E g English n lis h - NSW Education Standards

n lis

E g h K–6

Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs 2011

Communication

EnglishK–6

Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs2011

Communication

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Contents

Communication

Supporting students with complex communication needs ..................................... 4

Intentionality....................................................................................................... 5

Function(s) .......................................................................................................... 7

Forms ................................................................................................................. 9

What evidence of learning is required? .............................................................. 18

How will the evidence be gathered?................................................................... 20

Planning............................................................................................................ 43

Programming .................................................................................................... 66

Implementation ................................................................................................. 71

Adjustments ...................................................................................................... 80

Evaluation ......................................................................................................... 82

INTRODUCTION

ASSESSMENT

PLANNING

PROGRAMMING

IMPLEMENTATION

EVALUATION

INTR

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N

Communication

Supporting students with complex communication needs Communication can be defined as any act by which a person sends a message to (expressive communication) or receives a message from (receptive communication) another person (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006). It is an interactive, dynamic and reciprocal process, in which the context of communication adds meaning. Individuals may communicate through nonverbal behaviours, language and speech and other forms (p 9).

To participate effectively in interactions, students need to be able to comprehend the communication of others and develop the knowledge, understanding and skills that enable them to communicate for a range of purposes, in a range of contexts, in a way that is easily understood by a range of people.

Assessing (p 18), planning (p 43), programming (p 66), implementing (p 71) and evaluating (p 82) for students with complex communication needs requires careful consideration of the individual student’s learning needs and how best to progress their communication and language development.

In addressing an individual student’s communication priorities and goals (p 43), teachers should use assessment information to plan and program opportunities for communication development across a range of experiences and KLAs. Most of the examples to support students with complex communication needs provided in the English K–6 Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs are for the English KLA.

4 Communication

Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs

English K–6

Communication

Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs

Intentionality INTR

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N

Communication is intentional if a student consciously directs a message towards another person for a particular purpose, in a planned way. In other words, the student intentionally uses communicative behaviour(s) to send an explicit message to another person (Beukelman & Mirenda; Carter & Hook 1998; Reichle, Beukelman & Light 2003). Students who communicate intentionally, show an awareness that a communication partner’s attention must be gained in order for the message to be received. Intentional communicators assess a partner’s focus of attention and employ strategies to either gain, shift or wait for their attention.

Below are examples of behaviours that indicate preintentional and intentional communication. It should be noted that a student may demonstrate emerging intentionality and therefore demonstrate some indicators of both preintentional and intentional communication as shown below. Students may also demonstrate intentional behaviours (ie that have an intended purpose) that are not intentional communication (ie are not directed towards another person) (Schlosser 2003).

Communication

Preintentional and intentional communication behaviours

Preintentional Intentional

The student:

• demonstrates behaviours that are likely to be informal or idiosyncratic (eg sounds, facial expressions, body movements, stereotypic behaviours)

• shows no obvious signs of trying to engage or direct a message to a person, either before or while engaging in behaviour(s) (eg does not look at, move towards, turn body towards or touch the person)

• does not monitor how the other person is reacting to behaviour(s) (eg does not check their response or show evidence of anticipating an outcome)

• may react to sensory input (eg sound, voice, touch, gesture) but does not respond clearly and consistently to nonverbal and verbal communication

• may focus on or play with objects, people (as objects) or activities (Reichle, Beukelman & Light 2002)

Note: Communication partners may assign a function to a student’s behaviour by interpreting their posture, body movements etc. (eg a partner interprets a student’s crying as discomfort and responds by adjusting their position).

The student:

• uses nonsymbolic and/or symbolic forms (p 9) of communication

• may communicate at a nonsymbolic or symbolic level

• shows signs of directing a message to a person just before or while communicating (eg deliberately attracts the attention of, looks at, moves toward, turns body towards, touches the person)

• shifts attention (eg gaze) between a communication partner and referent (item, activity, person) to direct their attention towards the referent (Light, Beukelman & Reichle 2003)

• demonstrates an awareness that people are different from objects and respond in ways that objects do not (Light, Beukelman & Reichle 2003)

• responds to the nonverbal communication of others (Reichle, Beukelman & Light 2002)

• monitors how the communication partner is reacting to the message (eg glances, looks, continues to stand nearby, maintains touch). This is critical as it indicates that the student is evaluating whether the message is being received.

• persists with (eg repeats) or changes the quality of (eg increases the strength) a communicative form until the desired purpose is achieved or has failed (Reichle, Beukelman & Light 2002)

• uses a different form of communication if a message is not getting across

• shows satisfaction when the message has been correctly interpreted and acted upon (eg ceases using form(s), takes what was requested, smiles) (Reichle, Beukelman & Light 2002)

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INTR

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Communication at the intentional symbolic level Symbolic communication involves the comprehension and/or use of symbols (or symbolic forms (p 10)) to represent referents (eg people, places, events, objects and actions). Symbolic communication is underpinned by symbolic thought, that is, an understanding that symbols can represent referents that are not present.

Students learn gradually to communicate at the symbolic level. Initially students use a small number of specific symbols in familiar routines when ample modelling is provided. Typically, students’ comprehension of symbols precedes their ability to use symbols for expressive purposes. Over time students learn to ‘decontextualise’ symbols so that they are able to use and comprehend symbols in a range of situations, in addition to the initial learning context. Symbolic communication is wellestablished when students are able to spontaneously use a variety of symbol types, across a range of situations, outside familiar routines when no models are provided or referents present. Students’ ability to comprehend and use words as symbols is enhanced when communication partners systematically pair words with other symbol types such as visual supports and gestures.

Examples of behaviours that indicate intentional symbolic communication

Example Symbol type and use

The teacher announces ‘Purple class is going to the Botanic Gardens today’. Student taps teacher on shoulder then uses a gesture (puts palm of hands and fingers together and moves hands away from body) to ask ‘Are we going on the Ferry?’

The teacher says ‘Not today, we are going on the bus’, while demonstrating the action of putting a bus ticket into the validating machine. The student nods head, smiles, and copies action of putting ticket in validating machine combined with a clicking sound vocalisation.

The teacher announces ‘We have a change. Today we are having free time in the playground. What would you like to do in free time?’

The student selects a photograph of Lego from a choice board and hands it to the teacher.

The student comprehends the teacher’s oral language and the gesture representing the bus.

The student uses a gesture to request information.

The student comprehends the teacher’s oral language and uses a visual to request an activity.

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Communication

INTR

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Function(s) The function of communication refers to the outcome of behaviour(s) or why the student communicates (ie the communication partner’s response or action). The more established communication functions a student can have understood by others, the greater control they will have over their environment.

At the preintentional level, a student’s behaviour(s) is used to interpret what they are experiencing. For example, a student may cry when they are uncomfortable in their wheelchair. The teacher may interpret and respond to the student’s crying as if the student intends to communicate their discomfort. The teacher responds by adjusting the student’s position. The function assigned to the student’s crying is to express discomfort.

It should be noted that a student’s behaviour can result in a function (ie a response from a partner) that is different to the intended meaning (Rowland 2010). This may be the case for students at the intentional level whose communication forms are not easily understood by others.

Examples of communication functions, grouped under broad functions are provided below (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005). Some functions involve the ability to understand and respond to the verbal and/or nonverbal behaviour(s) of others (Butterfield & Arthur 1995).

Expressing needs and wants (behaviour regulation)

• requesting items (eg food and objects)

• requesting actions from others

• requesting activities

• expressing the desire for a continuation of an activity/interaction

• asking for help

• asking for permission

• protesting (ie doesn’t like)

• rejecting objects, services or assistance (ie doesn’t want)

• escaping (ie wants or needs to get away)

• cessation (ie wants to stop).

Transfer of information • naming

• directing a person’s attention to an object, topic or activity (referent) to establish joint attention

• making comments

• commenting about an experience in the past, present, future

• giving instructions

• following instructions (Bondy & Frost 2002)

• following a schedule

• responding to questions (eg affirming, negating)

• responding to information

• asking questions

• making choices.

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Communication

Social relating (developing relationships and social routines)

• attracting or seeking attention

• responding to social initiations (including smile, own name)

• asking for reward or affection

• turn-taking

• making a joke

• making an offer

• greeting and farewelling

• expressing please and thank you

• sharing humour

• requesting that people move closer or further away (proximity).

Expressing feelings and states• expressing fear, sadness, happiness etc

• showing physical and behavioural states (eg discomfort, pain, sickness, hunger, relaxation).

Internal dialogue • self-regulation

• organising thought processes

• planning and sorting information, eg making lists.

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Communication

INTR

ODUCTIO

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INTR

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Forms The ways people communicate (ie the communicative behaviour(s) they use) are referred to as communication forms. It should be noted that students are likely to use a range of forms to communicate, and this is called a system. Communication systems are specifically designed to meet the individual needs of students as identified through careful assessment (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005) and may include aided and nonaided forms of communication.

It is important to note that research has found that the introduction of other forms of communication does not impede language development.

The forms included in an individual’s communication system will be determined according to the student’s individual needs and their communication level (preintentional, intentional (nonsymbolic), intentional (symbolic)). For students who are unable to meet their communication needs through speech and/or writing, consideration should be given to appropriate aid(s).

Preintentional Students at the preintentional level are likely to use behaviour(s) listed under nonsymbolic forms. Students may or may not have an awareness that particular behaviour(s) lead to a particular outcome (function) but do not show evidence of directing these to a partner.

Intentional Intentional communicators may use nonsymbolic and/or symbolic forms to express various functions. Students at the symbolic level have an understanding that the symbol(s) represent something else (a referent).

Nonsymbolic forms

These include:

• sounds, eg noises, vocalising (any vocal sounds other than words), grunting, crying, laughing, yelling

• informal gestures, eg idiosyncratic gestures (acts that are individual to a student such as pulling lips to indicate hunger and that are unlikely to be effective with unfamiliar partners)

• touch, eg giving, pushing, pulling, leading (such as leading partners by hand to desired object), manipulating other people (such as putting partner’s hands on handles to open a door, pushing their body)

• breath, eg rapid or slow breathing, sighing, blowing

• facial expressions, eg pursing lips, sticking tongue out, frowning, smiling

• eye movements, eg eye–gaze (such as looking at people, locations, objects, shifting gaze, looking away, staring), opening or closing eyes, gazing, blinking, staring

• body language/movements, eg moving towards/moving away, tensing, wiggling, repositioning body, reaching, pointing, holding body part, stamping feet, positioning self near to person or object or turning body

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Communication


INTR

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• problem behaviour, eg hitting, selfinjurious behaviour, verbal behaviours (such as screaming, wailing)

• stereotypic behaviours eg flapping or wringing hands, rocking body, head weaving.

Symbolic forms

Symbolic forms include both aided and nonaided forms of communication and involve the use of symbols (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005).

Examples of aided forms:

• objects, eg real objects, miniature objects

• parts of objects, eg fragments or remnants

• associated objects, eg a mouse to represent a computer

• tactile symbols, eg texture symbols, swell symbols, indent symbols

• photographs

• line drawings/pictorial representations

• electronic and nonelectronic aids.

Examples of nonaided forms:

• formal gestures or emblems (ie gestures that are conventionally understood by others), eg head nod or shake, smile, frown

• speech

• signs

• reading/writing.

Aids

An aid is the object or device used to transmit or receive messages. Aids (including visual supports) can be used by students to communicate their messages or by communication partners to support comprehension.

Aids can be:

• nonelectronic/low technology (eg a symbol set on a communication board or in a communication book)

• electronic/high technology (eg switches, calling devices, speech generating devices, computers, iPads, iPhones) and may have:

– static or fixed displays

– dynamic displays. Dynamic displays are computerbased pages that link to one another electronically. The benefit of dynamic displays is that they have a large capability.

It should be noted that a student’s communication system may include more than one aid or an aid in addition to other forms of communication, eg a student may vocalise to gain attention and use a VOCA to select and give a message. Hightechnology aids may be supported by lowtechnology aids.

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Communication


INTR

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The most appropriate aid is determined by a range of factors. In making decisions about aids, consideration is given to:

• the likelihood it will assist a student to be understood in a range of settings and with a range of people, ie generalisation (Carter & Hook 1998)

• the likelihood that it will assist the student to engage more frequently in facetoface interactions with others (some students may become absorbed with operating and playing with the electronic device instead of using it as a means to engage with others)

• the technique(s) the student will use to access the aid, the physical capacity of the student to reliably use it and the ability of the student to plan the movements required

• portability

• type of display (eg fixed, dynamic, hybrid)

• durability

• cost (in relation to durability).

When consideration is being given to an electronic aid, a technology assessment may need to be obtained from a relevant organisation or expert.

The type (eg visual, auditory, tactile aided/unaided), size, organisation and number of symbols to be included in a student’s communication system/visual support is determined through assessment. Symbols should be grouped to assist the student to use them effectively and efficiently (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005).

Symbols are representations of an item, activity, place, person or thing (referent). Symbolic communication involves the intentional use of a symbol to refer to something else. Symbols may represent words, phrases, sentences or morphemes. In determining the complexity of language to be represented by symbols, teachers need to consider a student’s current level of receptive understanding (eg single units, two word phrases, sentences) and how to progress their language development.

The following are examples of different types of symbols:

Real objects and associated symbols

Real objects are easily accessible, inexpensive and require no preparation time. A student using an empty cup to communicate that they want a drink is an example of a real object acting as a symbol (ie the cup stands for ‘drink’).

Remnants

Remnants, like real objects, are easy to understand. A remnant is part of an object, eg an empty chip packet, wool from a weaving mat.

Replicas

Replicas are threedimensional and are usually made of cardboard, plastic or fabric cut or moulded in the shape of the object they represent, eg artificial fruit.

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Templates and shadow boards

Templates are exact twodimensional coloured replicas of real objects, for example

Template to show student where to hang hat

(photo courtesy of Ulliana and Jackson)

Shadow boards are solid silhouettes or outlines of real objects.

Shadow board to show the student where to stand to present their news.


Photographs

Colour photos are generally easier to recognise than black and white photos.

Initially, it is important to use photos of specific items/places that are familiar to the student rather than a category, eg a photo of a swimming pool with which the student is familiar to represent swimming. Later, a photo from a swimming pool catalogue could be substituted.

Effective photographs clearly show the subject matter and eliminate anything in the background that may act as a distraction. Shop, toy and educational catalogues and magazines are good places to get photographs. There are also many sources on the internet.

If photographing single objects, use a plain coloured background or a background of a contrasting colour. If using a digital camera, use software to eliminate the background.

Line drawings

Line drawings vary in their level of abstraction and range from easytounderstand drawings to abstract, difficulttounderstand drawings. Line drawings include computergenerated and handdrawn pictures.

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INTR

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There are a wide range of computergenerated line drawing packages available. It is possible to use images from different packages as long as the student knows what is being represented in the drawings as some are difficult to comprehend. There are many free line drawings available online.

Hand drawings have the benefit of being able to be immediately produced and are a great way to ‘concretise’ (ie put into a permanent visual form) thoughts, messages and surrounding events.

If the student cannot comprehend what a drawing represents straight away or shortly after being taught what it refers to, do not use it. It is better to start with a level of representation the student understands without effort.

Written words

Written words may be used alone as a symbol form or be paired with photos, pictures and/or objects. When paired with other symbol forms, the written words act as a guide for communication partners who use the visual support with the student. The text assists communication partners to keep their spoken language consistent. The student may also learn to associate the written word with the referent.

Visual supports

Visual supports are a type of aid. Below are examples of commonly used formats for ‘specialised’ visual supports. The advantages and disadvantages (p 16) of various visual supports are outlined further on.

Single symbol formats

Single symbol formats include a single symbol, which may be a real object, remnant, photograph or line drawing. Single symbol formats are the simplest type of format. The support may take the form of a wall chart, card or board.

Single symbol formats can be enhanced by:

• adding a contrasting colour background

• outlining the images in photos with a black felt tip pen

• cutting around the outline of line drawings or photos

• enlarging photos to life size

• using colour highlighting with black and white line drawings.

Double symbol formats

Double symbol formats use two symbols. In developing double symbol formats, consideration should be given to both the foreground (ie the symbols being displayed) and background (what the symbols are attached to).

The background should highlight:

• what to look at and where to place symbols. A background that uses contrasting colours and thick borders outlines where to place symbols

• any particular sequence related to the symbols displayed. If there is an order, use numbers above the area where the symbol will be attached, as well as an arrow between the symbols.

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INTR

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Example: background layout for twostep sequence

Brightly coloured background

Clearly marked outline

Velcro to attach symbols

When there is no set order for the symbols on a double item format (eg on a choice chart) and both symbols are equally important, use a highly contrasting colour on the background.

Example: background layout for a double item choice board

After the student makes a choice, this may then be combined with a visual sequence of activities.

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INTR

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Multiitem formats Multiitem formats contain three or more symbols. There are many different multiitem formats. Some of the more common formats are outlined below.

Horizontal/vertical sequences Extended horizontal or vertical strip sequences are particularly useful for illustrating daily schedules and component steps in a task or activity. These may be folded in concertina or pamphlet style for portability.

Lists The symbols on a visual list may be arranged in a set order or randomly assigned. A visual shopping list is a typical example.

Keyring clusters Keyring clusters contain a number of symbols held together by a keyring.


Books and booklets Booklets are ideal when it is necessary to display a series of related items, one at a time. Some students are not able to cope with visual sequences, lists or keyring clusters as they become confused when more than one symbol is presented at a time.

Grids and matrices Calendars typically use a grid/matrix layout, as do many traditional communication boards. This format is quite complex for young students.

Example: calendar using a grid format


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Advantages and disadvantages of visual supports

Format Ideal use Advantages Disadvantages

Single item • visual forewarning • can be used by • limited information

• requesting (eg food most students conveyed

label on cupboard • easy to construct • many supports are door) required

Horizontal • daily and partday • shows how steps fit • if too many steps in and vertical schedules together and the order a task, sequences

sequences • showing steps in in which they will occur become too long

procedures/tasks

• showing consequences, ie if A happens then B

will follow

Concertina style • for moving around the • shows how steps fit • gets bulky if too many sequences community or school together and the order parts in the sequence

they will occur

• portable

• not obvious in public

• can be kept in pocket/bag

Wallets • for moving around the • portable • limited information community or school • not obvious in public conveyed

• can be kept in • symbols need to be

pocket/bag small if more than five

• can hold money and images are required

be visual support

Visual lists • organisational • portable • not ideal for students skills/procedures • not obvious in public who need visuals to

• shopping be in the sequence that they will occur

Keyring clusters • for moving around the • portable • if bulky, difficult to community or school • can be kept in manipulate and find

bag/pocket visual quickly

• can help student keep track of what they are up to

Booklets and • food recipes • show a sequence • if a child requires mini photo • shopping lists of related images verbal prompting to

albums • memoir books (holiday memories)

one at a time turn a page they may become dependent

on an adult’s prompt

INTR

ODUCTIO

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INTR

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Vocabulary

The vocabulary selected to be represented by symbols in a communication system is based on an individual student’s priorities, interests and needs. The vocabulary should be functional, meaningful, motivating, and enable students to say whatever they want, whenever they want to say it.

The vocabulary represented in a system should be reviewed on a regular basis (Trembath & Togher 2007).

The information gained through assessment of expressive and receptive communication and an analysis of a student’s current and future contexts should be used to determine appropriate vocabulary. Teachers may analyse the vocabulary used by peers to assist to this end. The selected vocabulary may include, for example, vocabulary:

• to participate in learning experiences and routines

• to facilitate interactions with a range of people

• to put a new communication partner at ease, eg an introductory statement explaining how they communicate using the system (such as ‘I use this system to communicate. It takes me longer than other people to say what I want to say. Please give me time to respond to what you say.’) (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005)

• that can be used in a range of contexts and combined in a range of ways (core vocabulary), eg there, more, give, get, make, want, please, help, like, done, stop

• that supports the development and use of syntax and more complex sentences.

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ASSESSM

ENT

What evidence of learning is required? The evidence of learning collected should enable teachers to make judgements about what individual students know, understand and can do with regard to communication. Information should also be collected about the contexts in which the student participates, ways to motivate the student to communicate and the skills of communication partners in facilitating communication. This information is used to make planning and programming decisions for the individual within the context of the wholeclass program.

Aspects of communication

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Expressive To participate effectively in interactions and daily activities, students communication need to be able to express themselves in a way that is understood

by others in a range of environments. They need to be able to relate socially with others, share information, and express their needs, wants and feelings. This is essential for having control in their lives (selfdetermination). Students also require the skills to initiate, maintain and finish interactions.

Information about a student’s expressive communication is used to:

• gain a detailed description of how the student communicates (the form(s)/system (p 9))

• identify why the student communicates (the function(s) (p 7))

• identify what the student is communicating about (the content or meaning of the message)

• determine whether the communication is intentional (p 5).

What Why

Receptive communication (comprehension of communication)

To participate effectively in interactions and in daily activities, students need to be able to understand and respond to messages being communicated by others. This includes being able to comprehend and respond to nonverbal and oral communication (Rowland).

Information about a student’s receptive communication is used to determine:

• the nonverbal communication understood by the student

• the student’s comprehension of instructions, questions, comments and statements

• the role of contextual and other cues in supporting comprehension (eg knowledge of routines, use of visual supports)

• the complexity of language understood by the student (eg syntax, number and type of words).

ASSESSM

ENT


Aspects of communication (cont)

What Why

Preferences, interests, likes and dislikes

A student’s preferred items and activities can be embedded in regular routines to increase the likelihood that the student will attend to and engage with others, engage in joint activities and communicate spontaneously.

Preferred and nonpreferred items and activities can also be used to elicit particular functions of communication (eg preferred items and activities for requesting and nonpreferred items and activities for rejecting and refusal).

Contexts Information about the contexts in which a student participates is used to identify how the environment and the typical interactions, routines and activities can be used to support a student’s communication development. This involves identifying how to build a need and desire to communicate into regular routines, and how to organise the environment to increase the likelihood of spontaneous communication (ie without prompting) (Butterfield & Arthur 1995).

The communication and language demands of each context should be used to determine the skills and language that the student requires to participate. This in turn is used to identify functional and meaningful priorities and goals for communication.

Partner skills Communication partners are essential in facilitating communication, both in supporting the development of receptive communication and in recognising and responding to communicative behaviours. Due to the physical capabilities of some students, communication partners will also play an essential role in fulfilling their needs and wishes.

Teachers need to ensure that all communication partners are familiar with a student’s communication system (ie the forms/ behaviours they use to communicate) and how to provide and utilise communicative opportunities (p 67).

Behaviour states A student’s level of alertness and responsiveness at different times of day and under different conditions will affect their ability and willingness to participate in interactions (eg a student will be less likely to be responsive or communicate spontaneously if they are sleepy, drowsy or agitated).

Information about a student’s behaviour states is used to identify the ideal circumstances under which they are likely to participate in interactions (with whom, at what, during what activities, under what conditions). The teacher can use this information to organise the environment to increase a student’s level of alertness and responsiveness.

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ASSESSM

ENT

How will the evidence be gathered? Assessment information should be gathered in a range of natural and authentic contexts.

The people involved in gathering evidence and planning for communication should include those who have significant knowledge of the student, eg the student, parents and siblings, teachers, support staff and peers and professionals who have specific expertise (Teaching and learning p 10) (Rowland 2010), for example a speech pathologist/therapist and other therapists.

Assessing aspects of communication

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What am I assessing? How do I assess this? What evidence do I need? Where do I get this information?

Expressive communication

• how the student communicates (forms/system)

• why the student communicates (functions)

• what the student communicates about (meaning)

• intentionality

Note: Students are likely to use a variety of forms to communicate. This is called a communication system.

Receptive communication

• comprehension of:

– nonverbal communication

– messages and functions

– instructions

– questions

– comments and statements

– language of increasing complexity eg number of words, number of steps, vocabulary

– the aspect of communicative behaviour to which a student is responding, eg word, intonation, gestures or symbols, familiarity with routine

• the best way to communicate with the student (eg positioning, sensory modality)

• understanding of the association between a symbol and what it represents

• interviewing familiar people about how the student communicates, the function(s), what the student’s messages are about and the contexts for communication (ie when, with whom, where, what), eg ‘How does the student indicate that they want …?’, ‘When are they most likely to do this?’, ‘What meaning do they try to convey?’

• using published inventories, interviews and questionnaires (p 22)

• obtaining and analysing communication samples (p 23)

• recording observations

• using an Observational checklist for the comprehension of nonverbal communication (p 28)

• using a diary to keep a record of the specific concepts and vocabulary understood

• using published inventories, interviews and questionnaires

• using an assessment of comprehension of 1 and 2step oral instructions (p 28)

• using an assessment of comprehension of oral question forms (p 32)

• using an assessment of comprehension of oral comments and statements (p 35)

• dynamic assessment (p 40)

• medical reports or reports from professionals with specific expertise. These may provide information about a student’s sensory (eg vision, hearing) and physical needs

• using a visual supports assessment (p 40)

Preferences, interests, likes and dislikes • using published interest inventories and questionnaires

• interviewing familiar people

• recording items and activities accepted, requested and rejected

• using a Preference profile (Form17)

http://k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/english/support-students-special-needs/teaching-and-learning-cycle

http://k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/english/support-students-special-needs/forms


Assessing aspects of communication (cont) ASSESSM

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What am I assessing? How do I assess this? What evidence do I need? Where do I get this information?

Contexts

• the communication demands of the context

• how to best organise the environment to encourage communication

• determining strategies that could be utilised to promote and encourage communication

Partner skills

• provision and utilisation of communicative opportunities

• possible barriers to communication, eg anticipation of needs, availability of preferred materials, activities that do not require communication (Butterfield & Arthur 1995)

• frequency with which the partner responds to the person’s communicative attempts

Behaviour states

• the student’s level of responsiveness under different conditions

• analysis of contexts (p 42) in which the student participates

• recording the times when the student is most and least communicative (with who, at what, during what activities, under what conditions) (Rowland 2010; Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006; Beukelman & Mirenda 2005)

• using observations to identify the conditions under which a student’s communication attempts are more or less successful (Light, Beukelman & Reichle 2002)

• using published inventories, interviews and questionnaires

• using checklists, eg partner skills checklist

• recording the frequency of responses during an observation

• undertaking probes throughout the day in different contexts and under different conditions (eg before, during and after periods of physical movement, sedentary activities, group and individual work, difficult tasks, noisy or visually busy environments). Record the student’s level of alertness and responsiveness using engagement indicators such as eye–gaze, focus of attention, body posture (eg erect, slumped, fidgety) and movement, facial expression, emotional affect, active participation

Potential for using a communication aid(s) • assistive technology assessment (eg SETT framework)

• Inventory of Potential Communicative Acts (ICPA) (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

• medical reports or reports from therapists


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Expressive communication assessments The following are examples of assessments that can be used to gather evidence of a student’s expressive communication skills.

Published inventories, interviews and questionnaires

There are a number of freely available communication assessments that can provide a starting point for communication planning and programming. Below are links to examples of assessments available on the internet:

The Pragmatics Profile

Designed to create a profile of a student’s development of communicative functions, response to communication, participation in interactions, conversations and contexts. The information is gathered through an interview.

wwwedit.wmin.ac.uk/psychology/pp/children.htm

The Communication Matrix

Designed to determine how a student is communicating and identify communication goals. It focuses on expressive skills. The information is entered online and an overview is generated in a printable matrix.

www.communicationmatrix.org

The Expressive Skills Questionnaire

Designed to provide a summary of how a student communicates a range of functions and the meaning that is communicated with those functions. The information is gathered through a questionnaire.

www.servam.com.au/download

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http://wwwedit.wmin.ac.uk/psychology/pp/children.htm

www.communicationmatrix.org

www.servam.com.au/downloads.php


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Obtaining communication samples

Purpose: Communication samples are used to analyse a student’s expressive and/or receptive communication. Each sample provides a snapshot of a student’s comprehension and use of communicative behaviours at a particular point in time.

Communication samples should be obtained in a range of natural contexts. In the school context, this might include wholeclass learning experiences, group activities, free time, breaks and transition times.

To optimise the information gained, communication partners should:

• follow a student’s lead

• expand on what a student is saying (if applicable) or comment on the student’s focus

• provide time for the student to communicate and/or respond.

Instructions

Step 1: Identify contexts that involve interactions and/or conditions that are likely to motivate the student to communicate spontaneously (initiate communication), eg to elicit a spontaneous request, place a desired item in view but out of reach.

If seeking to verify the function of behaviours reported through interviews or inventories, recreate the conditions (ie setting, materials, antecedents, consequences) (Rowland 2010) under which the behaviours are reported to occur.

Step 2: For each identified context, record a communication sample on video. Ensure that both the student and communication partner are in view.

Note: Teachers may choose to record the sample straight to the Antecedent Behaviour Consequence (ABC) record sheet (Form 10) (Step 3).

Step 3: Transcribe the sample using the ABC record sheet.

Record exactly what the student does and/or says in the Behaviour(s) column. Ensure that nonverbal behaviours (eg eye–gaze, body language, vocalisations) and combinations of verbal and/or nonverbal behaviours are recorded.

Record what happens before the behaviours in the Antecedents column, eg events, what the communication partner says or does etc.

Record what happens after the behaviours in the Consequences column. This should include the communication partner’s response to behaviour(s).

The Antecedents and Consequences columns are used to assist in determining the function and meaning of the behaviour(s) and whether the student is communicating intentionally.

Note: Where it is difficult to assess whether a student is communicating intentionally, undertake a systematic observation of each part of their body (from head to toe) to see if there is any evidence of intentional communication.

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Analysing communication samples

Purpose: To analyse how and why a student communicates. This involves identifying the function(s) (p 7) of existing behaviours and determining whether communication is intentional. The assessment information informs decisionmaking about priorities and goals for communication, planning, programming and implementation.

Using the information from the completed ABC record sheet (Form 10) or video, identify and record information on the Communicative behaviours record sheet (Form 11) as outlined in the following steps.

Instructions

Step 1: Record individual communicative behaviour(s) (including any combinations of behaviours) or potential communicative behaviours (behaviours that could be interpreted) in the Behaviour(s) column. Group instances of the same behaviour(s) together.

Step 2: For each behaviour(s)

• record the response(s) to the behaviour(s) from others in the column Response(s)

Note: This is likely to be recorded in the Consequences column of the ABC record sheet.

• record the conditions under which the behaviour(s) was observed (ie with who, when, where) in the Contexts column

Note: The Antecedents recorded on the ABC record sheet could assist with this.

• use the completed Response(s) and Contexts columns to propose a function. Record it in the Proposed function column. Think about:

– what may have prompted the behaviour(s)

– what the student gets/achieves from the behaviour(s).

If there is no proposed function, leave the column blank and proceed to the Frequency column.

• determine whether there is evidence of intentionality and record behaviours that indicate intentionality in the column Evidence of intentionality, for example

– looks, moves towards, turns body towards person or seeks attention just before or while engaging in the behaviour(s)

– checks or monitors how the person is reacting/responding, eg looks, moves towards, continues to stand nearby, maintains touch

– stops the behaviour(s) and shows satisfaction when the communication partner responds eg stops crying, smiles etc.

– uses a different or strengthened behaviour if there is no response or if they are unsatisfied with the response.

• record how often the behaviour(s) occurs (eg infrequently, frequently) in the Frequency column

• record the frequency with which partners respond to the proposed function of the behaviour (eg infrequently, frequently) in the Frequency column.

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Using the information gathered, identify and record information on the Summary of expressive communication record sheet (Form 12) as outlined in the following steps.

Instructions

Step 1: Record behaviour(s) with proposed functions in the Behaviour(s) (forms) column next to the relevant function. Functions are grouped under the broad functions of expressing needs and wants, transfer of information, social relating and expressing feelings and states.

Note: There are additional rows to record functions not included on the form under each broad function.

Step 2: Indicate whether the behaviour(s) is intentional or preintentional in the Intentionality column. If possible, indicate the form of the communication (nonsymbolic or symbolic) for behaviours which are intentional.

Step 3: Make decisions about future targets (eg interpret, enhance, replace) and record in the Target column.

• identify any behaviours that do not require further development as mastered (m). These will be behaviours that are socially acceptable, used frequently and appropriately, and easily recognisable by a range of people.

• use Figure 3 (p 26) to assist in making decisions for preintentional behaviour(s)

• use Figure 4 (p 27) to assist in making decisions for intentional behaviour(s).

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Does the student have behaviour(s) with proposed function(s)?

Yes No

Consider each function separately.

Does the student have sufficient functions to meet the demands of the contexts in which they participate and express their needs and interests?

No

Establish functions by selecting appropriate, frequent behaviour(s) within the student’s physical capabilities that are easily prompted and motivating for the student to be interpreted (i).

Figure 3: A guide to making decisions for preintentional behaviour(s)

The dashed lines represent options for possible next steps.

More information on possible strategies for each target (interpret, replace, enhance) can be found on page 72.

Is the behaviour(s) socially acceptable and age appropriate?

Replace (r) by selecting appropriate, behaviour(s) that occur frequently and/or are easily prompted.

Look for evidence of intentionality or implement strategies to establish intentionality. Is the behaviour(s)

used frequently and under appropriate conditions?

Interpret (i) the behaviour(s) consistently under appropriate conditions to increase frequency and extent of use.

Note: This may include identifying additional contexts.

Is the behaviour(s) easy to understand by a range of people?

Record as mastered (m).

Enhance(e) the behaviour(s) by strengthening or adding a form.

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Communication

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Does the student have behaviour(s) with proposed function(s) and evidence of intentionality?

Yes No

Consider each function separately.

Does the student have sufficient functions to meet the demands of the contexts in which they participate and express their needs and interests?

No

Establish functions by selecting appropriate, frequent behaviour(s) within the student’s physical capabilities that are easily prompted and motivating for the student to be interpreted (i).

Figure 4: A guide to making decisions for intentional behaviour(s)

The dashed lines represent options for possible next steps.

More information on possible strategies for each target (interpret, replace, enhance) can be found on page 72. Examples of a communication sample with an accompanying analysis can be found in Case study 4.

Is the behaviour(s) socially acceptable and age appropriate?

Replace (r) with a behaviour(s) that is more: • appropriate • conventional • symbolic. Look for opportunities

to establish and/or build the use of symbolic communication. Is the behaviour(s)

used frequently and under appropriate conditions?

Interpret (i) the behaviour(s) consistently under appropriate conditions to increase frequency and extent of use.

Note: This may include identifying additional contexts.

Is the behaviour(s) easy to understand by a range of people?

Record as mastered (m).

Enhance(e) the behaviour(s) by strengthening or adding a form.

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Communication

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http://k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/go/english/case-studies


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Receptive communication assessments The following are examples of assessments that can be used to gather evidence of a student’s receptive communication skills.

Observational checklist for the comprehension of nonverbal communication

Purpose: To assess a student’s comprehension of other people’s nonverbal communication, as separate to oral language, ie the student’s comprehension of gestures (including pointing), touching, eye–gaze, facial expressions and vocalisations. This is important given that much of the meaning (content) of messages is expressed through nonverbal communication.

The checklist is also used to assess a student’s nonverbal communication interaction skills which are strong predictors of language development and critical to social learning. These include:

• response to joint attention

• symbolic understanding of nonverbal communication (ie gestures, items)

• imitation

• social reciprocity (ie the back and forth flow in interactions that reflects what is expressed by each communicative partner).

Instructions

Step 1: For each item, tick the rating that best describes the student’s response in columns 2–4 on the Comprehension of nonverbal communication checklist (Form 18). Use the key at the bottom of the page to record further information related to frequency, consistency and social appropriateness, where noted.

Include additional comments if appropriate, eg tends to look at people rather than objects.

Note: Most items on the checklist can be assessed in everyday interactions with students. For some items, it may be necessary to organise the environment to elicit the student’s attention.

The teacher may use oral language to create appropriate and meaningful contexts, however it is important not to talk when the comprehension of nonverbal communication is being assessed (ie while using the specified form of nonverbal communication).

Step 2: Use the assessment information to make decisions and record in the Summary.

Assessing comprehension of 1 and 2step oral instructions (based on Ulliana & Mitchell 1997)

Purpose: To assess a student’s comprehension of oral instructions of increasing length and complexity.

Comprehending and following instructions requires students to:

• shift attention and selectively listen to language while filtering out other sensory input

• use cues from the context to add to or alter the meaning of what is said (eg environmental cues and nonverbal communication)

• extract key ‘meaning’ elements from the instruction

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• remember what is said and recall the sequence of steps

• stay on task to complete what has been instructed.

The instructions in the assessment are ordered according to the following factors:

• whether they are routine or nonroutine. Instructions that are heard regularly (routine) are easier to comprehend and respond to, than those heard less often (nonroutine)

• the presence or absence of referents. Students find it easier to follow instructions when they can see, feel or hear what is being referred to. Instructions that refer to locations, people, and items that are not present are more difficult to understand

• the number of steps or actions. The more steps in the instruction, the more difficult it is to comprehend and recall

• whether the steps are sequential or nonsequential. Sequential instructions must be done in a set order and are easier to respond to than nonsequential instructions as the first step provides an ‘inbuilt’ memory aid for completing the second step.

Instructions

Step 1: Using the table below as a guide, determine the instructions that will be given to the student and record in column 1 of the Response to 1 and 2step oral instructions record sheet (Form 13).

The instructions may be planned to be given to the whole class or to individual students within the context of learning experiences and routines (including transition periods).

To ensure that the comprehension of the whole instruction is validly assessed, keep the content of instructions simple and familiar to the student. Avoid using terms and concepts that are likely to confuse students such as temporal terms (eg before, after, when), prepositions (eg behind, over, around) and figurative language (eg ‘jump to it’). Also avoid providing extra information (eg ‘It is raining today, so get your lunch to eat at your desk’) as this makes the instruction more difficult to comprehend.

Types of instructions

1step instructions

1step routine instructions with referent present, for example:

• Put your hat on (hat is in view)

• Turn to me

• I want everyone to sit on the mat

1step routine instructions with referent absent, for example:

• Walk to the library doors (when the student is in the classroom)

• Get your school bag (when the student is in the classroom and the bags are kept outside)

1step nonroutine instructions with referent present, for example:

• Say ‘hello’ to our special visitor

• Get the yellow paint from the craft cupboard

1step nonroutine instructions with at least one referent absent, for example:

• Wet this sponge in the sink (when the student is in the classroom and the nearest sink is outside)

• Give this book to Mrs Harding in Purple Class

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Types of instructions (cont)

2step instructions

2step routine instructions with referent present requiring sequential actions, for example:

• Pick up your rubbish and put it in the bin

• Turn on the computer and open the paint program

• Get your chair and take it outside

2step routine instructions with referent present and nonsequential actions, for example:

• Put your sunscreen on and get your hats

• Shut down the interactive whiteboard and put your workbook on your desk

2step routine instructions with referent absent requiring sequential actions, for example:

• Get your communication book out of your bag and bring it to me

• Get a free time activity from the cupboard and take it to the quiet area

2step routine instructions with referent absent and nonsequential actions, for example:

• Give Sam his photo and put your photo on the ‘Who’s Here Board’ (the student knows that Sam is in the adjacent computer room)

• Close down the computers next door and stack the chairs

2step nonroutine instructions with referent present requiring sequential actions, for example:

• Get the blue baton from the basket and stand on the red feet

• Roll the therapy ball to the gym mat and then run to the mat and get it (the student is holding a therapy ball and the gym mat is 10 metres away)

2step nonroutine instructions with referent present and nonsequential actions, for example:

• Put your paint brush into the plastic bag and get out a sponge roller

• Put the lid on the yellow playdough and put the pretend candles into the icecream container on my desk

2step nonroutine instructions with referent absent requiring sequential actions, for example:

• Get your art project from the cardboard box in the hallway and bring it to me

• Give this book to Ella and bring back the star box for our weekly awards (the student knows Ella is in the adjacent room and the star box is kept in a cupboard, out of sight)

2step nonroutine instructions with referent absent and nonsequential actions, for example:

• Take this note to Mr Ottawa next door and open the windows in the hallway

• Put your artwork on the hallway bench to dry and wipe your desk clean with the wet paint rags

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Step 2: Gain the student’s attention and provide the instruction using oral language only. Give the student at least 15–20 seconds to respond.

Step 3: Record the student’s response in the Student Response column. Note whether it is immediate, delayed, incomplete or incorrect.

It is important to note whether the student observes how other students respond before responding themselves.

Also note whether the student’s response varies when:

• the classroom is noisy/busy (may indicate problems with selective attending or hearing)

• the student is engaged in something interesting at the time of the instruction (may indicate problems shifting attention)

• the student is required to move outside the classroom (may indicate difficulty staying on task and/or retaining information).

If the student doesn’t respond, use increasingly obvious supports or prompts and record them in the Supports column.

Exampes of language supports:

• repeat the instruction (after waiting 15–20 seconds)

• use memory devices to identify the number of steps, eg ‘There are 2 things to remember (holds up 2 fingers), one, … etc.’

• rephrase the instruction

• add emphasis to key words

• reduce the number of words in the instruction.

Examples of nonverbal communication supports:

• use obvious eye–gaze

• turn head towards the referent

• use gestures such as pointing, touching or imitating an action.

Examples of visual supports:

• touch or show an object, photograph or picture

• draw a picture

• write key words or a list of the steps.

Step 4: When a student is unable to follow three types of instructions in a row, stop assessing new instruction types.

Determine whether this is the student’s ‘edge of learning’ by assessing an additional three examples of the last type of instruction that the student responded to correctly.

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Step 5: Complete the Summary using the recorded assessment information:

• in the Student response column:

– shade the instruction types that the student consistently comprehends

– record a # for instruction types that the student usually/frequently comprehends

– record E for inconsistent or partial responses

– record 0 for no response or incorrect responses

– record NA for instruction types that were not assessed

• record relevant evidence or comments in the Evidence/comments column

• identify and record any supports that assists the student to follow instructions

• identify and record priorities/goals.

Assessing comprehension of oral question forms (based on Ulliana & Mitchell 1997)

Purpose: To assess a student’s comprehension of question forms (ie question syntax) starting from simple labelling questions, to more complex ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions.

Assessing a student’s understanding of question forms is important, given the frequency with which teachers use questions to monitor students’ understanding.

It should be noted that students who are nonverbal can participate in the assessment by using other forms of communication (eg objects, photographs, gestures) to respond.

Instructions

Step 1: Using the table below as a guide, determine the questions that will be asked and record in column 1 on the Response to oral question forms record sheet (Form 6). The examples provided are a guide only and should be adapted according to the context/activity.

Plan so that questions can be asked in the context of naturally occurring interactions or activities.

To ensure that the understanding of question forms is being assessed, the content of questions should be simple and familiar to the student.

Oral question forms

‘What’/‘who’ labelling questions

Questions that explicitly ask the name of a person, animal, place or thing, for example

• What’s that?

• Who’s that?

Simple ‘where’ questions

Questions that ask about the location of a person, place or thing that is in view or in its usual place, for example

• Where’s your dad?

• Where’s the house?

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E g h K–6 Support Materials for Students with Special Education Needs

Oral question forms (cont)

‘Want’ questions (choices in and out of view)

Questions that ask what the student wants with the items/representations in and out of view, for example:

• What do you want?

• What does the boy want?

‘Yes’/‘no’ information questions

Questions that require a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer to information relating to the student, common activities, people or places, the surrounding environment, for example:

• Is the computer on?

• Is that yours?

‘Who’/‘what’/‘where’ questions – present context

Questions that ask simple information about the student or surrounding environment, for example:

• Who is your teacher?

• What are you doing?

• Where is the library?

‘Who’/‘what’/‘where’ questions – routine past and future events

Questions that ask simple information about routine events that have occurred, or will occur in the future, for example:

• Who was there?

• What did you do on the weekend?

• Where do we go after lunch?

‘When’ questions

Questions that ask information about time and condition, for example:

• When is recess?

• When do you play inside?

‘Who’/‘what’/‘when’/‘where’ questions – nonroutine past and future events

Questions asking information about nonroutine events that have occurred, or will occur, for example:

• Who went on the excursion?

• What happened in your holidays?

• Where are you going on Friday?

‘How’ questions

Questions that ask ‘how ’ (used in conjunction with another word), for example:

• How many (asking about number )

• How much (asking about cost or quantity )

• How come (asking reasons why )

• How often (asking about frequency )

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Oral question forms (cont) ASSESSM

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‘How’ questions (cont)

Questions that ask about procedure, for example:

• How do you make toast?

Questions that ask about the state of people, situations and places, for example:

• How are you?

• How is the weather today?

‘Why’ questions

Questions that ask possible causes, reasons or intentions behind situations or actions, for example:

• Why did the ice melt?

• Why do you think it happened?

Step 2: Gain the student’s attention and ask the question using oral language only.

Give the student at least 15–20 seconds to respond.

If the student fails to answer several examples from the same category of question form, reframe the questions as cloze statements, eg for the question ‘What’s that?’, the teacher might say, ‘It’s a …’. If the student can complete the cloze statement, it will confirm that the student has difficulty comprehending the question form.

Step 3: Record the student’s response in the Student response column on Form 6.

If the student doesn’t respond, use increasingly obvious supports or prompts and record them in the Supports column.

Examples of language supports:

• repeat the question (after waiting 15–20 seconds)

• rephrase the question

• add emphasis to key words

• reduce the number of words in the question.



• turn head towards the answer

• use gestures such as pointing, touching or imitating an action.



• draw a picture.

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Step 4: When a student is unable to answer three question forms in a row, stop assessing new question forms.

Step 5: Complete the Summary using the assessment information:


– shade the question forms that the student consistently comprehends

– record a # for question forms that the student usually/frequently comprehends



– record NA for question forms that were not assessed


• identify and record any supports that assist the student to answer questions


Assessing comprehension of oral comments and statements (based on Ulliana & Mitchell 1997)

Purpose: To assess a student’s comprehension of oral comments and statements of increasing length and complexity.

Comments and statements provide information. Statements provide factual information, while comments provide information about personal observations or reactions.

Comprehending comments and statements requires students to:

• shift attention and selectively listen to language while filtering out other sensory input

• use contextual cues to add to or alter the meaning of what is said (eg environmental cues and nonverbal communication)

• extract key ‘meaning’ elements from the comment or statement.

Comments and statements are ordered according to the following factors:

• the presence/absence of referents and contextual cues. Students find it easier to comprehend comments and statements when they can see, feel or hear what is being referred to. Comments and statements that refer to events, locations, people, and items that are not present are more difficult to understand

• student preferences. Students are more likely to learn the names of preferred activities, people and items quicker than the names of things that hold little emotional value

• student experiences. Students are more likely to respond to comments and statements that refer to activities, items, people, locations and events with which they have handson experience. If students have the opportunity to take in sensory information (such as the smell, touch, taste and/or look of an object, person or event) they are more likely to comprehend the meaning of related comments and statements.

It may be difficult to determine whether the student has understood a comment or statement because comments and statements often do not explicitly require a response. In contrast, instructions and questions require students to respond in some way. For this reason, it is important to take note of more subtle responses such as looking towards or touching what has been talked about. For example, when the teacher says, ‘Oh, it’s raining’, and the student looks out the window, it can be assumed that the student has comprehended the statement.

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Instructions

Step 1: Using the table below as a guide, determine the comments and statements that will be given to the student in column 1 on the Response to oral comments and statements record sheet (Form 14). The recorded responses are examples only. A judgment needs to be made about whether the student’s response demonstrates comprehension.

Comments and statements should be made within the context of everyday interactions when suitable incidental moments arise. A student’s comprehension of comments and statements is best assessed in onetoone or smallgroup situations so as to observe subtle student responses.

Types of comments and statements

Level 1: Singleword comments and statements

Student’s name

A student may respond by looking or turning towards the teacher, screwing up their eyes and turning away or stopping what they are doing momentarily, for example:

• Teacher says Holly. The student looks at the teacher

Greetings and farewells

A student may respond by smiling, looking at the teacher, talking or using an appropriate gesture, for example:

• Teacher says Hi John. The student responds by lifting his hand

Names of preferred people, food, objects, activities and topics

A student may respond by finding the related object, getting excited or orienting towards the named referent, for example:

• Teacher says lunchtime. The student starts to make chewing movements

• Teacher says circletime. The student looks at the picture display board to see the songs to be sung

Descriptive words that are associated with obvious sensory input

A student may respond by physically demonstrating the meaning of the descriptive word, agreeing/disagreeing with what has been said (verbally or nonverbally) or by adding an appropriate vocalisation or word, for example:

• Teacher says heavy as the student struggles to lift an item. The student repeats the word ‘heavy’ or makes an effortful grunt

• Teacher says fast as student strikes a drum. The student drums faster

• Teacher says sticky when the student gets glue on his hands. The student looks at the teacher and wipes his hands on clothing or holds hands out

Action words said as the student engages in a related movement

A student may respond by physically demonstrating the meaning of the action word, agreeing/disagreeing with what has been said (verbally or nonverbally) or by adding an appropriate vocalisation or word, for example:

• Teacher says stirring as student mixes cake batter. The student looks at teacher, smiles and continues stirring

• Teacher says pushing as student pushes a door open. The student says ‘push’

• Teacher says jumping as the student jumps up and down on a trampoline. The student looks at the teacher, smiles and nods

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Types of comments and statements (cont)

Level 2: Simple sentence comments or statements about immediate surrounds

Comments or statements about the immediate surroundings when obvious contextual cues are present

The student must respond after the teacher has made the comment. If the student responds beforehand, it is likely that the contextual cue has caused the student to respond, for example:

• Teacher says Someone is at the door as the sound of knocking is heard. The student looks at the door or gets up to open the door

• Teacher says The pencil is broken when the student has tried to use a pencil that does not work. The student puts the pencil down or goes to get another one

• Teacher says The gate is locked when the student has just tried to open the gate. The student touches the teacher’s keys

Comments or statements about the student or the teacher when obvious contextual cues are present

A student may respond using a combination of forms such as looking at the referent, agreeing/disagreeing with what has been said (verbally or nonverbally), adding related words, using an appropriate facial expression, physically acting upon the meaning of what has been said, for example:

• Teacher says My shoes are dirty when their shoes are caked with mud. The student looks at the shoes, says ‘yucky’ or tries to wipe them

• Teacher says You dropped your bag, after the student has dropped their bag on the floor. The student looks at the bag or picks it up

Comments or statements about the immediate surroundings when minimal or less obvious contextual cues are present


• Teacher says There are no biscuits left. The student picks up the plate and takes it to the cupboard to check if there are more biscuits

• Teacher says Jacob’s not here today. The student gets Jacob’s photo and places it on the ‘not at school’ board

Comments or statements about the student or the teacher when minimal or less obvious contextual cues are present


• Teacher says Your hair is pretty (the student cannot see their hair). The student smiles or touches their hair

• Teacher says I have a sore foot. The student looks concerned, touches the teacher’s foot and says ‘sore’

37 Communication


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Communication

ASSESSM

ENT


Types of comments and statements (cont)

Level 3: Simple sentence comments and statements about future or past events

At this level, key referents or representations may not be present. However, students may require communication aids that allow them to comprehend and express time (time of the day, days of week, months) in order to make sense of and respond to comments and statements related to future and past events.

Comments or statements about routine and nonroutine, familiar events and activities (those the student has experienced) that have finished or are expected to occur that day or week

• Teacher says On Thursday your mum is visiting. The student responds by putting a visitor visual support on the weekly schedule

• Teacher says We went to the Easter Show in April. The student laughs and flaps arms to imitate a chicken (his favourite animal at the Easter Show)

Comments and statements about changes in routine and scheduled events

• At morning circle, the teacher says It’s raining. No sport today. We’ll have busy time in class (the student is known to dislike sports). The student says ‘yipee’, jumps up and down and gets the ‘busy time’ visual for the class schedule

• Teacher says Miss Smith is away today. No math groups. We’ll go to the library. The student gets their library bag

Level 4: Comments and statements about topics and themes

Comments and statements about familiar topics and themes (ie those recently studied at school)

• The students have been learning about bugs. The teacher says I’m thinking of a bug that is red and has black dots. The student points to a picture of a ladybird.

• The teacher says This insect lives in a web. The student puts fingers together and says spider.

Comments and statements about unfamiliar topics and themes

• Teacher says Zebras are animals that come from Africa and can be found in the zoo. The student picks up the zebra cutout and places it over the African continent on the class map.

• Teacher says The Mexican and Italian flag have the same colours. The student colours the two flags and places them on a wall chart.

38 Communication


English K–6

Communication


ASSESSM

ENT

Step 2: Commence the assessment at Level 2. If the student responds appropriately, continue the assessment from Level 2. If the student has difficulty comprehending Level 2 comments and statements, move to Level 1.

Gain the student’s attention and provide the comment or statement using oral language only.

Give the student at least 15–20 seconds to respond.

Step 3: Record the student’s response in the Student Response column. Note whether the student’s response is immediate, delayed, unrelated or nonexistent. Describe exactly what the student says or does, eg ‘nods, smiles and looks at shoes’.

Also note whether the student’s response varies when:

• the classroom is noisy/busy (may indicate problems with selective attending or hearing)

• they are engaged in something interesting at the time the comment/statement is given (may indicate problems with shifting attention).

It is important to determine whether the vocabulary used in comments or statements influenced the student’s comprehension/response. Change the key words, to determine whether the vocabulary itself is the reason for the student’s difficulty.

If the student doesn’t respond, use increasingly obvious supports or prompts and record the support the student requires in the Supports column.



• turn head towards the referent, eg look at student’s shoes

• use gestures such as pointing, touching or imitating an action, eg the teacher says We are going swimming and uses gesture for swimming.



• draw a picture.

Step 4: When a student is unable to respond to three types of comments or statements, stop assessing more complex comments or statements.

Determine whether this is the student’s ‘edge of learning’ by assessing an additional three examples of the last type of comment or statement that the student responded to correctly.

Step 5: Complete the Summary using the recorded assessment information:


– shade the comments and statement types that the student consistently comprehends

– record a # for comment and statement types that the student usually/frequently comprehends



– record NA for types of comments and statements that were not assessed

39 Communication


English K–6

Communication


ASSESSM

ENT


• identify and record any supports that assist the student to comprehend comments and statements


Dynamic assessment

Dynamic assessment involves identifying what the student can understand and communicate with the support and/or guidance (eg modelling, prompting, instruction) of a communication partner. It can be used to determine a student’s potential for learning and the teaching strategies that may assist communication learning.

Example of a dynamic assessment:

The teacher assesses the level at which a student responds correctly to a 1step instruction. The teacher starts with a more complex and symbolic form, gradually reducing the level of complexity and adding prompts eg verbal instruction using a sentence→ verbal instruction using two words→ verbal instruction using one word→ verbal instruction using one word and gaze→ verbal instruction using one word, gaze and gesture etc.

The level at which the student produces the desired response, determines the complexity of instruction and the level of prompting (if any) required by the student.

Visual supports assessment (based on Ulliana & Jackson)

Purpose: To assess the level of symbolism that the student is able to understand in order to identify the best type of symbols/visual supports to use.

Instructions

Step 1: Record the student’s preferences.

Record what the student likes and dislikes. This may be undertaken using the Preference profile (Form 17).

It is important to carefully observe how the student responds to visual materials related to both preferred and nonpreferred items/activities in their environment before investing a lot of time making individualised visual supports. Sometimes students may not respond to a symbol because they are not interested enough in what it represents. It is important to rule out lack of motivation as a reason for no response.

Step 2: Record the student’s response to visual information using natural observations.

Observe how the student responds to visual information in a range of naturally occurring situations and record on the Symbol assessment form (Form 19).

Ask people who know the student well to add information or complete a separate Symbol assessment form.

40 Communication


English K–6

Communication



n lis


ASSESSM

ENT

The more contexts in which the student responds to a symbol type (eg real objects), in a meaningful way, the more evidence that the symbol type is likely to be appropriate for the student.

Example 1:

The student likes to drink Milo. His parents report that when he sees his mother put the Milo tin on the bench at home, he moves to the fridge to get the milk. This suggests that the Milo tin (real object) has meaning for the student. When the student sees Milo at the supermarket during a school shopping lesson, he points to it excitedly. This further supports the Milo tin as having meaning to the student and provides more evidence that real objects should work as a symbol type for the student.

Example 2:

The student enjoys looking through the class photo album and catalogues. She likes to ensure that students are sitting in the correct seats, labelled with their photos. It can be assumed that photographs will most likely work as a symbol type.

Step 3: Use structured observations to record further information about the student’s responses to visual information, if required.

Observe and record how the student responds to visual information that represents items/ activities identified from the completed Preference profile on the Symbol assessment form as detailed below.

Note: This step may be required, if there are limited opportunities to observe the student’s response to visual information across a range of situations.

• Collect a range of visual symbols that represent 2–4 preferred items or activities, eg for a student who likes swimming, the teacher collects:

– swimming goggles, floaties, towel (associated objects)

– photograph of swimming pool

– drawing of swimming

• Set up everyday situations to use the various symbols and observe how the student responds. Use one visual representation at a time, introducing symbols into existing routines.

• Record how the student responds on the Symbol assessment form.

Example:

After lunch, the routine is for playtime to follow. The teacher moves within reaching distance of the student, positions themselves at eye level and says ‘Time for ...’ and shows a photo of the playground. It is important to see how the student responds to the image without the key words being spoken.

41 Communication


English K–6

Communication


ASSESSM

ENT

Step 4: Use the information collected to decide which symbols will be best understood and used for the student.

Consider the processing demands and visual appeal of symbols. The symbols used on the visual supports should be easy to interpret so that they assist the student to understand and respond to what is being communicated almost immediately. A combination of symbols may be used (eg real objects, photographs and coloured line drawings) as long as the student knows the meaning of the symbols being used.

The visual support should include symbols that the student likes to look at, so it is more likely to be used.

Step 5: Decide on a format (p 13) for the visual supports.

Determine:

• the overall form of the visual supports (eg wall chart, flip chart, book, pamphlet, board, single card or card cluster) by considering the student’s skills and the practicalities of its use such as portability and durability

• the type of layout to be used. This includes variables like the number, size, shape, colour, and positioning of the symbols. It is important to be aware that the more complex the layout, the more demands are placed upon the student to interpret and use the visual support. Visual supports become more complex if the size of symbols is decreased and the number of items is increased.

Analysis of contexts

Purpose: To gain an understanding of the demands of the environments in which a student participates and identify the communication and/or language that the student requires to participate (Light, Beukelman & Reichle 2003). It is important that both the expressive and receptive demands of the environment are considered.

It may also be used to determine the types of adjustments the student requires to participate in learning experiences and assessment opportunities.

Instructions (based on Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Step 1: List the environments in which the student participates. Complete Steps 2 to 5 for each environment.

Step 2: List the activities that occur.

Step 3: Task analyse the communication skills and/or language required for each activity.

Step 4: Observe the student engaging in the activity and identify communication skill deficits (participation analysis).

Step 5: Determine communication skills and/or language to be developed and/or the required adjustments to enable the student to participate.

42 Communication


English K–6

Communication

PlanningTeachers may choose to use a particular method of planning and programming, such as thatillustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Planning and programming model

Collaborative curriculum planning

Collaborative curriculum planning (Teaching and learning p 9) is appropriate for students withcomplex communication needs.

The planning process for students with complex communication needs should involve:

• appropriate professionals with specific expertise

• determining priorities/goals for expressive and/or receptive communication

• determining adjustments that will support communication and enable students to participate in learning experiences and assessment opportunities.

Determining priorities and goals for communication

Decisions about priorities and goals for communication are informed by the evidencegathered. Planning and programming for communication is more likely to be successful if careful analysis of the gathered evidence is undertaken.

43


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING


44


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

When making decisions in relation to priorities and goals for communication, the followingshould be considered:

•

•

•

•

Making decisions about appropriate communication priorities and goals for individualstudents can be a complex task. These determinations will vary according to a student’communication level (pre-intentional, intentional (non-symbolic) and intentional (symbolic)),learning needs and the contexts in which they participate.

building on a student’

enabling the student to participate more effectively in a range of contexts by consideringthe message types (functions) that occur most frequently and/or the language required to participate

increasing the number of social interactions in which the student participates

giving the student increased control over their environment.

Note:(Form 1

When using the2), decisions should include prioritising target(s).

s current knowledge, skills and understanding

Summary of expressive communication record sheet

s

Selection of outcomes

Syllabus outcomes and content are selected based on an individual student’priorities and goals.

For some students with complex communication needs, teachers need to program and assess student learning in small steps towards syllabus outcomes and communication goalsand priorities. This should be reflected in the criteria for assessing learning.

The following section provides examples of outcomes, content and criteria for assessinglearning appropriate to functions at the pre-intentional, intentional (non-symbolic) andintentional (symbolic) levels.

s communication

Is theras a result of these e

e sufficient evidence thaxperiences?

t students have made progress

For students with complex communication needs, the criteria for assessing learning needs to clearly identify new communicative behaviour(s) or targeted language/concepts forreceptive understanding. Communication development may occur graduallyneed to develop criteria for assessing learning that can measure progress in very small stepstowards selected outcomes.

Tthe criteria for assessing learning in order to ensure that communication development is occurring and to evaluate decisions taken in relation to planning, programming andimplementation (Schlosser 2003).

eachers need to implement specific ongoing monitoring of a student’

Note:teachers may refer back to and steps. General information about developing (Teaching and learning p 7)

Figure 4 (p 27)

When students have demonstrated the criteria for assessing learning,

for intentional behaviours to determine possible next Figure 3 (p 26)

can be found in T

for pre-intentional behaviour(s)

criteria for assessing learningeaching and Learning Cycle.

s progress towards

, so teachers



45


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Crit

The following tables outline the assessment criteria that can be used to assess communicationfunctions (p 7)

P

At the pre-intentional level the student’

re-in

eria f

ten

Note:refer to

tional

or assessing learning

linked to syllabus outcomes and content.

For more information on implementing strategies listed belowstrategies (p 72).

s exit goal is to communicate functions intentionally

,

.

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Requests items

ants

Syllabus Examples of criteria for Contexts/strategiesoutcome(s) assessing learningand contentENe-1A Starting point Communicative opportunities

• communicate When the student’s favourite toy is • place desired items within eyesight appropriately in view, his mother responds to him but out of reach to elicit requestsand effectively gazing at the toy by giving it to him • embed preferred items in regularlywithin the (placing it in his hand). The student occurring routines and activities classroomusing agreedconventions

holds the toy and shakes it.

Criteria for assessing learning

• leave out or substitute a wrong itemduring the routine

• regularly forewarn of upcomingTarget: Increase frequency and preferred options, eg using an objectextent of use board, say ‘Number 1, lunch’ (and

The student will gaze at and reachtowards a variety of preferred itemsthat are placed in view.

take a spoon from the object board and pretend to eat); say ‘Number 2,spinning toy’ (and take the miniaturespinning toy from the object board and demonstrate its use)

Possible next stepStrategies

Target: Enhance the behaviour by adding a form • use wait and signal, increasing the

wait time as the frequency of theThe student will reach for a variety of behaviour increasespreferred items and shift their gaze from • emphasise the role of ‘giver’ by the item to a communication partner. slowing down the process of giving

the student the item, eg start to reachtowards the item and then stop andlook back at the student

• use contingent responding, emphasisingthe interpretation eg ‘mmmm chips’(with exaggerated vocal tone)

• gain the student’s attention, once they have gazed and reached towardsthe item to encourage them to usereferencing to establish joint attention

46


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expressing needs and wants (cont)

Function: Requests actions from others

Syllabusoutcome(s) and contentENe-1A

• communicateappropriatelyand effectivelywithin theclassroomusing agreedconventions

Examples of criteria for assessing learning

Starting point

When preferred foods are spooned into a student’s mouth at meal times,the student has been observed to lift their chin slightly, lift their righthand and swallow the food. For non-preferred foods the student closes their mouth. The behaviours are consistently observed duringbreakfast and often at morning tea.

The student has also infrequently been observed to lift their right handduring preferred activities. This gesturehas been interpreted as acceptance as it is often accompanied by a smile.


Target: Establish by interpretingbehaviours

When food is placed within eye-sightand in close proximity to the student’smouth, any sign of the student lifting their chin and/or hand will be interpreted as requesting.

Possible next step

Target: Increase frequency and extent of use

When the student is taking part in turn-taking routines or activities that have repetitive actions, partners will interpret the behaviour of hand-lifting as requesting acontinuation of the activity.

Contexts/strategies

Communicative opportunities

• create turn-taking opportunities withinpredictable and established routines

• plan activities that involve repetitivemotions or actions

• use multisensory forewarning cues just prior to meal time, eg show a life-sized photograph of the snack or meal, prepare food near to thestudent so that they can see, hearand/or smell it

Strategies

• use wait and signal. As the frequencyof the behaviour increases, the partnerincreases the wait time

• interpret spontaneously occurring chin-lifting and/or hand-lifting asrequesting and use contingentresponding. Say ‘you want more’ and continue the activity

• provide non-preferred food itemsthroughout mealtime to distinguishbetween the communicativebehaviour(s)

• if the student doesn’t spontaneously lift their hand, the teacher imitates the student’s hand lifting and waits for the student to copy

47


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expressing needs and wants (cont)

Function: Rejects




Starting point

When the student does not like orwant something, they turn their headaway, shortly followed by spitting inthe direction of the thing they dislike.


Target: Replace the behaviour with a more appropriate behaviour

The student will turn their head away (without spitting) to reject things they do not like or want.

Possible next step

Target: Enhance the behaviour to a more recognisable behaviour(head shake), for example:

• 2-part head shake

• 3-part head shake

• faster head shake

Contexts/strategies


• introduce non-preferred items oractivities to elicit rejecting

• prepare to respond immediately and have preferred activities availableto replace non-preferred activities

Strategies

• interpret head turning as a rejectionand use contingent responding. Pair nonverbal forms (eg frowning,pressing lips together, turning headslowly) and vocalisations (eg gruntingor saying ‘uh-uh’) to acknowledge the student’s message and modeladditional forms of rejecting behaviour

• model a slow emphatic 2-part headshake paired with the vocalisation ‘uh-uh’ when interacting with other adults

• use shaping

48


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Social relating

Function: Seeks attention



• use interactionskills includinglistening whileothers speak,usingappropriatevoice levels,articulation andbody language,gestures andeye contact


Starting point

The student bangs their wheelchairtray to seek attention. This is observedwhen people enter the classroom andwhen the student has been sittinginactive for short periods of time.


Target: Replace the behaviour with a more appropriate andconventional behaviour

The student will use a switch toactivate a speech generating devicethat says ‘Hello, please come talk’ to greet people and to seek attention.

Possible next step


The student will increase the contextsin which they use the switch to greetpeople and seek attention (eg in theplayground, during morning circle, in small-group activities).

Contexts/strategies


• withhold attention in a familiar routineto elicit a request for attention

• when students and staff enter theclassroom, communication partners are prepared to prompt the student to activate the switch

Strategies

• use functional communication training

• respond to the student activating theswitch using contingent responding.Say ‘Hello’ or ‘I’m coming’ and spendtime with the student

49


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expressing feelings and states

Function: Expresses annoyance


• communicate The student hits his face when asked • establish classroom schedule thatappropriately to finish a preferred activity, when includes multiple opportunities toand effectively he reaches for something that he undertake preferred activitieswithin the is unable to access immediately orclassroomusing agreed

when he is expected to share objectswith other students.

Strategies

conventions • provide an individualised real object

• use interactionskills includinglistening whileothers speak,using


Target: Replace the behaviour withmore appropriate and conventionalbehaviours

schedule and engage the student incompiling the schedule

• provide ample time for the student to engage in preferred activities

• establish predictable routines at the

appropriate The student will frown, pout lips, make end of activities that include consistent

voice levels, ‘throaty’ displeased sound and/or tap language (eg ‘1 minute to go’ and

articulation and thighs to express annoyance/protest. count down slowly ‘20, 19’ etc, paired

body language, with a sound cue (eg a tambourine)

gestures andeye contact

Possible next step

Target: Replace behaviours with amore conventional and less intenseform of protest

• provide an active role for the studentin bringing the preferred activity to anend, eg packing away equipment used

• reflect the student’s emotional tonewhen announcing the end of an activity,

The student will frown, vocalise from eg use a disappointed vocal tone and say

the throat to express annoyance/ ‘oh (activity name) is finished’

protest and pack away items used • use a finished box to place equipmentin preferred activities when ‘finished’ and objects from the schedule thatcount down occurs. represent activities that are finished

• remind the student when the preferred activity will occur again using the schedule

50


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing f

tion: Expr

eelings and sta

esses pain

tes (cont)


• communicate On several occasions when the • stage episodes when staff ‘injure’appropriately student has been sick or has had themselves and model the behavioursand effectively an injury, there has been a sudden (specified below)within the increase in chewing his sleeves. • highlight naturally occurring situationsclassroom to model pained state using agreedconventions


Target: Replace the behaviour with Strategies

a more appropriate behaviour • model a hurt expression, when

The student will frown, pout lips, make displeased sound and touch the part of his body that is sore.

naturally occurring and staged situationsoccur (eg student bumps head orteacher drops something on own foot)

• use contingent responding for sleeve

Possible next stepchewing by expressing pain (as below)

• position at eye-level to make faceTarget: Enhance by adding a form highly visible and prolong and

The student will frown, pout lips, make displeased sound and hold or rub the part of his body that is sore.

exaggerate a pained facial expression,vocalise ‘owwhhh’ and rub or hold the hurt part of the body

• wait a short time before comforting the student. As the student recovers,model calming strategies, eg say ‘that’sbetter’ using a neutral expression andsoothing voice

• when appropriate, establish routines(eg using band aids, creams, heat bag etc)

51


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing f

tion: Expr

eelings and sta

esses happiness/jo

tes (c

y

ont)


• communicate The student smiles, shortly followed • establish classroom schedule thatappropriately by screeching when engaging in includes multiple opportunities forand effectively preferred activities. This has been preferred activities to occurwithin the observed during familiar rhymes, sharedclassroom reading of preferred books and watchingusing agreed videos of previous experiences (as theconventions focus of discussions).

• use interactionskills including Criteria for assessing learning Strategieslistening whileothers speak,usingappropriatevoice levels,

Target: Replace the behaviour with a more appropriate behaviour

The student will smile (withoutscreeching) to express happiness/joy.

• immediately respond to the studentsmiling using contingent responding.Say ‘Yeh, you like that’ while showinga picture to represent ‘more’

articulation andbody language,gestures andeye contact

Possible next step

Target: Enhance by adding a form • use response chaining

The student will activate a switch, with an attached picture representing‘more’ after they smile to say ‘I like it.More please.’

52


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

T

F

ransf

unction: C

er of inf

ompr

orma

ehends and e

tion

xpresses ownership


• understand The student picks up the nearest • embed sorting out and distribution simple school bag when it is time to leave in of student belongings as a mini routineclassroom the afternoon. The student takes food in lessons across the dayroutines from other students’ plates and lunch

boxes. The student sits on any seatwhen instructed to sit in the classroom.

Strategies

• attach distinctive visuals or modify

Criteria for assessing learningbelongings (eg chairs, bags, desks,lunch boxes) to support recognition

Target: Establish recognition andidentification of own belongings

• immediately prior to lunch time/home time, ask each student to collect

The student will select own bag, lunch box and drink bottle from a

their belongings

• when the routine is established, show

collection of classmates’ belongings. individual belongings, highlightingdistinctive visuals or modifications,

Possible next step

Target: Establish recognition andidentification of other students’belongings

for students to identify and collect

• decrease prompting over time andincrease the number of choices, eg student chooses from 2, 3 and 5lunch boxes

The student will recognise and identify other students’ belongings

• support students to take an active rolein packing and unpacking belongings

with less prompting. • plan opportunities for students todistribute belongings to peers

53


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

T

F

ransf

unction: Mak

er of inf

es choic

ormation

es

(cont)


• respond to The student has some physical • multiple opportunities for choice-makingsimple behaviours that they demonstrate in classroom routines and experiencesquestions infrequently. It is difficult to either verbally determine whether these behavioursor non-verbally are involuntary.

Criteria for assessing learning Strategies

Target: Establish by interpreting • use touch cues to signal the start

Partners present choices one at a time using touch cues representingactivities, in addition to oral language,eg book for reading, mouse forcomputer. Any slight movement

of or the next step in an activity, eg a book for reading, a mouse forcomputer, a swimming cap forswimming etc.

• use wait and signal

from the student will be interpreted • interpret any small movement

as a choice. as a choice and use contingentresponding. Say, ‘You want …’ and

Possible next stepcommence or continue the activity

• provide non-preferred options to Target: Increase frequency and check that the movement clearlyextent of uses indicates a choice

The student will use body movement(as observed above) to make choiceswith increased frequency whenpresented with touch cues representingpreferred and non-preferred activities.

54


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

T

F

ransf

unction: F

er of inf

ollo

orma

ws a r

tion

outine

(cont)

Syllabusoutcome(s) and content


Contexts/strategies

ENe-1A Starting point Communicative opportunities

• understandsimpleclassroomroutines

The student requires physicalprompting to follow classroom routines including routines involvingfinishing activities.

• the teacher provides instructionsaccompanied by eye–gaze and gestures followed by modelling during familiar routines


Target: Participate in routines forfinishing activities with less prompting

The student will respond to sound cues that signal the end of activities by stopping their actions andparticipating in packing away.

• use consistent language, supported by sound-cues and non-verbal communication to provide repeated models

• increase the wait time between the instruction and modelling and look for signs of a response

Possible next step

Target: Participate in routines forfinishing activities with less prompting

The student will respond to oralinstructions accompanied by gaze and gestures by stopping their actionsand participating in packing away.

55


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

In

At

t

t

en

he

tional (non-symbolic)

non-symbolic intentional level the student’s exit goal is to use symbolic communication.

Note:refer to

For more information on implementing strategies listed belowstrategies (p 72).

,

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Requests items

ants

Syllabus Examples of criteria for Contexts/strategiesoutcome(s) assessing learningand contentENe-6B Starting point Communicative opportunities

• understand that The student picks up items they are • place preferred and required items language can interested in. If the desired item is in inaccessible but known locations be used to inaccessible, the student guides a to elicit requestsexplore ways of person to the item, reaches towards • embed use of preferred items inexpressing it while opening and shutting their classroom routinesneeds, likes palm and vocalising. When the item and dislikes is given to the student, they smile.

Strategies• compose texts

to communicatefeelings, needs,opinions andideas


Target: Enhance by making behaviourmore conventional

• place desired items just out of reachduring learning experiences

• draw student’s attention to out-of-reachitems

The student will point to out-of-reach, • model repeated pointing motion desired or required items. • physically guide student to change

reaching hand position to whole-handPossible next step point, then index-finger point

Replace with a symbolic behaviour • respond to pointing using contingentresponding. Give the item to the

The student will point to or give student, name it and touch a picturea related picture symbol to a representing itcommunication partner to request • role-play using pointing to request an item in targeted activities. and receive desired items with

another adult or peer

• place appropriate visual representationsin immediate proximity and at eye-level

• use functional communication trainingto teach the student to give a symbol to a partner

• respond to pointing or giving a symbolby using contingent responding.Immediately give the student the item and name it

• gradually increase the wait time anddecrease the level of prompting

56


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Requests activities

ants (cont)


• understand that The student indicates what they • multiple opportunities for choice-makinglanguage can would like to do by moving to the • symbols (parts of objects) representingbe used to area where an activity takes place, activities are attached to the wallexplore ways of looking at the teacher and vocalising. where each activity takes placeexpressingneeds, likesand dislikes

• compose texts

The teacher responds according to the location and says ‘You want to(activity name)’. The student showssatisfaction by giggling.

• outline the day’s events using aschedule. Each activity is representedby the same symbol (as above)

• build opportunities to choose activitiesto communicate into the schedulefeelings, needs, Criteria for assessing learningopinions andideas

Target: Replace with a symbolicbehaviour

Strategies

• use functional communication trainingThe student will pick up symbols (parts of objects) representing activitiesfrom the designated area and give it to the communication partner torequest an activity.

Possible next step

Target: Interpret under appropriate • if the student requests the activity conditions at an inappropriate time, acknowledge

the request and refer to the scheduleThe student will select symbols (parts of object) representing activitiesto request activities from a choiceboard at designated times of day (whenidentified on the visual schedule).

57


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Requests actions fr

ants

om others (

(cont)

eg continuation)



Contexts/strategies

ENe-6B Starting point Communicative opportunities

• compose texts During book reading and computer • routines with repetitive actions to communicatefeelings, needs,opinions andideas

activities, the student looks at thecommunication partner and vocalisesto request an action from them.

The student puts their chin to their

• activities that require team work

• avoid anticipating needs to elicit arequest for assistance

• select materials with which the chest when they have had enough student will need help of an activity. • model using the symbol to request

‘more’ after the student vocalisesCriteria for assessing learning

Target: Replace the behaviour with Strategies

a more recognisable behaviour • use functional communication training

The student will use a single messageswitch with a picture symbolrepresenting ‘more’ attached to request continuation during book

• respond to the student’s use of theswitch using contingent responding.Say, ‘You want more’, touch thesymbol and continue the activity

reading and computer time.

Possible next step


The student will use a switch with a picture symbol representing ‘more’attached in a range of activities torequest continuation.

58


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

S

Func

ocial r

tion:

ela

T

ting

urn-taking



Contexts/strategies


• understand The student opens their eyes wide • texts with repetitive parts, how to to show signs of anticipation of a eg songs, bookscommunicateeffectively inpairs andgroups usingagreedinterpersonal

repetitive line in familiar rhymes and songs. The teacher responds bysaying, ‘Yes it is your turn’ (eg to saythe rhyme) and gestures to the student.The student’s physical movements are quite slow.

• embed multiple opportunities for turn-taking in classroom routines

• provide other students withopportunities to use the switch during turn-taking routines

conventions,active listening,appropriatelanguage andtaking turns


Target: Replace the behaviour with a more conventional andsymbolic behaviour

Strategies

• use gesture to indicate whose turn it is

• use functional communication training

The student will use a switch to activate a single message on aspeech-generating device when the teacher gestures to indicate it is their turn.

Possible next step

Target: Enhance the behaviour • use shapingby making it more fluent

The student will use the switch morequickly to activate the speech-generatingdevice when it is their turn.

59


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

S

Func

ocial r

tion: S

elating

ocial etiquett

(cont)

e (eg greeting)


• use interaction The student vocalises paired with • create opportunities to provoke skills including eye contact to greet familiar people. a greetinglistening whileothers speak,using


appropriate Target: Enhance by adding a form • use response chaining

voice levels,articulation andbody language,

The student will lift their hand shortlyafter vocalising, to give a greeting.

gestures andeye contact Possible next step

Target: Increase frequency and • prompt greeting behaviours with aextent of use. wider range of people including when

the student is meeting someone new

60


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

T

F

ransf

unction: C

er of inf

ommen

orma

ts on in

tion

terest


• compose texts The student looks and points, • place novelty items in the classroomto communicate combined with a vocalisation when within eyesight of the studentfeelings, needs, there are new items in the classroom • use items likely to elicit a commentopinions and or when the teacher substitutes during regular routinesideas incorrect items into a familiar routine.

The teacher responds by gesturing tothe student’s focus and saying either‘You’re right, that’s new’ or ‘You’reright, I got that wrong’. The studentgiggles after the teacher responds.

• substitute wrong item or lead person to the wrong location in a familiarroutine to encourage a comment

• provide opportunities for the student toexplore items (eg touch), and commenton their focus (eg it is big, blue hair)

Criteria for assessing learningStrategies

Target: Enhance by adding a form• use referencing

The student will use shifting eye–gazewith pointing and vocalising to clarifywhat they are commenting on.

Possible next step

Target: Replace with a switch that • use functional communication trainingactivates a speech-generating device

61


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

T

F

ransf

unction: F

er of inf

ollo

orma

ws instruc

tion (

tions

cont)


• carry out The student follows simple one-step • familiar classroom routines instructions instructions by looking at and copying including transitionsinvolving what other students are doing. one step They sometimes rely on additional

gestural prompts.


Target: Decrease the level of • speak slowly and clearly, using prompting short simple and repeated phrases

The student will respond to familiar • exaggerate key words

one-step oral instructions at a lower • use an increasing level of prompts,

level of prompting. starting from a lower level andprogressing to a higher level

Possible next step • provide wait time after giving an instruction

Target: Eliminate the level ofprompting

• ask other students in the class to pause after instructions to give the

The student responds to familiar target student time to respond

one-step oral instructions with no prompting.

62


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Intentional (symbolic)

Note:forms to communicate, teachers should consider will enable them to participate in teaching and learning experiences and provide them with multiple opportunities to use symbols in flexible ways.Tunderstanding of symbols.

Note:refer to

eachers should also consider adjustments that will support students’

For more information on implementing strategies listed below

For students at the symbolic intentional level who are using aided

strategies (p 72).

adjustments (p 80)

,

that

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Request items

ants


• understand that The student uses eye–gaze to • provide picture symbols representinglanguage can indicate the symbol representing materials of interest to the student be used to food or items they would like from as appropriate to activitiesexplore ways of a choice of four on an eye–gaze board. expressing The partner responds by saying needs, likes ‘This one?’ and points to the symbol.and dislikes The student vocalises to confirm or

• make simple turns their head to indicate the partner

requests using is incorrect. The partner then gets

appropriate and names the item.

word orderCriteria for assessing learning Strategies

Target: Replace with a more • judge the accuracy of the student’sconventional behaviour selection by asking ‘This one?’

The student uses the establishedThe student will use a single switch (ie stop scan) attached to a speechgenerating device to indicate a choicefrom a selection of four symbols.

behaviours of vocalising and head-turning to respond

• periodically substitute non-requesteditems to monitor the student’srequesting

Possible next step• use aided language stimulation when

Target: Enhance by adding a form communicating with the student

The student will select the symbolrepresenting ‘I want’ prior to indicatinga choice from a selection of foursymbols on a speech-generating device.

63


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Requests actions fr

ants

om others

(cont)


• compose texts The student requests actions from • avoid anticipating the student’s needs to communicate others by signing ‘help’ or ‘more’. • select materials for which the studentfeelings, needs,opinions andideas

• make simplerequests usingappropriateword order

The communication partner respondsby saying ‘You want more …’ or ‘You want help with …’ combinedwith key signs representing the referent (item, activity).


will need help

• give brief turns or small portions ofmaterials, so the student needs to ask for more

• stop activity, wait and signal to elicit a desire for request for action

Target: Build complexity of sentencesusing signs

Strategies

• speak in short sentencesWhen prompted with ‘more what?’ or ‘help with what?’, the student willadd a key sign or gesture to representthe referent eg ‘more computer’.

• use aided language stimulation

• ask ‘help with what’ or ‘more what?’after individual sign. If this does not elicit a more complex response,interpret what the student is

Possible next step referring to, eg ‘more book?’ and

Target: Decrease prompting model key signs

The student will use a combination of signs representing two or more

• use contingent responding when thestudent uses a combination of signs

words to request actions from others.

64


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: Requests activities

ants (cont)



Contexts/strategies


• communicate When symbols are presented one • multiple opportunities for appropriately at a time, the student requests choice-making are embedded and effectively activities by touching the symbol in the timetablewithin the representing the preferred activity. classroom The student understands and usesusing agreed symbols representing 15 activities.conventions


Target: Increase fluency • use aided language stimulation

When presented with a grid with a choice of two symbols, the studentwill request an activity by touching a symbol in the grid.

• use contingent responding. When the student touches a symbol,say ‘You want _____’ and commencethe activity

• periodically check student’s

Possible next steprequesting behaviour by substituting an incorrect activity

Target: Increase fluency

When presented with a grid with a choice of four symbols, the studentwill request an activity by touching a symbol in the grid.

65


English K–6

Communication

PLA

NNING

Expr

Func

essing needs and w

tion: AnswCommen

ers and asks questionsts about past e

ants (cont)

vents



Contexts/strategies


• communicate The student uses single words to • the teacher has identified with peers and communicate. People who know classroom activities in which familiar adults the student well can understand the student can answer and askabout personal some of what the student says. ‘when’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘who’experience

• respond tosimplequestionseither verballyor non-verbally

The student prepares their news about the weekend by placing symbols or photos in a table undersymbols representing ‘when’, ‘what’,‘where’, ‘who’. The teacher asksquestions and the student responds

questions using a communicationboard and writing software

• use questions orally while pointing to symbols.

and statementsappropriately inclassdiscussions



Strategies

• use aided language stimulation

• expand on questions,

The student will increase the eg ‘Who was there?’

contexts in which they respond to and use ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where,‘when’ questions by:

• using symbol software to answer questions during reading and writing activities

• responding to questions from a partner about their writing

• asking questions in news time using symbols on a communication board combined with oral language

Possible next step

Target: Increase sentence complexity

Programming

the class timetable in the column communicative opportunities that occur or can be embedded during the activities andlearning experiences.

opportunities to model the use of communication forms and/or language, eg using andcombining symbols, paired with oral language. Record this under the heading in the

expressive communication. These may include specific strategies to support communication.

in the

Programming for communication involves:

•

•

•

Programming for communication is more likely to be successful if (Schlosser 2003):

•

•

•

•

Tassist them in identifying how a student’be addressed in the context of the whole-class program.

Instruc

St

St

St

St

St

the student to use targeted functions and/or language (this might include opportunities to use and combine symbols). Record opportunities under the heading Priorities/focus

eachers may choose to use the

ep 1:

ep 2:

ep 3:

ep 4:

ep 5:

using assessment information and individual student’ways to promote communication development in the context of the whole-class program

selecting outcomes and determining

identifying and implementing specific development for the identified targets.

ample communicative opportunities are programmed in routine activities and aredesigned to be motivating for students eg by embedding preferred activities and interests

consideration is given to the communication and/or language required to participate in routines, activities and learning experiences (analysis of contexts)

the strategies used to promote communication are carefully selected according to targetsand implemented across a range of contexts

the environment is organised in a way that promotes communication.

Priorities/focus

Outcomes/content

tions

Using information from an

List the activities and learning experiences that typically occur in a week from

Identify opportunities to support receptive communication. This might include

Record the adjustments/supports needed by the student to assist receptive and/or

Select appropriate outcomes and content from the

column.

column.

column.

Planning and programming record sheet (Form 1

Activity/learning experience

analysis of contexts (p 42)

s communication needs, priorities and goals can

criteria for assessing learning (p 45)

strategies (p 72)

s priorities and goals to identify

that promote communication

English K–10 Syllabus

, identify opportunities for

. Consider the types of

Expressive

Receptive

5)

and record

in the

to

66


English K–6

Communication

PROGRAMMING


http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/english/english-k10/

Whastudents t

t conto demonstraent, learning e

te these outxperiences and instruc

comes? tion will allow

Tcommunication development in the context of the routines and learning experiences of thewhole-class program. They should also consider how to organise the environment to increasethe likelihood of communication.

Tidentifying hdaddress specific targets (eg interpret, enhance, replace).

In implementing the program, communication partners need to be aware of how to utiliseincidental situations that arise for example, by:

•

•

C

Some activities/experiences are well suited to provide opportunities for developing earlycommunication and to elicit specific functions of communication. These include:

•

•

•

•

•

eachers need to consider how to provide multiple and ongoing opportunities for students’

eachers may use the

e

ommunic

ve

talking to students about what they are doing, hearing and/or feeling eg when a studentpicks up an object, the communication partner makes a comment, asks a question orjoins the student in playrepresents a referent.

focusing on a student’following the student’

activities that involve turn-taking (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005)

predictable and established routines

activities that involve a shared focus (joint attention)

activities or materials with which the student will need help or support

activities that involve choice-making.

lopment

a

o. The support materials include examples of specific strategies designed tow

tiv

t

e oppor

o utiliPlanning and programming record sheet (Formse l

tunities

e

s lead (Sigafoos, Arthurs interests by waiting for the student to initiate an interaction and

a

. This can be combined with highlighting or using a symbol that

rning experiences for

-Kelly & Butterfield 2006; Rowland 20

receptive and expres1s5)iveto assist them in communicati

1

o

0).

n

67


English K–6

Communication

PROGRAMMING

Note:plan and program multiple opportunities for them to use the symbols indifferent ways, and for different purposes within speaking and listening,reading and writing experiences. It is important to extend the use ofsymbols beyond teaching requesting behaviour and explaining classroomschedules. The focus should be not only on increasing the number ofsymbols within the student’ability to combine symbols flexibly

For students who comprehend and use symbols, the teacher should

s repertoire but also on developing the student’.

s

T

Tto interactions (ie attending, anticipating, responding and initiating in a back-and-forthmanner while sharing a focus of attention). Tunderstanding that their behaviour can illicit a response from another person and of thereciprocal nature of communication. Tto elicit communication using a

urn-tak

urn-taking activities provide opportunities for exchanges that follow a similar pattern

ing

wait and signal (p 72)urn-taking activities also provide an ideal opportunity

urn-taking may assist students to develop an

strategy.



PROGRAMMING

Examples of turntaking activities:

• taking turns to add or build using objects/software

• giveandtake games, eg frisbee, rolling a ball, clapping games

• joint activities that involve turntaking, eg ‘patacake’, putting items in a box, exchanging swap cards

• motor games

• songs with repetitive actions.

During turntaking activities, teachers should support students’ receptive understanding by highlighting whose turn it is both verbally and nonverbally. This might involve saying the student’s name (eg ‘Nick’s turn’) paired with a signal, eg gesture, action, touch cue, concrete object. This more structured and explicit turntaking may be faded into more subtle forms that reflect the turn taking that occurs in communicative interactions by using nonverbal communication such as eye–gaze, head turning, facial expression and gestures.

Predictable and established routines

Repeated experiences with a routine increase the likelihood that students may begin to understand and anticipate some part of the routine. Routines also support student’s comprehension of words and other symbols used. Examples include:

• simple classroom procedures, eg morning circle, transition to new activities or breaks

• procedures to produce something, eg cooking (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005), building a model

• routines with repetitive actions, for example

– actionpauseaction games and songs, physical activities

– page turning when reading

– rhythmic movements, eg dancing, chase games, bouncing, rocking, swinging

• texts with repetitive parts/patterns, eg songs, poems, rhymes.

When communication partners say words or use symbols that refer directly to what a student is attending to (ie seeing, feeling, acting upon and/or hearing), the student will learn over time the meaning of those words or symbols. Pairing words and other symbols with experiences in routines on a repeated basis will improve the student’s comprehension that words/symbols refer to particular actions, objects, people, qualities and concepts.

Routines are an ideal way to teach students to cooperate, coordinate and communicate with others. When everyday routines require students to interact with communication partners, the predictability and logical order of the routine helps the student understand their role, take turns and develop greater social understanding (Ulliana & Jackson 2010).

Interrupting, doing something unpredictable and sabotaging wellknown routines are effective ways to encourage expressive communication and initiation from students. When routines are interrupted, students may experience the need to request its continuation or comment upon the interruption.

Routines also provide ideal opportunities to increase the communication partner’s awareness of the student’s communication attempts. The structure of routines provides a framework to anticipate and create opportunities for students to initiate communication. When communication partners anticipate what might happen, they are ‘tuned in’ and ‘on the look out’ for any

68 Communication


English K–6

Communication


PROGRAMMING

communicative behaviours. Research indicates that students make significant gains in communication and social engagement when partners are sensitive to their actions and interpret them as being meaningful and communicative (Aldred, Green, & Adams 2004).

Routines also assist students to engage in nonpreferred activities by providing clear and predictable endpoints.

It is important in the early stages of establishing a routine to eliminate unnecessary language and use consistent vocabulary to name actions, objects, people and/or body parts that are used. The words should be spoken at the moment the student sees, touches, experiences or uses the related objects or undertakes an action.

It is important to signal the beginning, key steps and the end of the routine using cues and supports (eg real objects, photographs, touch cues, sensory cues). Easily accessible supports include objects used in the activity (eg a placemat may represent lunch). The cue may assist the student in understanding the referent (eg swimsuit material – swimming). Over time, the student may associate the cue or spoken word with the routine or step and initiate the step without being guided or told. The cue becomes a symbol when it is recognised and used out of context.

To assist with generalisation, the teacher should:

• plan for routines to occur in different settings using the same supports

• have different communication partners implement the same routines

• introduce variations to the routine once it is established. This increases the likelihood that a student will communicate spontaneously.

Variations might involve:

• stopping a person from completing or continuing an activity

• substituting an incorrect or inappropriate item

• failing to provide part of an item where materials have separate or detachable parts

• introducing novel experiences.

Activities that have a shared focus (joint activity routines)

Research shows that the amount of time spent in joint attention has a positive relationship with vocabulary acquisition, frequency of utterances, length of conversation and the rate of language development (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005). Joint attention provides a focus/ topic for interactions and opportunities for the communication partner to model the use of communication forms and language representing referents (Light, Beukelman & Reichle 2003). It assists students to learn the correct association between words/symbols and referents. The teacher should add visual supports and/or other cues while talking.

The focus for an interaction might involve:

• familiar/predictable texts (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005)

• computer or board games

• activities on an interactive whiteboard

• video of students participating in an experience

• toys/objects of interest

• conversational book of photos

• novelty items (eg book with tactile activities, vibrating ball, reactive toys)

• preferred materials as determined through assessment.

69 Communication


English K–6

Communication


PROGRAMMING

Activities or materials with which the student will need help or support

Implementing activities with which a student requires support or help can elicit requests for action/assistance.

Examples:

• activities requiring team work, eg holding book box or parachute etc

• preferred game/item placed in a bag which is hard to open

• toys that a student requires assistance to activate or access

• obstacle course or use of equipment that the student needs support to access or use.

Supporting receptive communication and oral language comprehension

Language comprehension plays a critical role in language learning. To support students’ understanding of the concept of symbolisation (ie something the person intends to stand for something else – a referent) (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005), communication partners should provide students with repeated models of language at a level that the student understands paired with the form/system the student uses or is learning to use.

Strategies to support receptive communication include: • speaking slowly and clearly in short simple phrases at an appropriate level of complexity

• using known words or familiar language

• using the same or similar phrases during routines

• exaggerating tone of voice and facial expressions

• pairing gestures, signs, actions and/or other cues (pictures, touch cues, objects, print words) with oral language (video 12)

• providing wait time

• using a visual schedule

• commenting on an activity in which a student is participating, using simple language to describe what they are doing

• naming or labelling referents (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005) while talking

• expanding and recasting what the child is saying to increase multiword combinations, where appropriate.

70 Communication Communication


English K–6

http://k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/go/english/resources

IMPLEM

ENTATIO

N


Implementation Communication partners utilise specific strategies as appropriate to the student’s targets and communication level. These should be identified during the planning process.

All communication partners need to be aware of how a student communicates and how to promote communication development using naturally occurring events.

To assist peers to develop their skills as communication partners, teachers should:

• encourage them to pay attention and observe the student

• familiarise them with the communication forms/system used by the student and the function and/or intent of behaviour(s)

• encourage interactions by setting up learning experiences that involve turntaking, teamwork, activities the student likes to engage in

• teach them how to appropriately respond to the occurrence/non occurrence of communicative behaviour(s)

• teach them to pair communicative behaviours that the student can understand with oral language

• familiarise them with the mechanics and operation of any device/aid used by the student (Romski & Sevcik 1996)

• teach wait skills, eg wait and signal.

Teachers should also consider how to organise the environment to support communication such as:

• positioning students so that they have access to any communication aids and symbols

• using materials that are available to a student in a number of settings

• colourcoding different activity areas

• labelling objects in the environment with symbols (eg using symbol cards, stickers)

• making desired objects/activities available to students, if appropriate

• planning so that communicative behaviour(s) are prompted by naturally occurring conditions (eg events/activities/instructions) rather than being reliant on prompting from another person

• involving a variety of communication partners.

71 Communication


English K–6

Communication


IMPLEM

ENTATIO

N

Strategies

The strategies below are designed to promote communication and are used for specific purposes. Teachers should select strategies for individual students according to their priorities and goals. It is important that all communication partners are familiar with the strategies to be used to support an individual’s communication development

Strategies appropriate to expressive communication targets

Strategy Target Wait and signal All

Contingent responding Interpret (i) to establish a function or increase frequency and extent of use

Referencing Enhance (e) by adding a form to establish joint attention

Response chaining Enhance (e) by adding a form to make clearer or more noticeable

Shaping Enhance (e) by strengthening

Functional communication training Replace (r) a behaviour(s) with a more acceptable, conventional or symbolic form

Other strategies explained include:

• prompting

• aided language stimulation

• Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

• strategies for maintenance and generalisation.

Wait and signal (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Purpose: To create a need and opportunity for a student to communicate.

The communication partner pauses and looks expectantly at the student, hoping to elicit a response.

This strategy is best used during predictable and established routines, and routines with repetitive actions.

Instructions

Step 1: The partner begins an activity and takes a few turns, eg during shared reading of a preferred book, the partner turns the page after reading a page. This is continued for a number of pages.

Step 2: The partner pauses and looks expectantly at the student hoping to elicit a response, eg at the end of a page, the partner looks at the student with their eyebrows raised.

72 Communication


English K–6

Communication


IMPLEM

ENTATIO

N

Step 3: The partner waits for a designated amount of time (the amount of time will vary for individual students, and may be between 5 and 30 seconds), and looks for communicative behaviour(s), eg a desire for continuation.

Step 4: The partner acknowledges, and responds to the function of the behaviour(s) or assigns a function, eg the partner says, ‘You want more book’ and turns the page of the book.

Step 5: If the student does not demonstrate any communicative behaviour(s), the partner might:

– wait for a longer period of time

– prompt the behaviour(s) and then respond to the function, eg the partner lifts the student’s hand towards the book, and says, ‘You want more book’. The partner then turns the page.

Contingent responding (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Purpose: For a student to:

• develop an awareness of the outcome of a behaviour(s) (function) and an understanding that a behaviour(s) can be used to achieve a particular function

or

• increase the frequency and extent of use of existing behaviour(s) to achieve a function.

The communication partner responds, providing consistent feedback when a student demonstrates behaviour(s) as determined though assessment. When the target is to increase the frequency and extent of use, identify appropriate conditions and contexts under which the behaviour(s) will be responded to.

Instructions

Step 1: Observe the student and look for occurrences of communicative behaviour(s) (ie behaviours with a designated function) or potentially communicative behaviours.

Step 2: When the partner observes the behaviour(s) (eg eye–gaze), they use the context to assist in determining the referent for the function (where appropriate).

Step 3: The partner acknowledges and responds to the function of the behaviour(s), eg the partner says, ‘You are looking at the puppet, here it is’ (and gives the puppet to the student). The partner should respond as promptly as possible in the initial stages, increasing the wait time as the behaviour(s) is used more frequently.

Referencing (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Purpose: To teach the student to use referencing to:

• direct a partner’s attention to a referent

and/or

• direct a communicative act towards a referent, eg if a student is communicating a feeling of happiness by flapping their arms, the student directs the partner’s attention to the person or thing that the feeling is about.

73 Communication


English K–6

Communication


IMPLEM

ENTATIO

N

Referencing is a process used to make the focus of communication clearer by establishing joint attention. Joint attention involves directing a communication partner’s attention to a referent (eg an item, activity, topic).

Instructions

Step 1: Observe the student for behaviour(s) that have a clear function, eg the student requests a preferred CD by reaching, but does not look at a partner.

Step 2: Try to make eye contact with the student (eg raise the object to eye level or move to the student’s eye level) and acknowledge the act, eg ‘Look at me. You want the ____ CD.’

Step 3: Prompt the student to look back for and/or reach for the desired item, eg the partner taps and looks at the CD and says ‘You want this CD, show me’.

Step 4: Respond to the presumed function (ie desire for the CD), only after joint attention has been established.

Response chaining (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Purpose: For a student to use an additional form, as well as an existing form (response chain) of communication. The student is taught to use a more conventional, recognisable and/or symbolic form, in addition to the existing form.

In order to be effective, the new form needs to be used soon after, or in combination with the existing form.

This strategy is best used for communicative behaviour(s) that are used frequently in a range of contexts.

Instructions

Step 1: Make a decision about a behaviour to be added to an existing form, eg it is decided that by adding a wave to an existing vocalisation, the greeting will be more recognisable.

Step 2: Identify contexts in which the existing behaviour(s) currently occur, eg the student vocalises to greet people on entry to school, on entering a classroom and in the playground.

Step 3: Plan opportunities, in which partners are positioned and prepared to prompt the new behaviour after the existing behaviour(s) (ie straight after the student vocalises).

Step 4: When the student uses the existing form, acknowledge it and prompt the new form, eg ‘Hello (name), lift your hand to say hello’, the partner models a wave (the partner may also have to physically assist the student to wave).

Step 5: When the student uses the new form with, or just after the existing form, the partner responds to the function, eg the partner says ‘hello’ back to the student after the student vocalises and waves at the same time (or just after).

Step 6: Over time the prompts are faded. The partner might:

• wait longer before prompting the student to the additional response

• use a lower level of prompting, eg the partner uses a verbal prompt with no physical assistance.

74 Communication


English K–6

Communication


IMPLEM

ENTATIO

N

Shaping (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Purpose: To support the student to use closer approximations towards a more effective communicative behaviour(s). The new behaviour might be more conventional or noticeable. The partner responds to closer approximations towards the goal behaviour, ignoring existing behaviour(s).

The existing behaviour may be shaped to:

• look or sound different, eg the act of a student turning their head away to reject or protest is shaped to a headshake indicating ‘no’

or be of:

• increased strength, eg a quiet vocalisation is shaped to a louder vocalisation

or be of:

• increased fluency, eg

– the student responds more quickly

– the student uses an additional behaviour after an existing behaviour (response chain) more quickly

or be of:

• an increased length, eg a student purses their lips for a longer period of time to request a drink.

This strategy is best used for a communicative behaviour(s) that is used consistently across a number of situations or contexts.

Instructions

Step 1: Make a decision to shape a particular behaviour (eg a student currently vocalises ‘o’ to initiate an interaction, when a new person enters the environment or is standing within three metres of the student. It is decided that the vocalisation will be shaped to closer approximations of the word ‘hello’. In sequence, closer approximations might be ‘lo’, ‘ello’, ‘hello’).

Step 2: Plan opportunities to elicit the behaviour(s), eg people entering the classroom or approaching the student to a distance of three metres or less.

Step 3: Wait for any closer approximation of the behaviour. When a closer approximation occurs, acknowledge the behaviour(s) and respond to the function, eg ‘Hello (name), you would like to talk’.

Step 4: Over time, the partner waits for approximations closer to the final desired form, eg vocalisations closer to the word ‘hello’ and ignores previous behaviour(s).

Functional communication training (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

Purpose: For a student to use a more conventional, acceptable or symbolic form instead of an existing communication form. This enables a student to communicate more effectively with a range of people, in a more age appropriate way.

For this strategy to be effective, the replacement behaviour(s) must serve the same function as the existing behaviour(s), be understood by the student and be within the student’s physical capabilities.

75 Communication


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Communication


IMPLEM

ENTATIO

N

Instructions

Step 1: Make a decision about an appropriate replacement behaviour(s) for an existing communication form, eg a student will use a VOCA, rather than screaming to request a break.

Step 2: Plan opportunities to elicit the behaviour(s), eg learning experiences or activities in which the behaviour normally occurs.

Step 3: When the existing behaviour occurs, immediately prompt the new behaviour(s), eg ‘Tony, you want a break. Press the break button.’

Step 4: When the student uses the new form (eg VOCA), respond immediately, eg ‘Tony you want a break. You have one minute to look at your magazine.’ If the old behaviour occurs, the partner does not respond to the behaviour (the partner may need to prompt the new behaviour).

Step 5: Over time, wait longer before prompting the new form. The partner should use the least amount of prompting to elicit the new form.

Note: For some behaviour(s), such as problem behaviours, it may be necessary for the partner to prevent the behaviour from occurring, or interrupt the behaviour before it occurs.

Prompting (Westling & Fox 1995)

Purpose: Prompting is a form of support used to assist a student to demonstrate a skill or behaviour in response to an instruction or naturally occurring condition or event (eg morning tea bell, teacher instruction). The ultimate goal of prompting is for the student to be able to demonstrate a skill or behaviour independently (or as independently as possible). Teachers may identify the level of prompting required for receptive communication using assessment.

Following are examples of prompts, listed hierarchically from a lower level to a higher level of prompting:

• gestures

• verbal prompts (ie saying what to do and how to do it. This is in addition to an instruction or suggestion)

• pictorial prompts (these must be pictures that the student is able to interpret)

• modelling (ie demonstrating the skill or behaviour)

• physical prompts (examples of a decreasing level of physical prompts are as follows, providing: full physical assistance→support at the hand→physical support at the wrist→physical support at the elbow→physical support at the elbow for the initial part of the movement). Physical prompts are often paired with a lower level of prompt.

In order for a student to increase their independence in demonstrating a skill or behaviour, prompting needs to be faded in a gradual, planned way. Fading may be undertaken in a number of ways, for example:

• prompting the student only after a set period of time. The period of time is increased as a student becomes more independent or successful

• only using the level of prompting required by a student, starting at a lower level of prompting and increasing the level of prompting if the student is unable to demonstrate the skill/behaviour with the prompt

• reducing the level from a higher level of prompting to a lower level as a student becomes more independent or successful.

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Aided language stimulation (Rowland 2010; Goossens, Crain & Elder 1992)

Purpose: To assist students in gaining an understanding of the meaning of symbols and how they are used to communicate. The communication partner models how to use and combine symbols while they are talking, using the student’s communication system. The system becomes an input and output mode for communication.

Aided language stimulation provides students with multiple opportunities to learn the meaning of vocabulary and other symbols in different contexts.

The communication partner may commence by using one symbol representing a single word to achieve a function, moving to combining symbols using grammatically correct phrases. This should be matched to a student’s level of understanding.

Implementation involves the communication partner:

• pointing to symbols as they talk

• modelling the connection between the symbol and the object

• talking slowly so students can see or feel the symbols representing the referent or vocabulary that the communication partner is talking about

• modelling how to combine symbols in a sequence using grammatically correct phrases.

Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) (Bondy & Frost 2002)

Purpose: For students to learn to use pictures to request activities or items. Over time students learn to use pictures to answer questions and make comments.

Detailed information about the purpose and implementation of PECS can be found in A Picture’s Worth: PECS and other visual communication (Bowdy & Frost 2002).

The phases are as follows:

Phase 1 requesting an item or activity using a picture representing the item or activity which is placed in close proximity

Phase 2 requesting an item or activity using a picture which is placed in a folder at a distance

Phase 3 requesting an item or activity using a picture chosen from a selection of symbols placed in a folder

Phase 4 requesting an item or activity by selecting a picture and placing it on a sentence strip, ie ‘I want …’. This may also involve the use of pictures representing attributes, eg ‘I want the ________ paint’

Phase 5 answering the question ‘What do you want?’ by placing a picture on a sentence strip, ie ‘I want …’

Phase 6 commenting in response to a question. Over time the question is eliminated to promote a student’s spontaneous commenting.

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Instructions

The steps for implementing Phase 1 of this strategy are as follows:

Step 1: Identify a student’s preferred items/activities through assessment.

Step 2: During the identified activity, partner 1 blocks access to the activity or removes a favoured item.

Step 3: When the student reaches for the item or activity, partner 2 guides the person to pick up the picture representing the preferred item/activity and moves their hand (holding the picture) towards partner 1.

Step 4: Partner 2 guides the student to put the picture into the open hand of partner 1.

Step 5: Partner 1 gives the item to the student or unblocks access to the activity represented by the picture.

Strategies for maintenance and generalisation

The following are examples of strategies that support the maintenance and generalisation of communication skills:

• teach communication skills in a range of settings and activities, and with a range of people

• pair words with symbols (where appropriate) to assist communication partners in a range of contexts to understand what a student is saying

• avoid anticipating students’ needs.

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Feedback

Teachers need to monitor students’ progress carefully and respond effectively and efficiently.

In the context of communication, feedback is likely to involve acknowledging and responding to a student’s communicative behaviour(s). To ensure that all communication partners respond consistently, it is essential that they are familiar with a student’s communication forms/system.

Communication partners should:

• look for and identify communicative behaviour(s)

• respond to communicative behaviour(s) as promptly as possible, ensuring that the response matches the function and intended meaning of the behaviour(s) (Sigafoos, ArthurKelly & Butterfield 2006)

• respond consistently

• use specific strategies as identified through the planning process.

The following may assist communication partners to recognise and respond appropriately to communicative behaviour(s):

• a communication dictionary (Form 16)

• video or photographs of the forms of communication used by a student with corresponding information about functions, eg a video of a student narrated by someone familiar with the student’s communication system

• clear instructions written for communication partners explaining how to use a student’s aid(s) (p 10), if appropriate.

Note: In the early stages of communication, recognising communicative behaviour(s) may be difficult as the behaviour may be subtle or idiosyncratic. Consequently, there needs to be an expectation on the part of communication partners that any behaviour is potentially communicative. Communication partners can use the context in which a communicative act occurs to assist in assigning a function to the communication behaviour(s).

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AdjustmentsFor students at the symbolic level who are using aided forms of communication, teachersshould consider adjustments that will enable them to participate in teaching and learningexperiences, and provide them with multiple opportunities to combine symbols in flexibleways. Tof symbols.

Below are examples of adjustments for students using aided forms to participate in teachingand learning experiences in the English KLA.

eachers should also consider adjustments that will support a student’s understanding

Adjustments for students using aided forms of communication

Strand Examples of adjustments

Speaking • using symbols paired with oral languageand • using a visual schedule with symbolsListening • using slides to present a recount

• using a switch/buzzer to indicate they have something to say in a discussion

• using a digital camera to record an event/procedure

• using multi-authoring software

• using a speech-generating device with pre-recorded responses

• using a switch to activate a repetitive phrase during a rhyme or song

• using a sequential messaging device to tell a joke, procedure, scripted lines in a play, dictatewords to the class as part of a spelling test, participate in predictable conversations or songs

• using memorabilia and photos to ‘talk’ about events

Reading • selecting symbols from multiple choices to answer reading comprehension questions

• using pictures/symbols to fill in the blanks during story reading

• using overlays to access talking books

• activating a repetitive phrase during shared reading

• pointing to words as they are read

• using eye–gaze to identify letter-sounds said by the teacher on an eye–gaze board

• pointing to pictures to demonstrate their phonemic awareness, eg the teacher says, ‘I take away st from star and add c, what is the word?’

• using symbols on a visual schedule to read the day’s events

• pulling symbols representing words off a page as they are read

• using a scanning pen (assistive technology) to read

• using symbol software or pictures to retell a narrative

Writing • using a vocabulary display to make comments

• spelling using letter cards on an eye–gaze board

• checking off, covering up, removing symbols to report on or document a sequence of events

• using photos for journal writing

• selecting a symbol to complete a cloze or sentence strip

• using symbol processing software

• using grid-making software

• using multimedia software

• using speech-input software

• using predictive or encoding software (Beukelman & Mirenda 2005)

The following websites may assist with ideas for using symbols in the classroom:

• Symbol World

www.symbolworld.org

• The Children’s Society AskAbility

https://www.askability.org.uk

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Evaluation Teachers and other members of the collaborative team need to make judgements about the effectiveness of planning, programming and implementation for a student’s communication development.

Consideration is given to:

• the level of progress the student has made in relation to the criteria for assessing learning (p 45)

• whether the program is working well enough to continue

• any negative consequences that have resulted for the student

• modifications or changes to be undertaken to make the program more successful or to meet the student’s future needs

• the next steps for further development. Teachers may use Figure 3 (p 26) and Figure 4 (p 27) to assist in making decisions for preintentional and intentional behaviour(s).

Evaluation may also involve assessing the consistency with which communication partners respond to communicative behaviour(s).

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E g English n lis h - NSW Education Standards

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