl iquer "l'audible en musique" plutöt que "l'entendu". Basee sur une synthese des recherches en perception et cognition de Ia musique et sur Ia theorie analytique, Ia theorie de Pascal! fournit un campte rendu plus convaincant de l'ecoute de Ia musique que celu i de Christensen. La theorie de Pascall est une theorie d'analyse musicale basee sur l'ecoute de Ia musique qui contribue a combler l'espace entre Ia theorie de Ia musique et Ia psychologie de Ia musique, gräce a l'integration d'idees issues de Ia theorie musicale et de resultats de recherche relatifs a Ia perception de patterns musicaux. La force de Ia theorie de Pascall est l'integration d'un modele theorique et d'une methode analytique, une synthese que Christensen echoue a realiser.

La theorie de Christensen est minee dans ses fondements. Premierement, Christensen n'integre pas sa theorie de l'ecoute de Ia musique et ses analyses musicales de fa<;:on convaincante, de sorte que les materiaux theoriques et analytiques sont reunis de fa<;:on tendancieuse. Plutöt que de combler le hiatus entre Ia psychologie et Ia theorie de Ia musique, Ia theorie de Ia musique classique et de Ia musique contemporaine, Christensen elargit le fasse. Ain si que Lydia Goehr decrit le probleme, "une tension Iondamentale en analyse concerne le gouffre qu'elle menace d'imposer entre Ia theorie philodophique et Ia pratique" (p. 69). Plutöt que d'aborder le problerne de l'unification des theories de Ia musique et de l'ecoute de Ia musique, Christensen neglige de discuter Ia Iitterature musicologique (Cook, 1994), philosophique (Goehr, 1992) ou musicopsychologique (Ciarke, 1989) relative au fasse decrit dans Ia preface.

Apres les Iausses promesses formulees dans l'introduction, le Iivre est l'antithese du climax. Pour le psychologue de Ia musique, Ia proliferation d'affirmations speculatives presentees comme des intuitions psychologiques scientifiques peuvent, en l'absence de citation, devenir exasperantes. Plusieurs questions d'importance capita le en perception et en cognition de Ia musique sont eliminees par Ia discussion de Christensen, ignorees ou contournees comme s' il n'y avait pas de debat ou comme si les reponses eta ient trop evidentes pour eire exposees. Pour le musicologue, l'agenda de Ia formation en canon apparaltra dans Ia description rhapsodique de Christensen de plusieurs oeuvres (voir, par exemple, Ia discussion de Atmospheres de Ligeti , p. 86, ou Summer morning by a Iake (Calors) de Schoenberg, p. 87). Pour l'ana lyste, Ia production d'une serie d'analyses "fermees", peu liees entre elles et basees sur des descriptions du timbre peut apparaltre comme une tentative quelque peu superficie ile et na·lve de formuler une theorie d'analyse de Ia musique Gontemporaine basee sur l' ecoute musicale. Simple et concise en apparence (ce

N. Phillips

F-12 . lations de Christensen que le des questions sur les specu 'lomane sans

n'est que quand on pose Ia theorie devient apparent), le me ut

caractere inc~~r:a~~e~::! ~:Cguuv~rd~a tneo~ie lacHe ~. lireD=~sa c~o:~~e~~:eace:o~~lit ~~~~::~~2~~:~~~e~qcuoe~6=~~~~t~~t~~~~~~~~~~~:~:~~;~~~:~~~;~~n~~m~:el~ver~s~~ de Ia perception et de Ia cogmdtonxxe siecle ou a taute personne _cnerchant dde~

d. u !an de mustque u . . prendre et a ltre pen an recomm:n d: ~a musique contemporaine lactles ~it~~~e peuvent trauver ce Iivre

~~~~~t:. Le musicologue et le _psy~hologduees ~~~blemes manilestement poses par e . t par l'evitement systemattque

exasperan · ale ses allirmations sur l'ecoute mustc .

'f · nces · c mbridge MA· MIT Press · ' Re ere A S (1990) Auditorv Scene Analvsts a d s~chological processes in mustc Bregman, · ·

989 'Mind the gap: formal structures an P

Clark~~ ~·~~t~~por~rv Music Review, 3, pp.H: (Eds.), Musical Perceptions Oxford: Oxford

k N (1994) in R. Aiello and J. Slobo a . ' Coo , · . analysts . in N. Cook

Universtty Press • ) 'Analysing pertormance, and pertormtng k N ( 1996 a parattre . O f d· Glarendon Press

Coo ' & M. Everi'st (eds.), Rethinking Mustc f Mxu~:c~l Werks Oxford· Glarendon Press d· Oxford

Goehr L. (1992) The lmaginarv Museumot. Foundations of Mustcal Pttch Oxfor ' (1990) The Cognt tve

Krumhansl, G.L. . Cognitive Psychology of Universtty Press (1993) ( eds.) Tihtlii!Dn!s:ki[!n&JqJt!DnJS~oQJUJ!nl(dL:.-JTJ:hl.§e~QQ'Q!!!YJL...c.;~'-""'=,_"-

d s & Btgand, E.

::~c:;a(~·:9u~i=:nf~~~E~~~~;~~;ag~~~~~::~~r~t~e~i:~· ~ii~ii~n~ ~~;b~i~~~rantz Shepard, R.N. (1 I Oraanization Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. PP·

(eds.), Perceptua -

Traduit de /'anglais par Mare Melen . . . - ---------- . Ch istensen veuille dehmtter

- . . se roduit malgre le fatt que r oraine" (p. 8), un 1 Gelt~ deviatio.~ me:no~~~~;~~~ase~ sur "l'ecoute de Ia n;ustqu;e c~~~~:~~ musicale basee une theone de I ecou .e . "d mment transforme en une theone . ob'ectif qui est btentot tnct e . our Ia su~ Ia theorie composition~e."e. res ue volontaire des textes les plus p~rt~:;~:sfon des 2 II semble y avoir uni evttnemc!nqtuf co!erne Ia perception des hautenu~s~ ~~ segregation des

. . . par exemp e, e . Dans Ia dtscussto 990) dtscusston . sl (1990) semble s'tmposer. . • nt celui de Bregman (1 • travaux de Kru~han'ference le plus pertinent seratt sure~le preferer s'appuyer sur des flux, l'ouvrage e. re nce est absente. Christensen sem _e e tels que ceux fournis par mais une teile re ere . t Ia cognition de Ia mustqu resumes relatifs a Ia per)c~p:~~~uee de consulter les textes originaux. McAdams et Bigand (1993 p u o

Commentaires sur le 4 e ICMPC McGill University, Montreal, Canada, 11 -15 Aout 1996

La Quatrieme Conlerence sur Perception et Ia Cogn ition de Ia Musique (ICMPC) organisee a Montreal regroupait un ensemble varie mais integre de communications orales et allichees relatives a Ia perception et a Ia cognit ion de Ia musique, Ia psychoacoustique, l'interpretation musicale, le developpement musical, Ia modelisation musicale, l'analyse musicale, Ia neuropsychologie, Ia psychomusicologie et Ia sociologie de ia musique. La conference s'est signalee par Ia lacilite avec laquelle les participants evo lu ants dans divers domaines de recherche communiquerent entre eux, ce qui suggere qu'un champ de recherche unilie commence a emerger.

Un brel commentaire ne saurait rendre justice ni a Ia diversite ni a Ia qualite des presentations. Des "instantanes" de Ia Conlerence rediges par des jeunes chercheurs sont des lors reunis ci-dessous afin de donner un apen;;u des travaux realises et de Ia qualite des recherches presentees (des details concernant Ia disponibilite et le prix des Actes [sur CD-Rom] peuvent etre obtenus par courrier electron ique a l'adresse brp@music.mcgill.ca).

L'interet pour les questions importantes mais notoirement delicates sur les relations entre musique et emotion ont progresse de lar;:on constante. Le quatrieme ICMPC de Montreal comprenait plusieurs contributions remarquables, en particulier dans Ia Session intitulee "expression et emotion".

Emery Schuber!, tout d'abord, a presente son Espace Emotionnel Bidimensionnel (2DES) : un programme d'ordinateur destine a enregistrer en continu Ia perception qu'a l'aud iteur de l'expression emotionnelle liee a Ia musique ou a d'autres stimu li (apparemment, Clillord Madsen aurait realise un appareil semblable). Base sur les deux dimensions emotionnelles revelees par les etude multidimensionnelles sur Ia similarite des emotions de James Russe\ et d'autres, i'excitation et Ia valence, ie 2DES permet a un auditeur d'indiquer ses jugements en temps reel de l'expression emotionne lle directe dans un espace emotionnel bidimensionnel. L'appareil a ete critique parce qu'un rapide changement de perception de l'expression par l'auditeur est enregistre comme une transition passant par un certain nombre de points intermediaires et non comme un mouvement direct d'un point a un autre. Neanmoins, il semble que cet outil novateur peut etre utile dans l'exploration de l'experience musicale, en particulier s' il est combine avec des mesures electrophysiologiques de l'emotion .

Tobey et Fujinaga ont presente un systeme informatique suiveur de ehe! d'orchestre. Les intentions expressives du ehe! d'orchestre sont interpretees au depart de donnees extraites en continu de sa baguette. Ce systeme contröle en temps reel les parametres musicaux comme le tempo, Ia dynamique, et i'articulation. Bien que diriger un orchestre ne se Iimite pas aux mouvements des bras, le systeme represente une lascinante tentative de digitalisation de l'expression musicale.

Constatant l'absence d'interet pour Ia lar;:on dont les chanteurs expriment les emotions dans leur interpretation, Ogushi et Hattori ont rapparte une etude dans

F-14 P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal

laquelle trois chanteurs devaient realiser un" morceau .. d~ ~a~o~ a :ra~s~ettr~. aux auditeurs quatre emotions Iondamentales ( tnstesse , JOie , colere , peur) ou une expression neutre. Les experimentations realisees au moyen de ce materiel montrent que Ia reconnaissance de l'expression est meilleure lorsque des enregistrements audio et video sont proposes. Cependant, etonnamment, les enregistrements video influencent davantage les jugements des_ auditeurs su_r l'expression que les enregistrements audio. L'analyse des donnees relatives a l'interpretation est en cours et les resultats seront communiques a Ia reunion organisee conjointement par I'ASA et I'ASJ a Hawaii (2-6 decembre 1996). Cela permettra d'interessantes comparaisons interculturelles avec les resultats d'etudes anterieures sur Ia communication emotionnelle liee a l'interpretation musicale.

Adachi et Trehub agrementerent leur expose de charmants exemples musicaux. Des enfants de 8-1 0 ans devaient chanter des melodies simples (telles Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star, The Alphabet Song,) a l'experimentateur de fa9on a le rendre "triste" ou "heureux" . Les caracteristiques gestuelles, vocales, linguistiques et musicales de leur interpretation etaient enregistrees sur bandes audio et video. II apparaTt que les techniques d'expression des enfants manipulent les expressions faciales, Ia position des yeux et de Ia tele , Ia posture corporelle, le tempo, le rythme et l'articulation. Les bons chanteurs se demarquent des moins bons chanteurs par leur utilisation subtile des gestes, comme Ia respiration .

11 ne s'agit que d'un aper9u des exposes consacres aux relations musique-emotion. Cependant, tous ces exposes temoignent de l'importance de Ia musique en tant que moyen d'expression et de communication emotionnelles.

Patrick Juslin Department de Psychologie, Universite d'Uppsala, Suede

Orales ou affichees, les communications concernant l'incidence des aptitudes d'ecoute sur le musicien-interprete - mon propre domaine d'interet - presentaient une certaine diversite mais etaient neanmoins agreablement integrees. On peut estimer que psychologues, musiciens, pedagogues, physiciens et physiologistes n'avaient plus manifester autant d'aptitude a communiquer entre eux dans un Iangage commun depuis l'epoque de Helmholtz. Au cours d'autres evenements anterieurs du meme type, les idees etaient apparemment exprimees sous des formes trop disparates ; Ia presente conference a fortement contribue a unifier les apports de cesdiverses disciplines scientifiques a Ia comprehension de Ia musique.

Warrier et Zatorre ont expose leur communication, intitulee "The Effect of Melodie Gontext on lnteractions Between Pitch and Timbre", avec zele et charisme : le public s'est beaucoup amuse des stimuli experimentaux presentes. Warrier et Zatorre ont poursuivi les recherches de Se mal et Demany (1991) et de S1ngh et Hirsh (1992) a propos des interactions entre Ia hauteur et le timbre dans differents contextes. L'incidence du timbre sur Ia perception des hauteurs etait etudiee dans deux contextes : en modifiant les parametres dans l'intervalle interstimuli (1 8 1) entre deux sons isoles ou dans le contexte d'une melodie familiere. Trois timbres etaient crees en manipulant l'intensite relative de onze harmoniques. Selon le timbre, les harmoniques inferieures, moyennes ou superieures, etaient success ivement renforcees. La frequ ence Iondamentale (Fo) de chaque son complexe allait de 261

P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal F-15

a 494 Hz (Do4-Si4), tous les sons etaient rendus equivalent du point de vue de Ia sonie.

Dans Ia lache des sons isoles, deux sons etaient presentes et le second pouvait differer du premier par Ia hauteur et/ou le timbre , Ia Fo restant constante ou etant augmentee ou diminuee de 17, 35, 52 cents par rapport a celle du premier son . Les sujets devaient indiquer si le second son etait identique ou different du premier, du point de vue de Ia hauteur uniquement. Dans le contexte melodique, Ia Fo et le timbre du dernier son etaient modifies de Ia meme maniere que le contexte des sons isoles. Les resultats indiquent que pour les sons isoles, le timbre influence Ia perception de Ia hauteur. Dans le contexte melodique, cette interaction n'est pas significative. Les sujets etaient des non-musiciens.

L'etude explorait egalement le röle de certains sons comme hauteur de reference dans une melodie et le röle des traces mnesiques a long terme. Warrier et Zatorre montrent que si un son fait partie d'une melodie ou d'un air familier, l'aptitude des sujets a identifier Ia hauteur n'est pas affectee par le timbre . Au contraire, dans le cas de sons isoles depourvus de point de reference ou de trace mnesique, les differences de timbre alterent Ia perception des hauteurs.

Selon Warrier et Zatorre, les composantes spectrales du timbre peuvent affecter Ia perception de Ia hauteur. Toutefois, ils ne tirent aucune consequence pratique pour Ia perception de Ia musique "reelle" par des musiciens reels. Leur etude pourrait avoir des implications importantes pour Ia formation musicale, en particulier pour Ia conception de l'evaluation auditive des musiciens interpretes. Si, pour les sons isoles, le timbre domine Ia perception des hauteurs, les implications pour l'evaluation auditive au moyen d'un piano - Ia procedure habituelle - doivent etre examinees. En realite , il conviendrait de reflechir sur Ia pratique qui consiste a evaluer les musiciens-interpretes au moyen de melodies isolees. Cependant, plusieurs questions doivent eire davantage explorees avant d'appliquer les resultats. Premierement, les sujets de Warrier et Zatorre etaient non-musiciens. Une etude comportant des musiciens et des non-musiciens procurerait probablement des conclusions plus fiables sur les consequences de Ia perception des difference de timbre et de hauteur pour les musiciens (peut-etre des interpretes et des compositeurs pourraient-ils eire inclus a titre de groupe de comparaison) . Deuxiemement, les stimuli utilises etaient des sons de synthese, ce qui facilitait Ia manipulation des harmoniques d'un son donne . Cependant, les musiciens, et en particulier les musiciens interpretes "traditionnels", jouent avec des timbres "reels" d'instruments acoustiques plutöt qu'avec des sons de synthese. Comparer les resultats generes par une variete de timbre d'instruments acoustiques pourrait eire interessant. Troisiemement, puisque cette etude portait sur les relations entre Ia perception de Ia hauteur et des composantes spectrales du timbre , il conviendrait peut-etre d'elargir le contexte de recherche de fa9on a en cerner les effets sur Ia perception de Ia musique du monde "reel".

Tout au long de ce siecle , Ia formation musicale a mis l'accent sur les aptitudes d'ecoute. L'evaluation de l'interpretation , de Ia musicalite et du talent musical repose sur des testes destines a evaluer les aptitudes auditives au moyen de reponses orales a des Stimuli auditifs. En parti culier, l'acuite auditive a ete, et est encore, une qualite attendue chez l'interprete et est censee etre revelee par Ia vari ete des tests auditifs servant a l'evaluation du musicien-interprete. Perry Cook a

F-16 P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal

justement brillamment presente une etude relative aux problemes fondamentaux de l'acuite auditive intitulee "Hearing, feeling, and performing: masking studi es with trombone players".

Examinant le röle des strategies de feedback et de feedforward utilisees par des experts en cours d'interpretation, Cook eherehe a identifier les mecanismes de contröle auditifs, haptiques et mnesiques necessaires a Ia regulation d'une bonne interpretation musicale . Deux conditions sont mises en place : une tache de masquage (realise a l'aide 'un casque d'ecoute emettant a 110 dB) et une tache sans masquage. Les sujets, qui avaient entre sept et quarante-cinq ans d'experience en tant qu'interprete, devaient preparer trois courts extraits art icules autour de Ia series des harmoniques du trombone. lls repetaient le morceau avec un metronome regle a 72 bpm puis a 96 bpm . Les extraits consistaient en un exercice d'echauffement, un grand mouvement de Ia coulisse, des ajustements de Ia tension des levres. Les extraits etaient ensuite executes avec un metronome regle a 72 bpm puis a 96 bpm, d'abord avec masquage puis sans masquage.

Cook observe que le nombre de notes manquees varie de faQon negligeable entre Ia condition avec masquage et sans masquage. Les sujets identifient immediatement Ia note substituee a Ia note correcte. Des etudes sur les vocalistes rapportent des resultats similaires (Campbell & Michel, 1980; Sundberg, 1981 ; Ward & Burns, 1978; Ternstrom et al., 1983; Shipp et al., 1984). Dans Ia lache avec masquage, tous les sujets jouaient plus fort que dans Ia condition sans masquage, a l'exception de !'expert ayant accumule quarante ans d'experience. Cependant, l'augmentation d'intensite n'etait pas significative (augmentation moyenne de l'intensite = 3,75 dB, ecart-type = 2,611 dB). En l'absence de feedback auditif, Ia performance devenait rigide , manquant particulierement de vibrato. Tous les sujets jouaient avec un sens accru de Ia pulsation au cours de Ia lache de masquage et disaient jouer surtout "a l'intuition".

Cook ajoute que le canal haptique domine le feedback ou suffit quand le feedback auditif est inhibe, et Ia memoire joue un röle important dans Ia recherche des hauteurs afin de produire une repon se sensorielle haptique (Seashore, 1939). Cook conclut que le feedback auditif n'est pas necessaire pour permettre au tromboniste expert une execution efficace et musicale. En Opposition avec les resultats de Cook, Sloboda (1988) suggere que nos facultes auditives sont vitales pour l'autocontröle l'ajustement de notre interpretation. Evelynn Giennie (1 992) affirme que lorsque nous jouons, nous percevons, repondons et nous adaptons continuellement a ce que nos oreilles nous transmettent , le feedback auditif etant imperatif pour une bonne execution musicale. Campte tenu du haut niveau de decibels de Ia lache avec masquage (11 0), il n'est peut-et re pas etonnant que les joueu rs de cuivre s'appuient moins sur le feedback auditif lorsqu'ils jouent. Les executions "rigides" observees par Cook dans Ia condition avec masquage peut fournir Ia cle de cette apparente discordance. Une execution rigide peut-elle etre qualifiee de musicale ? En fait, Ia definition de Ia musica lite ne fait-e lle pas l'objet de debats fluctuants depuis Seashore (1919) ? En outre, les sujets de Cook jouaient toujours d'abord dans Ia condition sans masquage. Cela pourrait expliquer le caractere non necessai re du feedback auditif puisque les sujets avaient deja ete expose a un feedback auditif. Les conditions experimentales devraient et re organisees aleatoirement avant de pouvoir tirer de pareilles conclusions.

P. Jus lin, A. McNeil, M. Royal F-17

La suggestion selon laque lle les trombonistes, se lon leur propre aveu, jouaient "a l'intuition" ne doit pas etre mal comprise. Par "intuition", Cook entend que les sujets s'appu ient sur les mecanismes mnesiques et sur le feedback haptique, non sur l'aptitude a sentir Ia musique dans un sens interpretatif. La recherche de Cook pose Ia question Iondamentale des aptitudes aud itives . Carlsen a Ia conference JRME tenue au printemps a l'universite de Reading (UK), posait une question directement liee au travail de Cook : "Nous enseignons Ia formation de l'ore ille et ce depuis un certain temps, mais quel est le degre de faculte perceptive requis pour etre un bon musicien ?".

Des reponses a l'expose de Acker et Pastore ("Melody perception in homophonic and polyphonic contexts") faisaient echo a Ia question posee par Carlsen . Un membre du public fit remarquer que "nous evaluons tous l'oreille mais personne ne sait pourquoi nous le faisons", ce qui suscita les rires du reste de l'auditoire. La recherche de Cook tauche a des questions plus larges comme Ia mesure dans laquelle nous nous appuyons sur les aptitudes auditives pour etre un bon musicien. Sloboda (1987) insiste sur l'importance pour le music ien-interprete de s'ecouter, mais quelles sont les aptitudes auditives necessa ires pour produire une interpretation qui reponde adequatement a cette ecoute ? De plus amples recherches recourant a des musiciens moins experimentes et d'autres instrumentistes s'averent necessaires.

Alison McNeil Departement de Musique, Universite de Huddersfield, UK

Les exposes suivants, donnes a I'ICMPC de Montreal de 1996, ont ete choisis parce qu'ils portent tous, d'une maniere ou d'une autre, sur Ia perception du rythme mais representent differentes approches de ce sujet. Ces exposes illustrent Ia variete croissante des methodologies utilisees par les chercheurs en psychologie de Ia musique : ci-dessous figurent un exemple d'experimentation sur Ia perception et l'interpretation, d'etude de cas neuropathologique, de modelisation informatique et de theorie musicale.

A l'aide dune approche de detection du signal, Hasan Gürkan Tekman invitait ses SUjets a detecter des eca rts d'intervalles l ernporeli es dans des sequences principalement isochrones. L'inclusion de sons accentues (plus forts) rendaient les sons deviants longs plus difficiles a detecter, au contraire des sons deviants courts. L'accentuation des sons diminuait aussi Ia sensibilite de l'auditeur mais seulement lorsque ces accents se produisaient a intervalles reguliers (plutöt qu'irreguliers). La recherche de Tekman decrit l'interaction entre l'intensite et Ia duree.

Geoffrey Collier a presente une etude sur l'execution d'un rythme "croche-triple croche-triple noire" (3:2:1) par des batteurs de jazz profess ionnels. Les batteurs devaient jouer ce rythme a different tempi (de 25 a 280 bpm) en adoptant un style "swing" ou strict sur une batterie MIDI. Le rapport de Ia partie 2:1 de ce rythme a ete analysee . Dans Ia condition "rythme strict", les trois batteurs produisaient des rapports plus proches de 2:1 a des tempi moderes, tandis que pour les tempiplus rapides, ils evoluaient vers des rapports 1:1. Dans Ia cond ition "swing", les rapports avaient tendance a etre plus extremes pour les tempi moderes. Contrairement a Ia

F-18 P. Juslin, A. McNeil, M. Royal

croyance populaire, les rapports "swing " etaient plus extremes que les tripleis stricts .

Willi Steinke a relate le cas du patient KB, un homme de 66 ans droitier presentant une amusie sans alteration des capacites langagieres. Steinke et al. observent que KB peut juger correctement si deux rythmes presentes par paire sont identiques ou differents et est capable de repartir les melodies dans les categories "valse" et "marche" . Les performances etaient superieures a ce qui etait attendu par hasard mais Interieures aux resultats d'un groupe contröle de sujets intacts sur le plan neurologique, d'äge et de formation musicale semblables . Cette difference entre KB et le groupe contröle etait davantage marquee encore dans un autre lest ou les sujets devaient reconnaitre le rythme de melodies familieres, une täche qui s'avera impossible pour KB. Sur le plan de Ia production, KB pouvait reproduire des pulsations metronomiques sauf les plus lentes et etait capable de reproduire de petites sequences rythmiques mais avec un succes modere. Au depart de ces resultats et d'autres tests de perception melodique, Ste inke et al. concluent que KB a perdu l'usage d'un processeur musical specialiss auquel il doit substituer d'autres mecanismes de traitement (peut-etre lies au Iangage).

Leigh Smith a rapparte une recherche sur le traitement et l'analyse de rythmes musicaux par ordinateur. Utilisant une Iransformation sinuso'ldale continue, des frequences rythmiques allant de 0,1 a 100 Hz etaient extraites d'un rythme donne en input. Le programme generait deux types d'output, un scalogramme, representant l'evolution temporelle des niveaux metriques, et un phasogramme, representant les relations de phase entre ces niveaux metriques. Smith illustra les performances du programme a l'aide de I' ostinato du Bolero de Ravel.

Justin London a discute de Ia superiorite de Ia metrique binaire simple par rapport Ia metrique ternaire ou les metriques comp lexes. London suggere que les metres qui regroupent les plus petites valeurs de notes par troi s sont plus difficiles a percevoir parce qu'ils s'opposent a Ia tendance naturelle a marquer l'alternance des sons par une metrique fort-faible , fort-faibl e, etc. Le metre 9/8 est le plus difficile parce que, etant donnee l'alternance de noires fortes et faibles, une noire !orte ne co'lncide avec un temps fort qu'une foi s tous les deux mesures (au baut de six battues de croches pointees). London a souligne que l'origine de Ia preference pour les organisations metriques binaires provient de l'avenement de Ia musique de danse instrumentale a l'epoque baroque.

Dr Matthew Royal Faculte de Musique, Universite de Western Ontario, Canada

Traduit de /'anglais par Mare Melen

Le futur en nHrospective. 12e session annuelle de Ia Societe allemande de psychologie de Ia musique (DGM) et 2e symposium international de psychologie de Ia musique a Freiburg/Br. (RFA) du 12 au 14 septembre

1996

Elena Ungeheuer

Le titre general de Ia manifestation, La reception musicale au terme d'un siecle, n'avait rien de sentimental; il signalalt plutöt que l'on peut, sans trop de craintes, poser un regard critique sur l'evo lution d'un secteur ou Ia recherche, en plein essor, s'interesse tantöt aux conditions de Ia perception, tantöt aux relations que professionnels et amateurs entretiennent avec Ia musique. Heiner Gembris (Münster) ouvrit les debats en retrayant l'evol ution de Ia discipline tout en revendiquant, pour ses propres travaux, une distance par rapport aux recherches purement cognitives. II mit le doigt sur Ia polarisation inherente aux sciences psychoacoustiques qui divise Ia communaute scientifique en deux "camps " : l'un, fonde sur les sciences exactes, fait primer Ia mesure sur toute autre consideration; l'autre, plus philosophique ou esthetique, puise aux sciences humaines. Ainsi Carol Krumhansl (lthaca NY), l'une des tres rares a avoir prolange leur sejour en Europe au dela de Ia conference JIC96 (Joint International Conference) a Bruges en debut de semaine (ou les cogn itivistes purs et durs etaient fortement presents), presenta-t-elle les resultats d'une recherche ou eile s'est efforcee de mesurer simultanement Ia pertinence de Ia segmentat ion et Ia " tens ion musicale " dans une sonate de Mozart. Dan s Ia discussion qui suivit son expose, Gembris, cherchant a avoir quelques precisions sur ce qu'elle entendait par "tension mu sicale ", s'entendit repondre que, avant de s'interroger sur les acceptions complexes et les intrications des mots, eile mesure. Selon Gembris, il est, au contraire, urgent de relativiser Ia predominance anglo­americaine dans Ia discipline, car eile reduit le champ des investigations aux seules demarches experimentales. II lui oppose des approches tenant davantage compte des Situations reelles et des contextes socio-culturels ou individuels ainsi qu'une historiographie propre aux recherches en matiere de reception et offrant une mise en perspective, SOUS Ia forme d'une evolution de l'attitude receptive, des resultats et des circonstances dans lesquelles ceux-ci ont ete obtenus. II y a taut li eu de croire que les deux directions pourraient ainsi progressivement se rapprocher, d'autant plus que l'on voit poindre des travaux americains " revisitant " les pionniers europeens de Ia discipline, comme Ernst Kurth .

Parmi les trois orateurs invites, soulignons Ia presence de Robert Frances (Paris), figure quasi mythique (son ouvrage La perception de Ia musique date de 1958) que, a l'exception du 3e ICMPC de Liege en 1994, l'on n'avait plus vu dans un tel contexte depuis plusieurs decennies.

Sur le fand, nul ne contredira que le multimedia constitue deja une realite artistique demandant, quant a sa reception, des voies d'approches originales. Mais, n'est-on pas face a un simple effet de mode lorsque, dans un expose au titre fort prometteur, "The Reception of Multimedia : A Framewerk for Analysis ", Nicholas Cook (Southampton) s'attarde sur des pochelies de disques pompeusement promues aux rang de phenomenes artistiques multimedia ? Surtout que taut n'y est que cliche ! Par exemple, Ia formule "peinture cubiste et Petrouchka ". En outre, il confond multimedia et utili sation de compositions deja ecrites comme musiques de film. Qu'y a-1-il de si extraordinaire, du point de vue du multimedia, dans Ia sequence

F-20 E.Ungeheuer

de Fantasia de Wall Disney ou les temps prehistoriques sont aeeompagnes d'extraits du Sacre du printemps, campte tenu du fait que Ia question a resoudre est Ia synchronisation rythmiqu e des sequences d'images et des phrases musicales . Qui plus est : Nicholas Cook ignore-t-il vraiment que Stravinsky - contre !orte somme, s'entend - avait accepte un mantage trahissant sa musique (suppression de certains passages, repetition d'autres), et que, partant, sans eomparer Ia musique originale avec Ia version "comic-strip ", cet exemple est probablement le plus insense qui se puisse ehoisir eomme base d'un "framework for the analysis of multimedia" ? lndependamment de tout ce qui precede, l'interrogation Iondamentale reste : et le

multimedia ?

Par ailleurs, Ia multitude des reeherches individue lles presentees a Freiburg offre un panorama interessant de Ia discipline . Renale Müller (Ludwigsburg) donna de precieuses indications sur les possibilites et les limites actuelles de l'analyse par ordinateur dans Ia recherche empirique. Ulrike Karrer (Würzburg) etudia des cassettes de " musique de relaxat ion " pour conclure qu'aucun effet particulier ne pouvait leur etre assigne en tant que te lles. La musique dans Ia publicite prit de biais une etude de Iangue duree menee par Klaus-Ernst Sehne (Hanovre) sur l'accoutumance des jeunes a Ia musique classique, car les reponses positives a l'egard de cette derniere augmenterent significativement lorsqu'une publicite pour un yaourt se servil du celebrissime concerto pour piano de Teha'lkowsky. D'autres etudes auront a approfondir ce phenomene que l'on qualifie desormais d"'effet­

yaourt-Teha'lkowsky".

Plusieurs recherehes elargirent notre connaissance des representat ions eognitives de Ia musique. La premiere traita de Ia predominance de Ia pereeption des structures globales sur celle des organisations locales et constata qu'elles peuvent etre soumises a des permutations sans modifier le sens profand (Barbara Tillmann, Dijon) . La deuxieme porta sur les consequences d'une audition repetee ou de l'absence d'une teile familiarisation, question que Christoph Louven (Cologne) etudia sur Ia base d'une musique de sa propre plume usant de formules stylistiques typees; il y aborda par ailleurs les differentes phases du contact avec Ia musique et Ia eomparaison entre differents types d'auditeurs. Une troisieme etude, fruit de Ia collaboration entre des chercheurs de Freiburg et de Hanovre, tut presentee par Willried Gruhn (Freiburg/Br.) : eile mesure l'excitation des nerfs cerebraux a l'audition en vue de distinguer differents types de representation musicale, l'une figurale et globale, l'autre formelle, c'est-a-dire analytique et structuree par des prineipes linguistiques. Ces types decrivant preeisement les deux formes d'edueation qu'il a appliquees aux enfants, Gruhn considere que ses resultats fournissent une preuve corticale a Ia pedagogie.

Qu'elles visent une realite artistique ou pedagogique, les recherches en matiere de reception etaient, gräce a un choix judieieux, presentes dans taute leu r diversite a ce 2e Symposion international de Ia psychologie de Ia musique a Freiburg, qui se tint fort a propos a Ia suite de Ia session annuelle de Ia DGM.

ANNONCES

IMPORTANT

Les numeros de telephone et de lax du siege de I'ESCOM a Liege seront modifies a partir de NOVEMBRE 1996.

Veuillez former les numeros suivants:

TELEPHONE: 32 4 223 22 89 FAX: 32 4 222 06 68

L'adresse e-mail a ete modifiee en juin dernier et certaines personnes ont eprouve des problemes de communication . Veuillez utiliser dorenavant l'adresse du

Secretaire-permanent

i.deliege@ulg.ac.be

NB: Les caracteres avec accent ne doivent pas etre utilises dans l'ecriture des adresses e-mail.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS FOR APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY CALLS FOR PAPERS

The Seienlilie . Program Committee for the 24th International Congress of Psychology, tak1ng place August 9-14, 1998 in San Francisco, has issued the call for papers. Hosted by the Ameriean Psychological Association (APA) on behalf of the lnt~rnational Association of Applied Psychology, the Congress will feature an array of JndJVJdual and group presentations on: organizational psychology; psychological evaluat~on and assessment; psychology and national development; educational , JnstruetJonal and school psyehology; clinical and community psychology; applied gerontology; health psychology; economic psychology; psychology and law; political psychology; spart. psyeho logy; traffie and Iransportalion psychology; and other areas such as applied soeial, applied developmental, human factors and ergonomics an~ social issues .. To request a eopy of the eall, contact:· Congress Secretariat, APA Offlee of International Affairs, 750 First Street, NE, Washington DC 200002-4242· lax 202-336-5956; e-mail icap@apa.org. '

E- 22 Announcements

ESCOM ANNONCES OFFICIELLES

1. Convocation de l'assemblee generate de 1997

Veuillez noter que Ia troisieme Assemblee Generale des membres de I'Association Europeenne pour les Seiences Cognitives de Ia Musique (ESCOM) se tiendra a Uppsala, Suede, entre le 7 et le 12 juin 1997. Taus les membres effectifs sont invites a participer aux discussions, proposer des resolutions et prendre part aux votes, en accord avec les statuts et les reglements d'ordre interieur (voir Ci-

dessous) .

2. Propositions de candidatures au conseil d'administration

Des propositions de candidature aux postes de President, Vice-President, Tresorier et Editeur du Bulletin d 'lnformation sont demandees. Gelles-ei doivent etre envoyees au Secretaire-Permanent de I'Association avant le 7 fevrier 1997.

Seuls les membres effectifs de I'ESCOM sont eligibles a ces postes. La proposition d'une Candidalure doit etre faite par deux membres effectifs de I'Association, lesquels auront obtenu au prealable le consentement du candidat propose. Taute proposition doit etre assortie d'un commentaire de 500 mots maximum, redige et signe par les deux membres responsables de Ia proposition. En outre ceux-c1 s'assureront a l'avance au sujet des capacites, experience, temps libre, volonte d'investissement dans Ia täche, ressources personnelies ou institutionnelles permettant au candidat d'accomplir valablement le travail requis au sein du Conseil

d' Administration.

Les votes aux differents postes au sein du Conseil d'Administration se font par bulletin secrat par les membres effectifs, lesquels peuvent donner procuration a un autre membre effectif pour se faire representer a I' Assemblee Generale.

Le President est /e representant officiel de /'Association. II dirige et supervise /es activites de /'Association et est en contact permanent avec /es autres titulaires de fonction. Le President preside /es reunions de /'Assemblee Generale et du Conseil d'Administration. Le President ne peut remplir deux mandats consecutifs.

Le Vice-President remplace /e President en cas de necessite ou a Ia demande de ce dernier. Le Vice-President cherchera activement a accroftre le nombre de membres de /'Association.

Le Tresorier est responsable des fonds de I'Association. L 'utilisation de ceux-ci se fera par demande ecrite du Tresorier et signature du Secretaire-Permanent. Chaque fois que Ia demande /ui en est faite , /e Tresorier presentera au Conseil d'Administration un etat des comptes de /'Association. Lors de chaque Assemblee Generale, /e Tresorier fera un rapport sur /es finances du trienna l ecou/8 et presentera un budget pour le triennal suivant.

L 'Editeur du Bulletin d'lnformation organise Ia publication du Bulletin officiel de

/'Association.

Announcements E-23

3 . Propositions d'amendements aux statuts ou au reglement d'ordre interieur

Dans le respect de Ia leg islation du pays ou l'association est etablie, des amendements et modifications aux statuts ou au reglement d'ordre interieur peuvent etre proposes par le Conseil d'Administration ou par une requete signee par dix membres effectifs ressortissants d'au moins trois pays . Taute proposition d'amendement doit etre accompagnee d'un commenta ire de 500 mots maximum redige par les membres qui deposent une proposition d'amendement. Elles doivent etre envoyees au Secretaire-Permanent de I'Association avant le 7 fevrier 1997.

L'attention des membres est attiree sur le fait que les modifications aux statuts entraTnent d'importants frais et ne sont effectives qu'apres publication au journal officiel. II est donc preferable, et en general aussi efficace, d'effectuer les amendements souhaites dans le cadre du reglement d'ordre interieur.

Les votes concernant des propositions de modification se font par bulletin secrat par les membres effectifs, lesquels peuvent donner procuration a un autre membre effectif pour se faire representer a I' Assemblee Generale.

4. Resolutions en mat iere de polit ique generate ou de procedure

Des resolutions en matiere de politique generale ou de procedure peuvent etre discutees et soumises au vote de !'Assemblee Generale dans Ia mesure ou des propositions ont ete soumises par ecrit par deux membres effectifs et adressees au Secretaire-Permanent au plus tard avant le 7 fevrier 1997.

Statuts Amendes

ASSOCIATION EUROPEENNE POUR

LES SCIENCES COGNITIVES DE LA MUSIQUE

association internationale

ARTICLE 1. DENOMINATION. La denomination de l'associat ion est "Association eu ropeenne pour les Seiences cognitives de Ia Musique". Cette association est regie par Ia loi beige du 25 octobre 1919, modifiee par Ia loi du 6 decembre 1954.

ARTICLE 2. SIEGE. Le siege social de l'association est etabli officiellement au Centre de Recherehes et de Formation Musicalas de Wallonie, association sans but lucratif, place du Vingt­AoOt, 16, 4000 Liege, Belgique. Le siege peut et re Iranstere dans tout autre lieu de Belgique par simple decision de l'assemblee generale publiee aux annexes au Moniteur beige.

E-24 Announcements

ARTICLE 3. OBJET. Les objets de l'association sont les suivants : a. Ia poursuite de Ia recherche theorique, experimentale et appliquee et

l'enseignement des sciences cognitives de Ia musique qui sont delinies comme l'etude des processus perceptifs et mentaux sous-tendant l'experience et l'activite musicales,

b. le developpement et Ia diffusion de Ia connaissance de Ia perception et de Ia cognition musicales et Ia promotion de ses applications pratiques,

c. l'encouragement de Ia communication et de Ia cooperation europeennes et internationales dans le domaine des sciences cognitives de Ia musique. Ce domaine inclut les disciplines de Ia musicologie, de Ia theorie musicale, de Ia psychologie, de l'acoustique, de Ia neurophysiologie, de Ia philosophie, des mathematiques, de l'inteiligence artificieile, de Ia pedagogie et toutes autres qui ont pour objet principal les sciences cognitives de Ia musique.

ARTICLE 4. ACTIVITES. L'association peut entreprendre toute activite legale en rapport avec ses objets. Ceux-ci comportent l'encouragement au developpement academique, pedagogique et pratique des sciences cognitives de Ia musique par Ia tenue de reunions regulieres, de publications suivies dans le domaine de Ia cognition de Ia musique, Ia mise en oeuvre de programmes pedagogiques, Ia recherche de ressources pour aider de jeunes scientifiques dans leurs activites de formation et de recherche, l'etablissement de relations publiques et le maintien de Iiens avec d'autres organismes nationaux et internationaux qui partagent les principaux objectifs decrits dans les presents statuts. L'association agit sans but lucratif.

ARTICLE 5. MEMBRES. a. L'association est composee des Iondateurs a Ia date de sa constitution et de

toute autre personne, physique ou morale, admise ensuite a Ia qualite de membre.

b. Les categories de membres sont : membre effectif, membre honoraire, membre etudiant, membre affilie et membre de soutien.

c . Pour illre elue a Ia qualite de membre de l'association, une personne doit avoir montre de l'interet pour les objectifs de l'association par ses recherches, ses publications ou sa formation.

d. Tout nouveau membre de l'association est elu par un vote majoritaire du conseil d'administration sur presentation d'un builetin de candidature dOment complete . La qualite de membre est effectivement conferee par le paiement de Ia cotisation adequate. Les elections relatives a Ia qualite de membre auront lieu au moins une fois par an.

e. Au moins les trois quarts des membres effectifs de l'association doivent etre domicilies et exercer dans un pays d'Europe.

f. Le conseil d'administration peut se voir proposer de designer a Ia qualite de membre honoraire de l'association tout membre qui a cesse d'assumer des responsabilites academiques importantes. La qualite de membre honoraire est conferee par le conseil d'administration statuant a l'unanimite.

g. Tout etudiant d'institut superieur poursuivant une formation particuliere peut etre elu en qualite de membre etudiant par le COnseil d'administration.

h. Dans l'hypothese ou un quart des membres effectifs de l'association ne sont pas domicilies ou n'exercent pas dans un pays d'Europe, toute personne qui reunit les conditions d'eligibilite a Ia qualite de membre effectif , mais qui n'est

Announcements E-25

pas domiciliee ou n'exerce pas dans un pays d'Europe, peut poser sa candidature a Ia qualite de membre affilie .

i. Est membre de soutien toute personne, physique ou morale, qui fait une liberalite importante a l'association et qui est elue a cette qualite par le Conseil d'administration. Celui-ci definit ce qu'il taut entendre par "liberalite importante".

j. Seuls les membres effectifs ont le droit de voter les resolutions presentees a l'assemblee generale et de detenir une fonction au sein de l'association.

k. La qualite de membre peut etre retiree par decision du conseil d'administration si les cotisations de membre sont impayees depuis plus d'un an. En ce cas, le membre n'a aucun droit sur le fonds social. II en est de meme du membre qui cesse de faire partie de l'association.

I. Tout membre peut en tout temps donner sa demission de l'association par lettre recommandee adressee au secretaire permanent ou remise contre accuse de reception.

ARTICLE 6. ADMINISTRATION. a. L'association est administree par un conseil d'administration . Celui-ci possede

l'autorite pour gerer et administrer l'association conformement a ses statuts et a son reglement d'ordre interieur.

b. Le conseil d'administration doit comporter des ressortissants d'au moins quatre pays d'Europe.

c. Les membres du conseil d'administration sont elus par l'assemblee generale pour une periode d'au moins trois ans. L'assemblee generale elit egalement, pour Ia meme periode, une personne de nationalite beige, membre effectif de l'association, en tant que membre du conseil d'administration; ceile-ci est le secretaire permanent de l'association. Le secretaire permanent est responsable des archives de l'association, notamment de ses proces-verbaux. En outre, Ia structure specifique du conseil d'administration et son mode d'election sont determines par le reglement d'ordre interieur.

d. Les principes de base de l'administration de l'association impliquent Ia participation maximale des membres dans tous ses desseins et ses decisions pratiques ainsi que l'election directe de tout titulaire de fonction par les membres effectifs .

e. Tous les actes qui engagent l'association doivent etre signes par deux membres du conseil d'administration ou par le secretaire, qui n'auront pas a justifier envers les tiers des pouvoirs conferes a cette fin .

f . Les actions judiciaires tant en demandant qu'en defendant sont suivies par le conseil d'administration represente par son president ou un autre membre du conseil d'administration designe par celui-ci a cet effet.

g. Le conseil ne peut valablement deliberer que si Ia moitie au moins de ses membres sont presents ou representes. Les resolutions du conseil sont prises a Ia majorite des administrateurs. Les resolutions font l'objet de proces-verbaux signes par deux administrateurs.

ARTICLE 7. ASSEMBLEE GENERALE. a. L'assemblee generale possede Ia plenitude des pouvoirs permettant Ia

realisation de l'objet de l'association. Eile approuve les orientations de l'association qui lui sont presentees par le conseil d'administration. Eile entendra les rapports des titulaires de fonction et eile prendra toute decision importante requise par les circonstances et par les statuts.

E- 26 Announcements

b.

c.

Tout membre effectif a Je droit de proposer et de defendre des resolutions portees a Ja connaissance de J'assemblee et de prendre part a taute discussion. L'election des titulaires de fonction du conseil d'administration aura lieu aux reunions de J'assemblee generale, comme prevu dans Je reglement d'ordre

interieur. d. Les membres et les administrateurs peuvent iHre revoques par l'assemblee

generale statuant a Ia majorite des deux-tiers des membres votants, apres avoir entendu Ia defense des interesses.

e.

!.

L'assemblee ne peut valablement deliberer que si Ia moitie au moins de ses membres effectifs sont presents ou representes. Les deliberations de J'assemblee sont prises a Ia majorite des membres votants, sauf s'il en est dispose autrement par les presents statuts. Les deliberations font l'objet de proces-verbaux signes par deux membres effectifs. Si Ja moitie au moins des membres effectifs de l'assemblee generale ne sont pas presents ou representes, Je president peut convoquer, sans de_lai, _par tout moyen, une nouvelle assemblee generale qui pourra valablement del1berer quel que soit Je nombre de membres effectifs presents ou representes.

ARTICLE 8. BUDGETSET COMPTES. a. L'exercice social debute Je 1 er janvier et se clöture Je 31 decembre. b. Le tresorier etablit, tous Jes trois ans, un rapport sur J'etat financier de

J'association, ainsi qu'un budget triennal des previsions de recettes et de depenses, qu'il soumet a l'assemblee generale pour approbation.

c. Le tresorier etablit, annuellement, un projet de budget, Je campte des depenses et des recettes, ainsi que Je bilan de l'association, qu'il soumet a J'accord du conseil d'administration et a l'approbatlon de Ia plus procha1ne

assemblee generale. d. Le projet de budget contient toutes les previsions de recettes, et notamment

Jes cotisations dont Je montant est fixe par l'assemblee generale pour chaque categorie de membres et pour chaque pays ou region, ainsi que Jes fonds et subsides que Je conseil d'administration est autoriss a solliciter aupres de tiers pour subvenir aux activites de l'association.

e. A Ja demande du conseil d'administration, Je tresorier etablit egalement un projet de budget distinct de celui de J'association pour chacune des reunions scientifiques officielles de J'association; Je conseil d'administration peut decider que des activites de Ja reunion precitee peuvent beneficier des ressources de

J'association.

ARTICLE 9. REGLEMENT D'ORDRE INTERIEUR. a. Le conseil d'administration peut, en statuant a J'unanimite, adopter un

reglement d'ordre interieur qui precise J'organisation interne et Jes modalites de fonctionnement de J'association, ainsi que ses activites. II peut, se lon Jes memes modalites, modifier Jedit reglement.

b. Le conseil d'administration informe chacun des membres de taute modification apportee au reglement d'ordre interieur.

c. Le reglement d'ordre interieur et chacune de ses modifications sont soumis a J'approbation de Ja plus prochaine assemblee generale.

ARTICLE 10. INTERPRETATION ET MODIFICATION DES STATUTS. a. Sur proposition du conseil d'administration ou sur requete signee par au moins

dix membres effectifs res so rtis sant d'au moins trois pays, l'assemblee

Announcements E-27

generale, reunie conformement a l'article 7, peut, a Ja majorite des deux tiers des membres presents ou representes, interpreier et modifier Jes dispositions des presents statuts.

b. Les modifications aux presents statuts n'auront d'effet qu'apres approbation par arrete royal et qu 'apres que Jes conditions de publicite, requi ses par J'article 3 de Ia loi du 25 octobre 1919, auront ete remplies.

ARTICLE 11. DISSOLUTION. La dissolution de l'association est soumise aux memes regles que Jes modifications aux presents statuts . Les modalites de dissolution et de Iiquidation sont determinees par l'assemblee generale. L'actif net de J'association sera affecte par l'assemblee generale sur proposition du conseil d'administration et doit beneficier en ce cas a une association ou a une organisation denuee de but Jucratif et dont J'objet est semblable a celui de l'association; en aucun cas, il ne peut etre distribue a ses membres.

ARTICLE 12. DISPOSITION GENERALE. Tout ce qui n'est pas prevu par les presents statuts et Je reglement d'ordre interieur sera regle conformement aux dispositions de Ja Joi du 25 octobre 1919.

Fait a Liege (Belgique), Je 18 decembre 1990.

Modifis Je 20 janvier 1991 a Ia demande du Ministere beige de Ja Justice et amende par l'assemblee generale du 17 decembre 1994.

E- 28 Announcements

MUS/CAE SC/ENTIAE INSTRUCTIONS AUX AUTEURS

MUSICAE SCIENTIAE (Ia revue de Ia SociiHe Europeenne pour les Seiences Cognitives de Ia Musique) publie des artic les empiriques, theoriques et critiques destines a enrich ir Ia comprehension au sujet de Ia fat;on dont Ia musique est pert;ue, representee et generee. Tout travail systematique ressortissant au domaine de Ia psychologie, de Ia philosophie, de l'esthetique , de l'analyse musicale, de Ia musicologie, des sciences cognitives, de l'education, de l'intelligence artificielle, de Ia modelisation et de Ia neuropsychologie qui contribuent a cet objectif, seront examines pour acceptation.

Les contributions seront publiees dans l'une des trois langues suivantes, I'Anglais, le Frant;ais ou I'AIIemand. Les resumes seront publies dans chacune de ces langues ainsi qu'en Italien et en Espagnol. Les articles devraient eire soumis en tant que Rapports (entre 1.000 et 2.000 mots) ou Articles (entre 5.000 et 7.000 mots). Chaque type d'article doit eire accompagne d'un resume de 200 a 250 mots, en Iangue originale et en traduction anglaise.

Le materiel devrait autant que possible eire soumis sous formal electronique. Le texte devrait parvenir sur une disquelle (3.5" au formal Mac ou MSDOS/Windows) ou par courrier electronique, tandis que les Figures devraient eire envoyees sur feuilles pretes a Ia photographie, comme fichiers compatibles Postcript ou par courrier electronique. Toutes les soumissions, sur disquelle ou sur Qill2.lill doivent etre envoyees a I'Editeur, lrime Deliege, URPM, Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, 5, Bd du Rectorat, 8 32, 8 - 4000 LIEGE (Belgique). S'il s'ag it d'une version papier, Qi.ng copies doivent eire envoyees a l'adresse indiquee ci­dessus. Les soumissions par courrier electronique doivent etre envoyees comme attachements a I'Editeur a i.deliege@ulg.ac.be. Les Soumissions doivent eire redigees dans l'une des langues suivantes : Anglais, Fran<;ais ou Allemand . Le contenu ne peut avoir ete publie, examine, ni soumis pour publication dans une autre revue .

Les soumiss ions sur ~ doivent etre dactylographiees en double interligne (y compris les references, les legendes des figures, les notes de bas de page et les tableaux) et presenter des marges de 2.5-4 cm de chaque cöte. Toutes les soumissions (electroniques ou sur papier) doivent eire presentees comme suit :

(a) les pages doivent toutes eire numerotees, Ia page 1 comportant le titre de l'article, le(s) nom(s) et affiliation(s) des auteur(s), nom et adresse complete pour Ia correspondance en bas de page ;

(b) le resume doit se trauver en page 2. II proposera les principales hypotheses, methodologies, resultats et conclusions de l'article ;

( c) le corps de l'art icle doit debuter sur une page separee ; I es references, notes de bas de page, tableaux et legendes des figures doivent suivre le corps du texte dans l'ordre donne, chaque categorie de materiaux annexes debutant sur une nouvelle page. Chaque tableau ou figure sera presente sur une page separee.

Toutes les references doivent eire citees en suivant les indications de I'American Psychological Association, comme dans les exemples suivants :

Announcements E-29

Frances, R. (1958). La perception de Ia musique. [The perception of music (W.J. Dowling, Irans.) . Hi llsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988] Paris: J. Vrin. Meyer, L. B. (1967). Music, the arts, and ideas. Patterns and predictions in twentieth-century culture. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Longuet-Higgins, H. C. (1962). Letter to a musical friend. Music Review , 23, 244-48.

Papousek, H. (1979). From adaptive responses to social cognition: The learning view of development. ln M. H. Bornstein and W. Kessen (eds), Psychologica/ development from infancy: Image to inten/ion (pp. 251-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Fin de Ia partie frant;aise