Dyslexia and Thinking Skills

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Dyslexia and Thinking Skills

"How can current research into thinking skills enlighten practical approaches to teaching people with dyslexia or literacy difficulties?"

Phil Wain 2014

isthisdyslexia.com

1 Phil Wain Dyslexia and Thinking Skills

"How can current research into thinking skills enlighten practical approaches to teaching people with dyslexia or literacy difficulties?"

Abstract Dyslexia is a condition affecting a large percentage of the population– the British Dyslexia

Association estimates that it affects 10% of the population. Those affected have difficulty with

spelling, reading fluency and accuracy and often with handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics,

sequencing, organisation and rote memory. However, current research is uncovering the possibility

that those same dyslexic individuals may have certain advantages conferred by those same brain

differences that cause dyslexia. Bearing in mind the self-esteem issues affecting many dyslexics and

current research on teaching thinking skills and motivation, dyslexic students need carefully

managed programmes of individual support making use of techniques that maximise the impact of

their cognitive strengths on developing their learning. Such techniques include Philosophy for

Children, Mediated Learning and multi-sensory and visual strategies. In this essay I aim to explore

how current research into thinking skills can inform practice in the education of dyslexic learners.

What is dyslexia?

The Rose Report definition of dyslexia is generally accepted as a good definition currently.

Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in

accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.

● Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in phonological

awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed.

● Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities.

● It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are

no clear cut-off points.

● Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor co-

ordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but

these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia.

● A good indication of the severity and persistence of dyslexic difficulties can

be gained by examining how the individual responds or has responded to well

founded intervention.

Sir Jim Rose (2009). P10


Students with dyslexia tend to display difficulties in the three areas of phonological awareness,

verbal processing speed and working memory. As contemporary education puts great emphasis on

spelling, writing, reading fluently and rote memorisation of facts, these emphases can make life at

school a difficult experience for many dyslexic students. In contrast, students with dyslexia often

show relative strengths in material and spatial reasoning, understanding of interconnections,

narrative reasoning, understanding of dynamic relationships and creativity in the visual and other

arts. A large proportion of architects, entrepreneurs, inventors and artists have a diagnosis of

dyslexia (Bannatyne, 1971) and there is an emerging science researching the brain differences which

underlie dyslexia and the mechanisms of the effects of these brain differences.

Current theories

Genetic and environmental factors have an impact on the development of dyslexia. It is known to

run in families. Several theories have been developed to look into the cognitive causes of dyslexia.

Phonological deficit

Many associate dyslexia with phonological deficit (where historically it was seen primarily as a visual

disorder) – impairments in storage, retrieval or representation of speech sounds. Most dyslexic

people have difficulties in this area. Snowling Stackhouse, Frith and others postulate that genetic

differences in the left hemisphere affect the ability to sequence, identify and produce sounds. This

has been backed up by fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) showing that specific areas of

the brain light up when engaged in phonological activities and that these are less likely to light up

with dyslexic subjects. These areas are named the Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas and Frith and

Paulesu’s research suggested that these areas (the former involved in whole word recognition, the

latter in word breakdown into sound segments) work more in isolation in dyslexic people

Phonological processing difficulties cause difficulties with sound blending, rhyme, verbal processing

and non-word repetition. The implication of this theory is that teaching should develop phonological

skills.

Magnocellular Theory

A different approach was brought by Stein and others, returning in a way to the earlier visual models

– the Magnocellular theory. This associated dyslexia with dysfunction of magnocellular pathways

(Stein and Walsh 1997). Magnocells are responsible for the timing of sensory and motor signalling.

They are specialised for fast processing of temporal information. Reading puts stress on magnocells

and any weakness in the pathway leads to confusions of letter order and poor visual memory. It may

also result in weak phonological skills because there is an auditory subsystem to the magnocellular

pathways – large neurones responsible for sound discrimination.

Indeed Stein does not confine the magnocellular theory to effects of visual processing. He postulates

that temporal processing involved in phonological and/or visual and/or motor systems may be

impaired. Stein and Walsh do beg the question whether all the diversity of dyslexics with all the

diversity of symptoms can be put down to an individual explanation. However they put forward a


mechanism of how temporal impairments might lay under phonological, visual and motor

difficulties.

Processing and Double Deficit

Dr Maryanne Wolf encourages us to look beyond phonological issues to the processing difficulties

most dyslexic are affected by. She examines the effect of the retrieval of information stored by the

brain and the speed with which the brain organises information. Her term double-deficit describes

people affected by both phonological difficulties and processing difficulties. Wolf claims that around

50% of dyslexics have the double deficit with just less than a quarter of dyselxics affected

predominately by one of the two issues. She has developed the RAVE-O intervention programme.

The programme is focussed on developing reading fluency – both word recognition and

comprehension and underlying factors such as visual scanning, orthographic pattern recognition,

semantic and syntactic development and lexical retrieval. It focuses on developing automaticity and

on making connections in learning.

Left-hemisphere processing difficulties

Galaburda had studied brains in 1985 and associated this phonological difficulty and slow processing

of speech sounds with brain-cortical malformations. Generally left-hemispheric functioning is

described as a relative weakness in Dyslexics who tend to think in terms of the ‘big picture; rather

than detail. This also implies right-hemisphere strengths which we often see in Dyslexics – prediction

and search for meaning using context, creativity, spatial awareness. These can all be built on in

education using techniques such as mind mapping and a valuing of individual strengths.

Geschwind and Galaburda did not view dyslexia entirely as a disorder though:

“The pattern of cortical development may well reflect a mechanism that is

advantageous to the population as a whole, since it leads to a greater

diversity of patterns of …patterns of talent”

Geschwind and Galaburda 1987 p 143

They argue that context determines whether dyslexia is an advantage or disadvantage. The very

condition which makes most mainstream school experience difficult also gives the advantage that

means a high proportion of entrepreneurs, artists, inventors and architects are dyslexic. I will discuss

at length later in this essay the advantages that have been described as being attributed to the

dyslexic mind and ways education can adapt and get the best of dyslexic students, both in terms of

their talents and making education an inspirational and positive experience for all. It should be

added however that more recent fMRA scans have not showed the predicted right brain emphasis

this theory would expect although similar cognitive styles could be produced by other causes.

Additionally, neuroscience has now discredited the left and right brain personality type concept

which underlay many of the right brain emphasis theories.


Cerebellar Impairment

This relatively recent theory proposes to explain why dyslexia is a more wide ranging condition than

merely a phonological one. The cerebellum, according to recent research, plays a major role in

language acquisition from birth on. The cerebellum helps control phonology, speech processing,

motor control, co-ordination, balance, handwriting, organisation etc and a deficit would explain

many features of dyslexia. Studies by Fawcett and Nicolson (2001) identified a significant number of

dyslexics with symptoms typical of cerebellar impairment. However the sample size was small and

more research is needed in this area. Additionally, not all dyslexics have symptoms typical of

cerebellar impairment and Fawcett and Nicolson did write that there may be several sub-types

One learning implication is that dyslexics may need to repeat a procedure many, many more times

for it to become automatic than non-dyslexics even though they may appear to quickly understand a

concept. This difficulty with procedural learning means that often procedures have to be undertaken

more ’mindfully’. Some have argued that this ‘mindfulness’ in following procedures makes dyslexics

more likely to produce innovations in the procedures. Another implication of cerebellar impairment

would be the importance of kinaesthetic learning.

Comorbidity

No discussion of contemporary theories on dyslexia would be complete without considering the

great value in recent years in understanding the prevalence of comorbidity of conditions on

understanding dyslexia. Comorbidity with dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, ADHD or autism is very

common and one reason for the great variance of dyslexic symptoms. In addition, each of these

conditions can be affected by protective and environmental factors. Valerie Muter gives the figure

of 75% for the incidence of comorbidity with other conditions in dyslexics. The incidence of dyslexia

alone is much less common and the pattern of strength and weaknesses for each dyslexic individual

will be relatively unique.

Sub-types

Many researchers, from Stein to Fawcett and Nicolson have suggested that the overall picture may

be far more complex than an individual biological or cognitive explanation for dyslexia. Many

propose that there are subtypes of dyslexia such as the phonological subtypes or the cerebellar

subtypes.

Impacts of dyslexia

Dyslexia has been said by various researchers to affect between 4 and 20% of the population.

However, Peck (1985) found that 50% of children under age 15 who committed suicide in Los

Angeles County over a 3-year period had been diagnosed as learning disabled. In the US dyslexia falls

under this umbrella term. There is a real threat to the well-being of dyslexic children. Many hold

themselves in low regard because of their relative weaknesses in the skills valued in school: fact

memorisation, fluent reading and spelling.


“There is an increasing body of evidence to show that children with difficulties

of a dyslexic nature are at particular risk of developing distorted or damaged

self-concepts as a result of their marginalized status, particularly if the specific

nature of their difficulties is not recognised at an early stage in their school

careers.”

Robert Burden (2005) p2

A multitude of studies have linked dyslexia with low self esteem, depression, Examples include Gjessing and Karlsen (1985) linking dyslexia and low self-esteem, Gerber (1990), Fairhurst and Pumfrey (1992), Riddick (1999) finding poor readers feel lower self-esteem, more anxious and less confident, and Lerner (2000) finding that dyslexic students suffer socio-emotional problems, struggle to make and keep friends, can develop learned helplessness, low motivation, and maladaptive behaviour. Glazzard (2010) found that the most significant factor that contributed to students' self-esteem was a positive diagnosis of 'dyslexia' and ownership of the label. Similarly with adult dyslexics, Bynner and Ekynsmith (1994) found significantly links between perceived literacy difficulties and adult depression in a longitudinal study. In ‘Dyslexia & self-Concept (Seeking a Dyslexic Identity’ (2005), Dr Robert Burden summarised

research on the relationship between self concept and educational achievement. He examined

theoretical frameworks underlying self-concept and motivation; Interviewed fifty dyslexic boys in

depth at a private residential dyslexia school giving case studies and data; gave some voice to the

boys’ feelings as dyslexics (at length); and recommended some ways forward.

Although Burden’s research sample was small and fairly unrepresentative of the whole population,

the findings are still fascinating given the length of the interviews and the extent to which Burden

uncovered how the students viewed their dyslexia. Given this sample was from pupils at a private

dyslexia boarding school, 34% wished they weren’t dyslexic, 14% often felt depressed and 12%

viewed dyslexia as a curse. Most newer boys to the school expressed negative feelings about

themselves than those who had attended the school for a while. So given this, we can assume this

specialist school experience generally improved pupil self- esteem. Given that, such a high

proportion expressing feelings of depression about dyslexia is alarming as it suggests that the figure

might be much higher for dyslexics in society at large.

What Burden found in the boys who were newer to the school was higher levels of learned

helplessness and lower levels of self-efficacy following their experiences in mainstream education.

They did not view themselves as learners and needed a programme to encourage their own reliance

on themselves. In this context we should consider the psychological term ‘locus of control’ which

expresses the degree with which the learner feels able to take charge of their own learning (internal

locus of control) or the degree they are dependent on others (external locus of control). What is

important for dyslexic learners is we develop programmes that not only reframe their dyslexia in a

positive sense and reclaim the students’ skills for them but that actively develop their own ability to

make the most of their own abilities.


The Dyslexia Advantage

Dr Brock Eide and Dr Fernette Eide published ‘The Dyslexic Advantage’ in 2011. It sought to bring a

different perspective to the subject and reframe dyslexia in terms of advantage rather than deficit. It

examined research finding that a high proportion of entrepreneurs, inventors and architects are

dyslexic and tried to counter the idea that they succeeded ‘in spite of their dyslexia’, rather, it

considers the proposal that they might have been successful partly because of other strengths owing

to dyslexia.

At length, they describe four types of thinking which are more highly developed in many dyslexics

constructing the acrostic MIND as a suitable mnemonic.

M-strengths mechanical ability and three dimensional spatial reasoning – material reasoning

I – strengths ability to perceive relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes,

similarities, differences, and implications – interconnected reasoning

N- strengths ability to recall important personal experiences and to understand abstract material

in terms of specific examples – narrative reasoning

D- strengths ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex and constantly shifting data – dynamic

reasoning

The theoretical basis for these strengths lie in suggested differences in brain structure.

Ever since Roger Sperry discovered in the 1970s and 1980s that the different hemispheres of brain

had different functions, there has been much research into this. Generally it has been presented that

the right hemisphere is associated with the large scale, the global, the big picture and the gist; and

the left hemisphere with fine details and logic. As mentioned before, dyslexics tend to have more of

what has been regarded historically as a right brain approach although such simplistic concepts have

since been discredited.

In 2005, Dr Mark Beeman found differences in the ways the hemispheres process language – finding

the right hemisphere more involved in distant connections, different views of meanings of one

sentence, synonyms, antonyms, ironic meanings and a broader rather than a narrower field.


Dr Manuel Casanova at the University of Kentucky (2010) saw similar results to right brain cognitive

style of dyslexia but typified not by use of one hemisphere over another – rather by differences by

broad spacing of functional cluster minicolumns of neurons in brain’s cortex. Tightly spaced

minicolumns tend to make connections nearby neurons, wider spaced more distant connections.

This bias might explain bias toward detail tasks or big picture. Shorter connections match right brain

cognitive style model and vice versa What Casanova describes is a different model to left/right

brain differences but another model that can explain the same differences – especially where fMRA

scans have not necessarily indicated the right brain emphasis proposed by the earlier theories.

“According to Dr Casanova, the dyslexic bias towards long-distance

connections leads to the emergence of the big picture processing skills we’ve

mentioned and to weaknesses in fine detail processing. One fine detail task

that Dr Casanova cited as often being particularly hard for individuals with

dyslexia is phonological processing, which as we described in the last chapter,

involves distinguishing highly similar sounds.”

Eide and Eide 2011 p40

This difference means that while non-dyslexic brains might excel at precision, accuracy,

automaticity, focus and detailed expertise, dyslexic brains might excel at seeing the gist or essence,

understanding of variety of perspective, seeing new or unusual connections, inference and general

inventiveness. Of course this is a massive generalisation.

The issue is – does school make use of these advantages? Given the many anecdotal stories in The

Dyslexia Advantage of inventors, entrepreneurs, novelists and artists who found school an ordeal

but excelled in working life, how could we ensure that firstly dyslexic students’ potential is tapped,

secondly that they are not so damaged and depressed by the experience of schooling.

Mindset

Considering improving the self-esteem, learning ability and self-reliance of dyslexic students, it’s

important to consider the work of Dr Carol Dweck at Stanford University. Studying the psychology of

learners in the US, Dr Dweck discovered the importance of the concept she calls Mindset. Essentially

this describes your view of yourself in terms of whether you view your talent/intelligence as a fixed

gift or a measure which could develop or change over time. She shows how one’s view of oneself in

terms of intelligence seen as fixed or growth model is the biggest factor in future success and has

demonstrated this repeatedly in research.

Having a fixed or growth mindset will determine how you view success and failure, whether you see

problems as challenges or more negatively, how much you rely on affirmation and whether you

value critical advice. It will influence how you view competition and whether you view mistakes as

positive or negative in learning. Also, a person with a fixed mindset might see working hard as a sign


they are not good enough to coast where a person with growth mindset may see it as a sign they are

working towards something new and worthwhile.

If we are to equip dyslexics with the resilience to cope with mistake making, setbacks and difficulties

it is vital we help them develop a growth mindset. They need positive examples of dyslexic success

and classroom environments where having a go at something difficult is valued more than showing

what you already know. If we are to achieve this, we have to engender a focus on process as more

important than product in education. Some might see this as contrary in a world of league tables and

exams but how are we to achieve in these measures if we do not develop the learning potential to

the maximum rather than rewarding what the students can already do. Personally I have had some

success, teaching the concept of mindset explicitly to Primary school students and having them

discuss and debate these theories in communities of enquiry set up using the Philosophy 4 Children

model.

One other aspect of this to consider is what Dweck discovered about the effect of praise on learning.

An experiment was set up where two groups of students were given identical tests consisting of a

set of straightforward questions. Both groups performed similarly. Afterwards one group was

praised for being intelligent ‘You must have been intelligent to do so well’. The second group was

praised for effort. Both groups were then given a choice of a more difficult test or one of a similar

level. The group praised for effort were far more likely to choose the latter. Then the students were

given an impossible test. The group initially praised for intelligence were more likely to become

frustrated and give up but the group praised for effort tended to enjoy it and view it as a challenge.

Finally, the two groups were given tests of a similar level to that of the first challenge. This time, the

group initially praised for effort now scored significantly higher. It is important to remember here

that this is merely a subtle change of a few words of praise, but it achieved dramatically different

results.

So what does a fixed mindset do? It forces us to live up to an expectation of a certain level of

intelligence and we can then be embarrassed about not living up to them. Dweck even found

students with fixed mindset more likely to be deceptive about their scores. Whereas, what does a

growth mindset do? It allows us to respond to challenge, to view setbacks as challenges to

overcome, it also fits neatly with what we are learning about the brain’s ability to make new

connections of neurones throughout our lives. What better model to teach dyslexic students that

they can overcome their own difficulties and achieve whatever they want to achieve?

Philosophy for Children

Having learned about the strengths of many dyslexics, we would want to maximise those strengths

to develop learning to a full capacity; this capacity of dyslexics for creative thought, imaginative

connection, wide cognitive leaps, interconnected and narrative reasoning leads us to consider the

potential role of Philosophy for Children (or P4C – the acronym was developed in the UK as it was


felt the word children was unsuitable for Secondary School). This focus on thinking is especially

important considering we are educating students who by definition are far more intelligent than

their spelling, writing or reading might indicate. Surely the best way to harness that ability in

developing their learning is to use their thinking skills rather than patronising them with context

reduced ‘remedial’ programs designed for far younger children.

Matthew Lipman is recognised as the founder of Philosphy for Children. In the 1970s he realised the

value of teaching logic and reasoning in children after witnessing underdeveloped reasoning skills in

his students at Colombia University. Ever since, organisations such as the Institute for the

Advancement of Philosophy for Children (IAPC) and SAPERE (Society for the Advancement of

Philosophical Enquiry and Reflection in Education) in the UK have developed philosophical enquiry

and Socratic reasoning in schools. In some, for example in Gallions Primary School in Newham, the

regular implementation of P4C in all age groups and classes led to dramatic, sustained

improvements in exam results in all subjects with students making connections between their

learning and the development of their thinking having impacts in all curriculum areas.

In 2007 in Scotland, Topping and Trickey led research into the effects of regular P4C sessions.

Children in the experimental group had a P4C session once a week. Even this intervention led to a

statistically significant increase in children’s IQ scores over a year, compared with no increase in the

scores of the control group. The same research demonstrated significant gains in verbal and non-

verbal reasoning, improvements in communication, listening, behaviour, reasoning, questioning,

reading and understanding. One of the key impacts in schools is in improving teacher use of

questioning. Also key is the effect on self-esteem, in a study in Canada in 1994, Sasseville found that

the pupils gaining the most in terms of self-esteem and logical reasoning from P4C were those with

the lowest self-esteem on entry.

SAPERE are developing evidence from case studies that regular involvement in a community of

enquiry helps “close the gap” by disproportionately benefitting the lower achievers and children

with specific learning difficulties. Using P4C can develop critical thinking, questioning, listening,

valuing of opinions and difference, creative problem solving and collaborative learning. One of the

key aspects is that P4C emphasises community of enquiry – that is classes enquire together – as

everyone has an equal voice, and contributing does not depend necessarily on spelling or literacy

skill it develops inclusion more completely than most educational strategies.

The key concepts developed by Philosophy for Children are critical thinking, creative thinking, caring

thinking and collaborative thinking. Students respond to a stimulus by developing philosophical

questions in response to that stimulus, voting on a question to explore and then discussing, debating

and enquiring in a process facilitated by the teacher – either allowing the students to own the

discussion at times, or developing the discussion by asking probing or thought provoking questions

at key points. All participants are given opportunity to express final thoughts on the question. During

the enquiry, the facilitator can call for others who might agree or disagree, call for distinction or

clarification, for examples or criteria, for connections or for analogies.

So how does this emphasis on thinking, embodied by a P4C approach help dyslexic learners? In the

Dyslexic Advantage, discussed earlier, Eide and Eide listed strengths of dyslexics including

interconnected reasoning (ability to perceive relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes,

similarities, differences, and implications), narrative reasoning (ability to recall important personal


experiences and to understand abstract material in terms of specific examples) and dynamic

reasoning (ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex and constantly shifting information).

As Eide and Eide see it, dyslexics have a possible brain structure advantage in philosophical enquiry.

Not only does it play to their potential strengths, it allows them to excel without being dependent on

literacy skills and it can help develop their ability to make connections between different aspects of

learning. Additionally it can raise their self-esteem and build a growth mindset.

“For dyslexic brains, excellent function typically means traits like the ability to

see the gist or essence of things or to spot the larger context behind a given

situation or idea; multidimensionality of perspective; the ability to see new,

unusual or distant connections; inferential reasoning and ambiguity

detection; the ability to recombine things in novel ways; and a general

inventiveness; and greater mindfulness and intentionality during tasks that

others take for granted”


When it comes to narrative reasoning strengths of some dyslexics, they can make use of the episodic

memory which uses fragments of memory of experience to imagine future scenarios, solve

problems, test ideas and create imaginary stories. Interconnected reasoning ties in closely with the

skills needed in philosophical study. Moral philosopher, CEO and dyslexic Dov Seidman tells in The

Dyselxic Advantage of struggling at school until encountering philosophy. He found it catered to his

strengths – pondering one idea rather than reading hundreds of pages.

Eide and Eie explain that philosophy is at its core a search for gist. It involves making connections of

many kinds. It primarily focuses on a big-picture rather than fine-detail view, fitting the cognitive

strengths of many dyslexics well. Of course, there are also the material reasoning strengths of many

dyslexics so we need to ensure learning is multisensory and opportunities for kinaesthetic and

spatial orientated learning are catered for.

Ways forward

Having explored some current theories as to the biological and cognitive origins of dyslexia, the

impacts on dyslexia on self-esteem, possible advantages in types of reasoning that might be afforded

by dyslexic brain structure and current theories on the influence of mindset on learning, it important

to consider more fully how dyslexic students might be better catered for. Philosophy for Children is

one effective strategy but what else should be considered to optimise learning and self-esteem for

dyslexics?

Clearly diagnosis and assessment in themselves make a huge difference. For many, it is the

beginning or clarification of developing more in-depth self-knowledge in terms of cognitive strengths

and weaknesses and awareness of their own effective learning style. The more clarity regarding an


individual’s strengths and needs, the more effective learning can be. Of course for this to be

successful, the diagnosis also has to be framed positively in terms of relative strengths and specific

needs.

Specialist teachers need to help dyslexics develop awareness of what works for them in terms of

overcoming working memory, phonological or processing difficulties. It’s an extension of the ‘teach a

man to fish’ analogy but we need to remember that students learn as much or more outside direct

instruction as in. They need to own the learning and to see their own capabilities and next steps in

terms of that learning.

This may mean carefully building students’ independence as their self-esteem improves, developing

their self-efficacy and locus of control within their own capabilities. In my experience this often

develops from the teacher initially taking the lead in activities to the teacher consciously developing

learning to allow the student to take control.

Considering the relative weaknesses many dyslexics face - spelling, fluent accurate reading and

sometimes handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics, sequencing, organisation and rote

memory – these need addressing through programmes that build on the same individuals’ relative

strengths: creativity, reading and oral comprehension, material, interconnected, narrative and

dynamic reasoning. For example, a student of mine loved art and learned very visually so having her

create humourous cartoons to help remember ideas was a useful strategy, she also learned much

more by using the senses together.

Indeed, visual strategies are often a way in to represent dyslexic students’ thoughts. Mindmapping is

often a way to record the sophisticated connections a dyslexic student might make – with the more

flexibility of connection type and colour coding the better. Creative ways of representing ideas have

always been developed by dyslexics and this should be encouraged. Oliver West’s Footnotes system

in his book ‘In Search of Words’ is one example. Profoundly dyslexic, he developed he system as a

way of representing his thoughts and offers it to share with others, however…at best, students

develop and refine their own systems to match their own cognitive style.

Multisensory learning is most effective. When I have involved students’ sense of taste, smell, touch,

sight and hearing in an activity has been when they have proved most memorable. Clearly these

types of activities are vital for effective learning but we must also equip our learners to learn for

themselves and engage their thinking in their learning.

Carefully targeted multisensory phonics teaching is important for many young dyslexic learners but

many times older students who have phonological, working memory and processing difficulties and

have had phonics based teaching for years are given more of the same. Unfortunately sometimes

even programmes designed for younger children are given which can be even more damaging for

self-esteem. Often it is much better to utilise the dyslexic pupils’ strengths in reasoning and teach

spelling more in a morphological manner, as described in Rescuing Spelling by Melvin Ramsden.

Reading Ramsden and Spell it Out (The Singular Story of English Spelling) by David Crystal, one

becomes aware of the huge possibility of teaching English spelling intelligently and logically and also

by breaking spelling down into morphological rather than phonological units – making use of the


chunking technique for building words. Where the phonology of English orthography is confusing,

using morphological units it is possible to build accurate spellings and make connections logically.

By definition, dealing with dyslexic students we are working with people of greater intelligence than

spelling ability and that intelligence can be put to use, explaining the influence of Norman scribes on

English spelling, the ways English scribes attempted to indicate short and long vowels, and how the

etymology of a word might give clues to its spelling. Teaching using a morphological approach makes

sense as it builds on the dyslexic student’s strengths

In Dyslexia and Self-Concept, Burden recommends a number of ways forward, very much

recommending an approach based on mediated learning experiences (MLE) as described by Reuven

Feuerstein and his colleagues. Feuerstein identified 12 principles of effective mediated learning.

Intentionality and reciprocity: making intentions clear and ensuring learners are on board

Mediating for meaning: the activity has significance and meaning for the learner

Transcendence: learning experience should transcend beyond the here and now

Mediation of feelings of competence: developing a sense of self efficacy by providing

informative feedback and carefully targeted, specific praise

Seeing problems as challenges: making the learner active in solving their own problem –

relates directly to Dweck’s growth mindset

Goal seeking, goal setting and goal achieving: motivating learners to achieve realistic and

relevant learning outcomes and to set their own personal goals

The mediation of the need to see one’s behaviour as within one’s control:: the learner

attributing success or failure as within their control – having a strong internal locus of

control. At first many dyslexic students may constantly seek help with their work but they

need to be gradually weaned off their dependency

Fostering awareness of change: help learners reflect on how they have changed

Individuation: the recognition of the individual as a unique person, dyslexics often have to be

helped to feel special and that they have talents and abilities that override their specific

difficulties

Sharing with others: learners need to be encouraged to share problems and strategies with

others – empowering both themselves and others, developing pride in themselves

Mediation of a sense of belonging: here is the importance of successful inclusion in the

mainstream school.

The need to foster a belief in optimistic alternatives: developing an optimistic learning

outlook, again this fits with Dweck’s growth mindset theory well.

If we take a mediated learning approach to specialist teaching in this manner and develop targeted

teaching that is multisensory, develops students’ abilities to be metacognitive and reflective learners

and build in a high level of teaching of thinking skills we can help students achieve their potential

and value themselves as learners provided we factor in an appropriate degree of success and

personalised to the interests of the students. The metacognitive aspect is vital. If they are to know

their strengths they must understand the specific nature of their individual difficulties and the

specific nature of strategies they personally can use to learn efficiently


Eide and Eide describe ‘internal and external supports’ in the Dyslexic Advantage’ in terms of factors

the dyslexic adults they interviewed considered critical for their emotional, learning and professional

success. Internal supports included tenacity, confidence, positive self-image, acceptance of struggle

especially in aspects of education (resilience) and a personal focus on individual strengths and

interests. External supports included supportive home and school environments and a supportive

network of friends. As educators we can play a role in enabling dyslexic students to develop all of

these and we need to make sure we make every use of dyslexic learners’ positive strengths in order

to develop their potential to the full.

Focussing on strengths of dyslexic learners allows them to develop self-esteem and utilise their

thinking skills and creativity to maximise this potential. Instead of seeing school as an ordeal, or

dyslexia as an obstacle to overcome, education can become a more natural, positive learning

experience that allows the learner to build on their successes and thrive.

“One of the most important things students with dyslexia can do … is to

identify their ideal learning style, which consists of their best methods of

information input, information output, memory and attention. By funnelling

information towards areas of cognitive strength and away from areas of

weakness, students with dyslexia can learn and express knowledge as

efficiently and effectively as possible.”



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Dyslexia and Thinking Skills

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