ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER

Audience Purpose Organization Style Flow/Coherence Other?

AUDIENCE

Who was the audience for the last thing you wrote?

Did you write for him/her or was he she just an intermediary to your “real” audience.

Ultimately who are you learning to write to? Who do you think will be your audience for

what you write on this course? Assignment – based on what you are currently

doing anyway so you will have a mixed audience – how will you cope?

Must know audiences expectations and prior knowledge – what if you have more than one audience?

PURPOSE

Whatever you current writing project is – what is your purpose?

What will be the purpose of anything you write on this course?

When you write something for your supervisor, what are you doing? When you write something for me, what are you doing?

To inform?To display knowledge?To challenge?To provoke?To respond?

ORGANISATION

1 Chronologically or Reverse-Chronologically2 In spatial relation3 From General to Specific (inductive)4 From Specific to General (deductive)5 From Least Important to Most Important  6 Through Division and Classification7 By Cause and Effect8 By Problem and Solution9 Through Comparison or Analogy10 Through Contrast11 By Process12 Through Definition

STYLE Verbs – avoid phrasal (prepositional) – use single

(often Latinate) verbs Do task nine = p. 20

Avoid Contractions Use formal negative forms:

The analysis didn’t yield any new results The analysis yielded no new results

Avoid “run on expressions”: etc, and so forth, and so on

Avoid addressing reader as “you” Generally avoid use of “I” Limit use of direct questions: “What can be done

about this?” Place Adverbs within verb: “Very little is actually

known…” Use words efficiently/avoid being “wordy”

FLOW/COHERENCE

Use linking words/phrases See:

http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/Writing/Linkers.html

Use appropriate punctuation

Whether you’re a student, teacher, or businessperson, academic writing skills are necessary in today’s world.

Essays, reports, presentations and research papers are just some examples of documents written in the academic style.

WHAT İS ACADEMİC WRİTİNG?

In brief, academic writing is 'structured research' written by 'scholars' for other scholars (with all university writers being 'scholars' in this context).

Academic writing is;*factual,*objective, and most importantly, *FORMAL.

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERİSTİCS OF FORMAL WRİTİNG AND İNFORMAL WRİTİNG?

Formal English is used mainly in - academic writing, and

- business communications Whereas informal English is

-casual, and-appropriate when communicating with friends and

family.

CHARACTERİSTİCS OF FORMAL WRİTİNG

Formal Writing Informal Writing

Distant Language-Personal pronouns are usually avoided.-Passive voice is often preferred.

Personal Language-Personal Pronouns are common.-Personal feelings and views are expressed.-Active voice is often preferred.

CHARACTERİSTİCS OF FORMAL WRİTİNG

Formal Writing is ACCURATE:-Precise evidence is presented.-Facts are distinguished from opinions and feelings.-Sources are carefully used and acknowledged.-Sentences are clear and constructed carefully.-Punctuation marks are accurately used.

CHARACTERİSTİCS OF FORMAL WRİTİNG

Structure and vocabulary are formal;-Full forms are used (What have, cannot...)-More formal, abstract words with Latin or Greek origins

are often preferred.

YET İNFORMAL WRİTİNG İS... OFTEN IMPRECISE;-A personal viewpoint is expressed.-Statements are not necessarily accurate.-Facts and opinions are not necessarily distinct.-Sources are used rarely and carelessly.-Sentences are shorter, and not so carefully

constructed.-Dramatic punctuation marks (?, !, ...) are

common.

CHARACTERİSTİCS OF FORMAL WRİTİNG

Formal writing is TENTATIVE;-There are few definite statements.-Quick conclusions are avoided.

YET İN İNFORMAL WRİTİNG;

Structure and vocabulary are informal;-Short forms and contractions (I’ve, he’s, can’t...) are often used.-Shorter, less formal language is preferred (e.g. phrasal verbs,

compound words, idioms, slang and colloquial language).

HOWEVER, İNFORMAL WRİTİNG İS ASSERTIVE;-There are often definite statements and generalizations.-Conclusions may be drawn from insufficient evidence.

FORMAL WRİTİNG VS. INFORMAL WRİTİNG

Formal Writing Informal Writing

DISTANT LANGUAGE PERSONAL LANGUAGE

ACCURATE OFTEN IMPRECISE

FORMAL STRUCTURE and

VOCABULARY

INFORMAL STRUCTURE and

VOCABULARYTENTATIVE ASSERTIVE

THE FİRST DRAFT

The Short Research PaperIn an academic context, students are required to write essays including references to other sources to support their thesis statements and main ideas.

THE FİRST DRAFT

To support their ideas, they need to research what authorities have to say about their topics and include relevant support from outside sources by - summarizing,- quoting,- or paraphrasing it.

THE FİRST DRAFT

However, you should always keep in mind that no one else’s words are as important as yours!!!

As a writer, you use summaries, quotes, or paraphrases from others only to strenghten your own points.

Your instructor wants to see that you have researched authorities’ ideas and findings, and that you have integrated those with your own writing well.

DOİNG RESEARCH

CONCRETE SUPPORTWhat is concrete support?

- It is information from outside sources, such as- Books,

- Articles- and Websitesthat you insert into your essay to add weight to your arguments and

make them more convincing.

DOİNG RESEARCHGuidelines for Choosing a Piece of Concrete Support1. Carefully consider the source; use well known

newspapers and magazines – you can aslo use online versions of the well known ones.

FOR WEBSİTES: BE EXTRA CRİTİCAL AND SKEPTİCAL ABOUT THE CREDİBİLİTY OF DOCUMENTS ON THE WEB.

Ask yourself these questions: a. What is the source? If you cannot find it, do

not use the site.b. If you can find the source, is it trustworthy?

i. University publications are usually trustwothy.ii. Government documents may or may not be.iii. Blogs, which are often free, written discussions of various topics, are not always reliable. Make sure the author is an expert in the field before using his or her opinions.

2. In general, do not use information that is older than five years.

3. Choose a passage that directly supports ypur point.4. Do not take a passage out of context.5. Do not use more than two pieces of concrete

support in one paragraph. Most of the paragragh should be your own words.

6. Do not choose a passage that is too technical or field specific for your reader to understand (Above all, you need to understand it well in the firt place).

RESEARCHthe search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new

or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method.

"a studious inquiry or examination; especially  : investigation or experimentation aimed at the

discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts,

or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws” (The Merriam-Webster Online

Dictionary)

BASİC RESEARCH VS APPLİED RESEARCH

The primary purpose for basic research (as opposed to applied research) is discovering, interpreting,

and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity.

provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us.

makes practical applications possible. is funded by public authorities, by charitable

organizations and by private groups, including many companies.

can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.

ARTISTIC RESEARCH

also seen as 'practice-based research', can

take form when creative works are

considered both the research and the object

of research itself.

It is the debatable body of thought which

offers an alternative to purely scientific

methods in research in its search for

knowledge and truth.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

is embodied in the historical method.

Historians use primary sources and other

evidence to systematically investigate a

topic, and then to write histories in the form

of accounts of the past.

STRUCTURAL PROCESS.

1. Observations and Formation of the topic2. Hypothesis3. Conceptual definitions4. Operational definition5. Gathering of data6. Analysis of data7. Test, revising of hypothesis8. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary

RESEARCH PROCESS

PHASES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS:

Description (what, when, where) Classification (what is similar/different) Explanation (how and why) Prediction (what will be) Prescription (what should be)

Ethical analysis (norms/standards) Policy formulation Testing Evaluation Valuation Visioning

RESEARCH METHODS

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes three main forms

Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems

Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem

Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

RESEARCH METHODS(CONT’D)Research can also fall into two distinct types: Primary research (collection of data that does not

exist yet ) Secondary research (summary, collation and/or

synthesis of existing research)

In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied

Qualitative research (understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior)

Quantitative research (systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships)

ACADEMİC WRİTİNG

is usually serious, is intended for a critical and informed

audience, is based on closely-investigated knowledge, posits ideas or arguments, has an objective stance, clearly states the significance of the topic, is organized with adequate detail so that

other scholars could try to reproduce the results,

consists of a number of text types and genres.

ACADEMİC DOCUMENT TYPES Book, in many types and varieties. Book chapter, Book report, Paper/ Articles. Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in

length. Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length. Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some

obscure part of a particular work; e.g. its terminology, dialect, allusions or coded references.

Research Article / Research Paper; longer essay involving library research, 3000 to 6000 words in length.

Technical report Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of

20,000 words in length. Translation.

PAPER-ARTİCLE

In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work that is usually published in an academic journal.

It contains original research results or reviews existing results.

A paper, also called an article, will only be considered valid if it undergoes a process of peer review by one or more referees (who are academics in the same field) in order to check that the content of the paper is suitable for publication in the journal.

A paper may undergo a series of reviews, edits and re-submissions before finally being accepted or rejected for publication.

CATEGORIES OF PAPERS

Position paper, Vision paper Theory research paper Research paper Case report or Case Series Technical paper System paper Technical note Survey paper Species paper

POSITION PAPER

is an essay that presents an opinion about an issue, typically that of the author or another specified entity; such as a political party.

Position papers are published in academia, in politics, in law and other domains.

Position papers range from the simplest format of a letter to the editor through to the most complex in the form of an academic position paper.

Position papers are also used by large organizations to make public the official beliefs and recommendations of the group

RESEARCH PAPER

longer essay involving library research, 3000 to 6000 words in length. may refer to:

Academic paper (also called scholarly paper), which is published in academic journals and contains original research results or reviews existing results

Term paper, written by high school or college students

Thesis or dissertation, a document submitted in support of a candidature for a degree or professional qualification, presenting the author's research and findings

TECHNİCAL PAPER-JOURNAL ARTİCLESThe exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often

include: Letters (also called communications, and not to be confused with letters to the

editor) are short descriptions of important current research findings that are usually fast-tracked for immediate publication because they are considered urgent.

Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings that are considered less urgent or important than Letters.

Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are complete descriptions of current original research findings, but there are considerable variations between scientific fields and journals – 80-page articles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical computer science.

Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data electronically on the internet.

Review articles do not cover original research but rather accumulate the results of many different articles on a particular topic into a coherent narrative about the state of the art in that field. provide information about the topic provide journal references to the original research. may be entirely narrative, may provide quantitative summary estimates resulting from the application of meta-

analytical methods.

SURVEY ARTİCLE is a paper that is a work of synthesis, published through

the usual channels (a learned journal or collective volume, such as conference proceedings or collection of essays).

It stands outside the usual run of research papers, for two reasons: it is not presented as the author's original research, but as a

survey or summary of a field; and it is not necessarily subject to the same degree of peer review.

Sometimes short survey articles appear in the guise of book reviews, where the context of the book is summarized first, often at greater length than is devoted to the book.

In a survey article, the treatment of the subject is often less detailed or in-depth than would be acceptable in a textbook, and the topic may be one in which recent work requires summary.

a survey article may lie somewhere between a personal essay, and an encyclopedia article. The intention is to give rapid access to material scattered over many papers.

REVİEW ARTİCLES Review articles, also called "reviews of progress," are

checks on the research published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles,

others contain a few in each issue, but most do not publish review articles.

Such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms; some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys.

Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions, sometimes planned years in advance.

They are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field.

THESİS OR DİSSERTATİON

A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.

In some countries/universities, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used as part of a bachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally applied to a doctorate, while in others, the reverse is true.

The term dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is also used to refer to the central claim of an essay or similar work.

CONSTRUCTİNG AN İNFORMED ARGUMENT

Consider what you know- different writing assignments require different degrees of knowledge

Consider what you think come up with a fresh observation. add sth of your own recognize that your writing should be analytical

rather than personal.

Subject to critical thinking process: Summarize-

the first step is useful in helping you clarify what you know about

a topic is useful laying the foundation for the more complex

process to come. Evaluate

an ongoing process Encourages to compare the topics

Analyze To consider the parts of topics that most interests Examine how these parts relate to each other or to

the whole Synthesize

To look for connections between ideas.