AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE 55:450–457 (2012)

Dump Truck-Related Deaths in Construction,1992–2007

Michael McCann, PhD, CIH� and Mei-Tai Cheng, MS

Background Dump trucks are universally used in construction and other industries tohaul materials to the location and to remove waste materials.Methods The source for dump truck-related fatality data was the Bureau of LaborStatistics Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) Research File.Results From 1992 to 2007, 829 construction workers were killed in dump truck-relat-ed incidents nationwide. Of those, 336 were dump truck operators with 215 deathsoccurring in street and highway incidents. Another 343 deaths involved workers onfoot, three-quarters struck by dump trucks. Sixty-four of the construction workers killedwere maintaining dump trucks, 22 when caught between the truck frame and a fallingdump truck bed. Of the 86 other deaths, 55 involved streets and highways.Conclusions Recommendations include: (i) improving the reporting of seat belt usagein fatality reports; (ii) requiring use of seat belts; (iii) requiring the use of backupalarms, spotters, or other methods to alert dump truck operators to workers in theirblind spots; (iv) prohibiting direct dumping at river banks and embankments; (v) usingcameras or radar to enforce stopping at railway crossings; and (xi) enforcing workersafety practices (e.g., lockout/tagout procedures on elevated dump truck beds). Am. J.Ind. Med. 55:450–457, 2012. � 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

KEY WORDS: surveillance; struck by; caught in/between; seat belts

INTRODUCTION

This report is a descriptive analysis of dump truck-

related fatalities in construction from 1992 to 2007. It is

based on the most currently available surveillance data

from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Census of Fatal

Occupational Injuries (CFOI) Research File. This report

characterizes the source of injury, causes, and contributing

factors associated with fatal injuries in construction over

time. This more detailed examination targets dump trucks

because previous research on heavy equipment and

trucks in construction identified dump trucks as a major

factor in construction fatalities [McCann, 2006]. This re-

port addresses National Occupational Research Agenda

(NORA) construction Intermediate Goals 3.0 on reducing

struck-by injuries and fatalities and 3.3 on reducing work-

er exposure to being run over by vehicles (http://www.

cdc.gov/niosh/nora/comment/agendas/construction/pdfs/

ConstOct2008.pdf), and NORA transportation Intermedi-

ate Goals 1.9 on implementing a surveillance system on

truck drivers and 1.10.1, 1.10.2 on preventing injuries to

truck drivers due to vehicle crashes (http://www.cdc.gov/

niosh/nora/comment/agenda/agendas/transwareutil/pdfs/

TransWareUtilAug2009.pdf).

Dump trucks are universally used in construction and

other industries to haul materials to the location and to

remove waste materials. They travel both on streets and

highways and off the road. Dump trucks are of two basic

varieties: end-dump truck bodies where the dump box is a

1CPWR�The Center for Construction Research and Training, Silver Spring,MarylandContract grant sponsor: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH;

Contract grant number: 1U54OH008307.Disclosure Statement: The authors report no conflicts of interests.Part of this study was done in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an M.S. degree

in the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences trackof the Urban Public Health Pro-gram at Hunter College.

*Correspondence to: Michael McCann, PhD, CIH, CIH CPWR�The Center for ConstructionResearch and Training, 8484Georgia Avenue, Suite1000, Silver Spring,MD20910.E-mail: michael.mccann@att.net

Accepted 29 September 2011DOI10.1002/ajim.21028.Published online 23November 2011inWiley Online Library

(wileyonlinelibrary.com).

�2011WileyPeriodicals,Inc.

part of the truck and elevates to dump contents through

the end; and trailer dumping rigs where the dump box is

hitched to a regular dump truck, tractor, or other vehicle.

Trailer dumping rigs can be either end dump, where

unloading occurs through the end of the trailer, or belly

dump where unloading occurs through gates on the bottom

of the trailer. Sizes of dump trucks can vary from as little

as a couple of tons to over 140 tons for mining dump

trucks.

A review of the literature on dump truck-related inju-

ries identified seven studies, mostly focused on mining

dump sites, streets and highways, and traffic work zones.

The most extensive was a National Institute for Occupa-

tional Safety and Health (NIOSH) study of dump truck-

related fatalities and lost-time injuries at mining dump

sites from 1988 to 1997 [Turin et al., 2001]. This study

identified 370 serious injuries, including 26 fatalities. Inju-

ries involving dump trucks were responsible for an aver-

age of 50 lost workdays compared to 33 lost workdays

involving other mobile mining equipment. Over 90% of

the serious injuries involved stationary dumping or oc-

curred while the dump truck was backing up. Moreover,

in 10 of 11 deaths, where the operator landed outside the

cab, the seat belt was not fastened. In fact, according to a

study published by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Ad-

ministration (FMCSA) in 2003, single trailer dump truck

operators had the lowest safety belt usage rate �26%,

compared to an average of 48% for all commercial motor

vehicle drivers [Knoblauch et al., 2003].

A NIOSH study using Bureau of Labor Statistics

(BLS) Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) data

identified 492 traffic work zone deaths from 1992 to 1998

[Pratt et al., 2001]. Of these, 94 deaths (one-fifth) involved

workers on foot struck by work zone trucks A CFOI

study of traffic work zone deaths from 1992 to 1999 by

CPWR—The Center for Construction Research and Train-

ing identified 88 worker on foot deaths involving backing

vehicles, half involving dump trucks [CPWR, 2002,

p. 39]. Of these deaths, 20% occurred while directing con-

struction vehicles or flagging traffic.

A NIOSH literature review identified 495 work-related

highway deaths involving dump trucks between 1992 and

2000 using CFOI data [Pratt, 2003]. This was 1.7% of the

total number of work-related highway deaths for that peri-

od. An additional study conducted by the National High-

way Transportation Safety Board (NHTSB) using the

Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) identified 1,403

work-related roadway deaths in the US construction indus-

try from 1992 through 2001 [Pratt, 2004]. Of these, 167

were related to dump truck roadway crashes.

A CFOI study of heavy equipment and truck-related

deaths in the excavation work industry (SIC 1794) identi-

fied 253 deaths from 1992 to 2002 [McCann, 2006]. This

included 33 deaths caused by dump trucks, occurring

mostly to workers on foot who were struck by the dump

truck.

Finally, the NIOSH Fatality Assessment and Control

Evaluation (FACE) Program evaluated 24 deaths involving

dump trucks from 1992 to 2007 (available at http://

www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/). The NIOSH case reports in-

cluded 6 deaths of dump truck operators from overturns,

striking overhead power lines, run over by the driver’s

own dump truck, an incident where the driver was caught

in /between the dump truck bed and box, and a case in-

volving hot asphalt which killed a worker when the tail-

gate opened. There were also 15 deaths of workers on

foot, including 12 cases of workers struck by dump trucks

(10 involving a backing dump truck), an overhead power

line contact electrocution, a worker caught in/between a

dump truck bed and box, and a worker pinned between a

dump truck and another vehicle; and three maintenance

workers caught in/between the dump truck bed and box.

This current report analyzes dump truck-related fatali-

ties focused on the construction industry from 1992 to

2007. This analysis updates previous research and pro-

vides a more extensive analysis of dump truck-related

deaths in construction. It also provides more extensive rec-

ommendations for interventions to reduce the number of

these fatalities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The source for dump truck-related fatality data was

the BLS CFOI Research File. BLS relies on the states to

collect data on fatalities for the CFOI.

Construction industry fatality data for the 2-digit

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Standardized Industrial

Classification (SIC) Codes 15, 16, and 17 for 1992

through 2002 and the North American Industry Classifica-

tion System (NAICS) Sector 23 for 2003–2007 were iden-

tified in the CFOI database. The resulting data were

entered into Microsoft Excel 2003 database for analysis.

Deaths related to dump trucks were primarily identi-

fied by selecting all records with the Source or Secondary

Source code of 8252 (Dump trucks). The source of injury

or illness identifies the object, substance, bodily motion,

or exposure which directly produced or inflicted the previ-

ously identified injury or illness. The secondary source of

injury or illness identifies the object, substance, or person

that generated the source of injury or illness or that con-

tributed to the event or exposure. A total of 783 records

were identified, 663 with dump trucks as the primary

source, and 120 as the secondary source.

A key word CFOI search using the term ‘‘dump

truck’’ of the narratives identified another 46 cases where

neither the source nor secondary codes were 8252. This

yielded a total of 829 dump truck-related deaths in con-

struction for the time period 1992–2007.

Dump Truck Deaths in Construction 451

Dump truck deaths were analyzed by age, time with

employer (TIE), and employee status (e.g., wage and sala-

ry, self-employed). For purpose of analysis, the following

CFOI age groups were combined: 1 (age <16) and 2 (age

17–19); and 3 (age 20–24) and 4 (age 25–34).

CFOI narratives and location codes were used to deter-

mine where the fatality occurred. The locations of deaths

were grouped into construction site, street and highway,

and other locations. Construction site incidents include

those occurring in traffic work zones, as well as other types

of construction sites (e.g., building construction, bridge

construction). Street and highway incidents include those

occurring on or adjacent to the road while traveling from

one location to another, including driving, parking at side

of road, walking on road, etc. Other locations include

garages, parking lots, quarries, industrial yards, etc.

Based on the CFOI narratives and activity codes of

the dump truck-related deaths (Table I), fatalities were

grouped by the researcher into the following four worker

activity categories: operating dump trucks, worker on foot,

maintaining dump trucks, and other worker (e.g., driver of

other vehicle, passenger). These worker activity categories

involve groupings of related activity codes.

The following sections provide both descriptive and

comparative analyses (e.g., between previously described

worker activity categories). The data presented are based

on proportions not rates because of the lack of denomina-

tor data. The total number of dump truck operators and

the number of workers performing particular construction-

related activities (e.g., number of workers on foot) is not

available using CFOI data or any other current available

statistics. A linear regression model (using the least-

squares method) was used to identify trends in dump

truck-related deaths by year.

RESULTS

Demographics

From 1992 to 2007, a total of 829 construction work-

ers were identified in dump truck-related fatal incidents

nationwide, an average of 52 deaths per year.

Occupations

Table II shows the major occupations of workers

killed in dump truck-related deaths by worker activity.

Truck drivers (dump truck operators whose occupation

was truck driver) comprised one-third of the fatalities (295

deaths). Almost half of the 318 workers on foot who

died on construction sites were construction laborers.

One-third of the 44 workers who died while maintaining

dump trucks also operated the dump trucks they were

maintaining.

Age

Table III shows the distribution of dump truck-related

deaths by age groups. Workers aged 20–34, 35–44, 45–54

and over 55—each accounted for one-quarter of the

deaths. There was no appreciable difference between age

groups by worker activity or between construction site and

streets and highways.

Other

Of the total number of dump truck-related fatalities,

89% were employed by contractors, eight percent were

self-employed, and three percent were categorized as other

(this included 14 deaths of individuals working in family

businesses). Fifteen percent worked <1 year on the job;

however, data were missing for job duration for one-third

of the cases.

Location of Deaths

Dump truck-related deaths were grouped by the re-

searcher into three general categories by location of the

deaths: construction site, street and highway, and other

locations (Table IV). Figure 1 shows the pattern of street

and highway and construction site dump truck-related

deaths of construction workers by year. The data were an-

alyzed using the F-test for simple linear regression. For

the 484 construction site deaths (58% of the total popula-

tion), the R2 was 0.0326 (P > 0.05), for the 281 street and

TABLE I. WorkerActivity Classifications

Classification Workeractivity

Operatingdumptrucks Thedriverof thedumptruck involved in thedeath.This includesdriversonor in thedumptruckandon foot aroundthedumptruckWorkeron foot Aworkerkilled in a dumptruckincidentwhowasnotnecessarily involvedwithdumptruckactivities (e.g.,wasworkingonsome-

thingelsewhenhewasstruckbythedumptruck),orwhowasworkingondumptruck-relatedactivities(e.g.,directing,flagging)Maintainingdumptrucks Amechanic,dumptruckoperator,ormiscellaneousworkerwhowaskilledwhile doingmaintenanceactivitieson thedumptruckOtheractivity Adriverofanother vehicle, apassenger in another vehicle, apassenger in thedumptruck,oraworkeron thedumptruckwhowas

killed in a dumptruckrelated incident

452 McCann and Cheng

highway deaths (34% of the total population), the R2 was

0.2818 (P < 0.05). The pattern indicates an increase in

the number of street and highway deaths from 1992 to

2007, but no major change in the number of construction

site deaths over time. The remaining 64 deaths (8% of the

total population) occurred in other locations such as

garages or parking lots.

Table IV shows the causes of dump truck-related

deaths according to worker activity, as previously described.

Construction site deaths, street and highway deaths, and

deaths at other locations are discussed, respectively.

Construction site deaths: Operatingdump trucks

Of the 96 operating dump truck deaths on construc-

tion sites, half involved the dump truck operator on foot

around the dump truck. One-third of the operators on foot

were struck by their own dump truck and one-third were

struck by other vehicles while working around their dump

truck. Dump truck operators on foot were engaged in a

variety of activities such as checking dump truck position,

checking tires, checking the dump truck bed, etc.

Other causes of dump truck operator deaths on con-

struction sites included: 19 dump truck overturns (20% of

total dump truck operator deaths) and 17 electrocutions

when the dump truck bed contacted an overhead power

line (18%). Half of the overturns involved the dump truck

going over embankments or hills, resulting in fatal ejec-

tions or being crushed by the dump truck.

Construction site deaths:Workers on foot

Of the 318 workers on foot killed on construction

sites, just over three-quarters were struck by dump trucks

on construction sites. Of these, two-thirds involved dump

trucks that were backing up. In two-fifths of these cases,

the worker on foot was directing the dump truck or other

traffic.

Construction site deaths: Workersmaintaining dump trucks

Of the 44 deaths of workers maintaining dump trucks

on construction sites, over half involved workers getting

caught in/between machinery. For example, 46% of these

deaths involved workers getting caught between the dump

truck frame and the collapsing dump box. One-fifth of the

maintenance workers were struck by the dump truck they

were servicing, usually when the dump truck operator

moved the truck, not realizing the maintenance worker

was present.

Construction site deaths: Other workers

Of the 26 deaths in the ‘‘Other worker’’ category,

two-thirds were workers on the dump truck engaged in

TABLE II. Occupations ofWorkers Killed in DumpTruck-Related Deaths in Construction, byWorkerActivity,1992^2007

Occupation DumptruckOperatora Worker onfoot Workermaintainingdumptruck Otherworkerb Total deaths (%)

Truckdrivers 252 15 21 7 295 (36)Construction laborers 13 154 11 25 203 (24)Supervisors andManagers/administrators 31 55 7 13 106 (13)Heavyequipmentoperatorsc 23 45 7 12 87 (10)Other tradesd 17 74 18 29 138 (17)Totalworkerskilled 336 343 64 86 829 (100)

Source:U.S.Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics CFOIResearch File.aIncludes deaths of 46 dump truckoperators on foot.bOther workers include 42 drivers ofother vehicles,19workers on dump trucks,12 passengers in dump trucks, and10 passengers in other vehicles.cIncludes 51operating engineers,17 paving surfacing and tamping equipment operators, and10 excavating and loadingmachine operators.dIncludes 22 mechanics and repairers, 14 highway maintenance workers, 12 roofers, 11carpenters, nine construction inspectors, six crossing guards (flaggers), and nine non-constructionworkers.

TABLE III. Age Distribution of DumpTruck-Related Deaths inConstruction,1992^2007

Agegroup No.ofdeaths (%)

<20 19 (2)20^34 219 (26)35^44 205 (25)45^54 203 (24)55^64 136(16)Over65 47 (6)Total 829a

Source:U.S.Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics CFOIResearch File.aDoes not add to100%due to rounding.

Dump Truck Deaths in Construction 453

activities such as loading or unloading, and one-third were

drivers of other vehicles struck by a dump truck. Just

under one-third of the workers on the dump truck fell and

were either killed by hitting the ground or were rolled

over by the dump truck.

Street and Highway Deaths

Table IV also includes the data on the causes of dump

truck-related deaths on streets and highways. One-third of

the total deaths occurred on streets and highways. High-

way collisions accounted for almost two-fifths of the street

and highway deaths. Highway overturns accounted for

one-fifth of deaths. One-eighth of the deaths involved

dump truck collisions with trains. Dump truck operators

accounted for three-quarters of the street and highway

deaths. Drivers or riders in other vehicles who were killed

in collisions with dump trucks accounted for one-seventh

of street and highway deaths.

TABLE IV. Causes of DumpTruck-Related Deaths in Construction, According toWorkerActivity,1992^2007

Causeofdeath Dump truckoperatora Worker onfoot Workermaintainingdumptruck Otherworkerb Total no. (%)

ConstructionsiteStruckbydumptruckc 17 248 9 10 284(59)Caught in/betweend 7 21 23 5 56(12)Struckbyother vehiclee 16 25 � � 43(9)Struckbyobjectf 7 13 � � 31(7)Overheadpower line contact 17 8 � � 28(6)Dumptruckgoverturn 19 � � � 19(4)Othercauses 13 � � 7 23(5)

Total constructionsitedeaths 96 318 44 26 484h

Street andhighwayHighwaycollisions 63 � � 46 109(39)Highwayoverturns 57 � � � 60(21)Struckstationaryobject 38 � � � 40(14)Train collisions 35 � � � 35(12)Highwaynon-collisions 17 � � � 18(6)Struckbydumptruck � 11 � � 15(5)Othercauses � � � � �

Total street andhighwaydeaths 214 12 � 55 281h

Other locationsi 26 13 20 5 64Total deaths 336 343 64 86 829

Source:U.S.Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics CFOIResearch File.�,Data do notmeet BLS publication criteria.aIncludes deaths of 48 dump truckoperators on foot.bOther workers include 42 drivers of other vehicles, 21workers on dump trucks,12 passengers in dump trucks, and10 passengers in other vehicles.cIncludes178 deaths involving dump trucks backing up, and18 deaths involvingworkers rolled over by dump trucks.dIncludes 33 deaths involvingworkers being caught between the dump truck frame and falling dump truckbed.eIncludes 24 deaths involving theworker being struck and then pinned against an object (in16 cases a dump truck).fIncludes17 deaths involving theworker being struckby part of the dump truck and seven deaths involving falling dump trucks.gIncludes nine deaths involving backingup over embankment or river bed.hDoes not add to100%due to rounding.iIncludes17 deaths involving caught in/between incidents,14 involving struckby dump trucks, 8 involving dump truckoverturns, and11involving being struckbyobjects.

FIGURE 1. Distribution of construction site and highway dump truck-related deaths

by year 1992^2007. [Color figure can be seen in the online version of this article, avail-

able at http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ajim]

454 McCann and Cheng

Overall, two-thirds of the 336 dump truck operator

deaths in construction occurred on streets and highways,

not on construction sites. Contributing factors in the street

and highway deaths of dump truck operators included fail-

ure to fasten seat belts and vehicle malfunctions, including

blown tires and brake failures.

Deaths in ‘‘Other’’ Locations

Eight percent of dump truck-related deaths occurred

in other locations, including parking lots and garages,

mines/sand pits/quarries and industrial yards. Two-fifths of

the deaths involved dump truck operators (one-third on

foot), almost one-third involved workers maintaining

dump trucks, and one-fifth involved workers on foot.

The main causes of deaths included workers caught

in/between (27%), and workers struck by dump trucks

(22%). Over half of the caught in/between deaths involved

maintenance workers trapped between the dump truck

frame and a collapsing dump box.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Overall, most dump truck-related fatalities in con-

struction occurred on construction sites, not during trans-

portation to and from sites. Of the construction site

deaths, two-thirds of those killed were workers on foot

compared to one-fifth being dump truck operators (on foot

or in dump truck). However, twice as many dump truck

operators were killed on streets and highways compared to

construction sites.

Other trades besides truck drivers operated dump

trucks both on construction sites and streets and highways.

These included supervisors and managers/administrators,

heavy equipment operators and construction laborers. It is

not known if these dump truck operators had CDLs (Com-

mercial Driver Licenses) or if they had higher rates of

fatalities than truck drivers.

In this analysis, age was not a factor among dump

truck operators between construction site deaths and street

and highway deaths. Comparisons between worker activity

categories on construction sites by age are not valid be-

cause of the difference in occupations for the different

worker activity categories. Age category rates could not

be determined since the occupations of dump truck fatali-

ties do not reflect the overall occupation distribution in

construction. For example, truck drivers comprise about

one-third of dump truck fatalities but only make up 1.6%

of all construction workers (CPWR, 2002, p. 10).

Construction Site Activities

Being run over by dump trucks and other vehicles

and caught in/between incidents are key issues in over

three-quarters of dump truck-related construction site

deaths.

Operating dump trucks

There are three main activities related to deaths while

operating dump trucks on construction sites: (i) operators

run over by their own dump truck or other vehicles while

working on foot around the dump truck; (ii) dump truck

overturns while backing to an edge of an embankment or

river to dump a load; and (iii) overhead power line elec-

trocutions while raising the dump truck bed to dump a

load. NIOSH FACE Reports investigated examples of

these fatalities (available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/

face/). NIOSH investigations of mining dump sites found

similar problems [Turin et al., 2001].

In order to prevent dump truck operators from being

run over by their own truck while working on foot around

their dump truck, the operators should be required to set

the parking brakes and turn off the motor before leaving

the truck, as required by OSHA regulations [29 CFR

1926.600(a)(3)(ii)]. On a slope, they should also set wheel

chocks to ensure the truck does not move.

Backing to an edge of an embankment or river to

dump a load can be very hazardous due to problems with

visibility and the possibility of collapse of the ground

edge. One recommendation is to dump the load at least 50

feet short of the dumping area, and then use a bulldozer

moving forward to push the load into the dumping site.

This would require rules or policies to be established by

the General Contractor.

Overhead power line electrocutions can be prevented

by preliminary site surveys to ensure the areas where

dump truck beds are raised are clear of overhead electrical

hazards.

Workers on foot

Ruff has conducted extensive research for the mining

sector on proximity warning systems to alert dump truck

drivers to the presence of workers on foot in the blind

spots of dump trucks [Ruff, 2001, 2003, 2006; Ruff and

Holden, 2003]. This research included the use of radar,

radiofrequency identification (RFID), closed circuit televi-

sion monitors (CCTV), and GPS. His results show that

camera and sensor systems are more effective in warmer

weather and present difficulties in cold, snowy climates.

Radar systems installed in large off-road dump trucks

were effective in detecting people, small vehicles, and oth-

er equipment.

The problem in construction is similar to that in min-

ing. Until these mechanical devices are perfected, reliance

on spotters appears to be the best practice alternative.

However, it is important for the spotter to stay out of the

Dump Truck Deaths in Construction 455

path of the backing dump truck and always be in eye or

radio contact with the dump truck operator.

Audible backup alarms do not appear to be effective

on construction sites due to the large amounts of compet-

ing noise sources and false alarms [Ruff, 2003; Lancaster

et al., 2007]. For this reason, in 2004, a Washington State

regulation required spotters or a mechanical device (e.g.,

video camera that provides the driver with a full view of

the area behind the dump truck) in addition to audible

backup alarms [Washington State Department of Labor

and Industries, 2004]. OSHA should adopt a similar regu-

lation. In addition, workers’ compensation carriers and ve-

hicle insurers should develop guidelines for construction

dump truck operators to ensure the safety of workers on

foot in blind spots.

Spotters, flaggers, and other workers on foot should

receive hazard awareness training to ensure a level of

knowledge or understanding in working around dump

trucks and other vehicles, in accordance with OSHA’s gen-

eral training requirements (29 CFR 1926.21(b)(2). They

should also wear high-visibility traffic vests [29 CFR

1926.201(a)].

Workers maintaining dump trucks

A noteworthy finding of this study is that over half of

the deaths of workers maintaining dump trucks involved

being caught between the dump truck frame and a collaps-

ing dump box. This is a result of failure to block or lock

out the raised dump truck body to prevent it from falling.

OSHA requires that heavy machinery, equipment or their

parts which are suspended or held aloft shall be substan-

tially blocked to prevent falling or shifting before employ-

ees are allowed to work under or between them [29 CFR

1926.600(a)(3)(i)].

Elevated dump truck beds should have permanently at-

tached supports with keyed lockout mechanisms for mainte-

nance and inspection activities. This feature is required by

OSHA [29 CFR 1926.600(a)(3)(i), 1926.601(b)(10)]. How-

ever, limited research has shown that one such lockout

mechanism, a dump truck bed brace bracket, has been

shown to be effective in an OSHA Safety and Health Infor-

mation Bulletin [OSHA, 2006]. Further engineering research

is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of existing blocking

or locking mechanisms for raised dump truck bodies on the

wide variety of dump trucks currently marketed and used in

the United States.

Streets and Highways

This study found that fastening of seat belts is the key

issue in street and highway dump truck-related deaths.

Over half of dump truck operators who died on streets

and highways were driving their trucks at the time of their

deaths. CFOI narratives showed that over one-quarter of

the dump truck operators who died in street and highway

accidents did not fasten their seat belt. The extent of the

problem is shown in a 2002 Federal Motor Carrier Safety

Administration (FMCSA) study of commercial vehicles

travelling on the highway [Knoblauch et al., 2003], which

showed that only one-quarter of single trailer dump truck

operators fastened their seat belts (more importantly,

three-quarters did not). Studies of automobiles and seat

belt reminders such as warning lights indicating the seat

belt is not fastened show that their presence reduced driver

fatality rates by 6% [Farmer and Wells, 2010].

Use of seat belt interlocking systems where the dump

truck would not operate without the seat belt being fastened

is another possible solution. One study focused on service

vehicle drivers used a device that prevents operators from

shifting gears for up to 8 s unless seat belts were fastened

[Van Houten et al., 2010]. Seat belt usage increased by 40%

for US drivers and 37% for Canadian drivers.

In addition, OSHA should develop regulatory language

that requires fastening of seat belts rather than just requiring

that vehicles have seat belts [29 CFR 1926.601(b)(9)]. Such

a regulation could be used by OSHA inspectors to enforce

fastening of seat belts or face penalties.

Reporting of information on seat belt usage in vehi-

cle-related deaths is required by BLS in fatality investiga-

tion reports. The FMCSA study described above suggests

that these data are often missing since three-quarters of

dump truck operators do not fasten their seat belts. How-

ever, CFOI narratives on dump truck operator deaths in

street and highway incidents indicate only one-quarter did

not fasten their seat belts. It is likely that that state reports

to CFOI are not adequately reporting seat belt usage. This

discrepancy between data sources suggests that states in-

volved in collecting data as part of the CFOI reporting

system should review and update their procedures to en-

sure improved collection of seat belt usage data in con-

struction vehicle fatalities.

According to BLS data for this same time period,

one-quarter of train/construction vehicle collision deaths

involved dump trucks. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Ad-

ministration (FMCSA) regulations require commercial

motor vehicles to slow down at railroad grade crossings so

they can stop if necessary (49 CFR 392.11) [FMCSA,

1991]. A large percentage of dump truck operators clearly

violated this regulation. The large number of trips made

by dump trucks to and from dump sites and construction

sites, scheduling pressures relating to construction produc-

tivity requirements and other possible work organization

demands are probable contributing factors. Consequently,

further study is needed to examine the relationship

between organization of work and why dump trucks are

involved in such a high percentage of train-related vehicle

collisions in the construction industry.

456 McCann and Cheng

CONCLUSION

In summary, analysis of the causes and contributing

factors in dump truck-related deaths in construction leads

to the following six recommendations:

(1) Improve reporting of seat belt use in fatality incident

reports.

(2) Promulgate an OSHA regulation requiring use of

seat belts and enforcement of the regulation.

(3) Promulgate an OSHA regulation requiring the use of

backup alarms, spotters, or other methods to alert

dump truck operators to the presence of workers on

foot in the blind spots of their trucks.

(4) Develop new operating procedures which would pro-

hibit direct dumping at river beds and embankments.

(5) Use of cameras and radar at railroad crossings to

enforce existing regulations on stopping at railway

crossings.

(6) Enforce worker safety practices (e.g., lockout/tagout

procedures on elevated dump truck beds).

Many of these recommendations are also potentially

applicable to dump truck operation in other industries,

such as mining, general industry and agriculture and may

broaden the scope of prevention efforts to reduce these

incidents across industry sectors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was funded as part of a grant to

CPWR—The Center for Construction Research and Train-

ing from the National Institute for Occupational Safety

and Health, NIOSH (NIOSH Grant 1 U54OH008307).

The research is solely the responsibility of the authors and

does not necessarily represent the official views of

NIOSH. CPWR is the research, training and service arm

of the Building and Construction Trades Department,

AFL-CIO. I thank the Center for Occupational and Envi-

ronmental Health at Hunter College for their cooperation

in this study, Janie Gittleman, Associate Director of

CPWR, Sue Dong, Director of the Data Center at CPWR,

and Bill Wiehagen of the NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Lab

for reviewing and commenting on the article. I also thank

Christina Daw of the Data Center at CPWR for the statis-

tical analysis support.

REFERENCES

CPWR—The Center for Construction Research and Training. 2002.The Construction Chart Book—The U.S. Construction Industryand Its Workers, 3rd edition. Silver Spring, MD: CPWR [Online].Available at http://www.cpwr.org (Accessed 12/2/ 2010).

Farmer CM, Wells JK. 2010. Effects of enhanced seat belt reminderson driver fatality risk. J. Safety Res 41(1):53–57.

Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA). 1991. Part392. Driving of commercial motor vehicles. Subpart B. Drivingof vehicles [Online]. Available at http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/rules-regulations/administration/fmcsr/FmcsrGuideDetails.aspx?menukey¼392 (Accessed 12/2/ 2010).

Knoblauch RL, Cotton R, Nitzburg M, Seifert RF, Shapiro G, BroeneP. 2003. Safety Belt Usage by Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers.Washington: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal MotorCarrier Safety Administration [Online]. Available at http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/safety-security/safety-belt/fmcsafinal-safetybeltstudy-nov2003.htm (Accessed 12/2/2010).

Lancaster JA, Khaled A, Casali JG. 2007. Interaction of vehiclespeed and auditory detection of backup alarms AKA: Can the con-struction worker get out of the way? Hum Factors Ergon Soc AnnMeet Proc Safety 4:1421–1424.

McCann M. 2006. Heavy equipment and truck-related deaths onexcavation work sites. J Safety Res 37:511–517.

OSHA. 2006. Hazards of unintended movement of dump truck bodybeds. SHIB 09-18-2006 [Online]. Available at http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib091806.html (Accessed 12/2/ 2010).

Pratt SG. 2003. NIOSH Hazard Review: Work-Related RoadwayCrashes—Challenges and Opportunities for Prevention. (DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 2003-119). Cincinnati: NIOSH, 2003[Online]. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-119/(Accessed 12/2/2010).

Pratt SG. 2004. Work-related roadway crashes—United States,1992–2002. Rep Morb Mortal Wkly 53(12):260–264.

Pratt SG, Fosbroke DF, Marsh SM. 2001. Building Safer HighwayWork Zones: Measures to Protect Worker Injuries From Vehicles andEquipment. DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 2001-128. Cincinnati:NIOSH [Online]. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2001-128/ (Accessed 12/2/2010).

Ruff TM. 2001. Application of radar to detect pedestrian workersnear mining equipment. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 16(8):798–808.

Ruff TM. 2003. Evaluation Of Systems To Monitor Blind AreasBehind Trucks Used In Road Construction And Maintenance:Phase 1. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2003-113 [Online].Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/pubs/pubreference/outputid425.htm (Accessed 12/2/2010).

Ruff TM. 2006. Evaluation of a radar-based proximity warningsystem for off-highway dump trucks. Accid Anal Prev 38(1):92–98.

Ruff TM, Holden TP. 2003. Preventing collisions involving surfacemining equipment: A GPS-based approach. J Safety Res 34(2):175–181.

Turin FC, Wiehagen WJ, Jaspal JS, Mayton AG. 2001. HaulageTruck Dump Site Safety: An Examination of Reported Injuries.(DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 2001-124). Pittsburgh: NIOSH,2001 [Online]. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/pubs/pubreference/outputid1.htm (Accessed 12/2/2010).

Van Houten R, Malenfant JEL, Reagan I, Sifrit K, Compton R,Tenenbaum J. 2010. Increasing seat belt usage in service vehicledrivers with a gearshift delay. J Appl Behav Anal 43(3):369–380.

Washington State Department of Labor and Industries. 2004. WAC296-155-610(2)(f). Operating Dump Trucks in Reverse [Online].Available at http://www.lni.wa.gov/WISHA/Rules/construction/HTML/296-155m.htm#610f (Accessed 12/2/2010).

Dump Truck Deaths in Construction 457