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The Experience of Japanese Americans in the UnitedStates: A Teacher Resource Manual.Japanese American Citizens League, San Francisco,Calif.Bureau of Postsecondary Education (DHEW/OE),Washington, D.C. Div. of International Education.[74)OEG-0-74-9155186p.; This document is not available in hard copydue to the size of print in substantial parts of theoriginal documentJapanese American Citizens League, NationalHeadquarters, 1765 Sutter Street, San Francisco,California 94115 (Price not quoted)

MF-$0.76 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDRS.Annotated Bibliographies; Asian Americans; CulturalFactors; Equal Opportunities (Jobs); Ethnic Groups;Generation Gap; Guides; Immigrants; InstructionalAids; *Instructional Materials; Japanese AmericanCulture; *Japanese Americans; *Manuals; ReferenceMaterials; *Resource Materials; Social History;Student Developed Materials; Teacher DevelopedMaterials; *Teaching Guides

This manual is considered to be comprised ofinteresting resource materials to be used to stimulate teachers,community members, and others concerned with education in order tobecome more conscious of Japanese Americans and their role inAmerican society. The manual includes a section on history andcontemporary concerns of Japanese Americans, suggested instructionalactivities for grades K-12, an annotated bibliography on teachers andstudent resources, an annotated bibliography on multi-mediaresources, and other annotated resource materials concerning JapaneseAmericans. Among the issues discussed are those concerning the Issei,the Nisei, the mass evacuation of persons of Japanese ancestry, U.S.- Japan relations in international politics, the elderly.,redevelopment and urban renewal, legal rights, feminism,inter-marriage, and equal employment opportunities. (Author/AM)

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THE EXPERIENCE OF JAPANESE AMERICANS

IN THE UNITED STATES:

A Teacher Resource Manual

Q>.LC)

US DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,

.-4...*.

EDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

tr)EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRODUCED EXACTL Y AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIGIN

ACING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

V STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRE

SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

f, EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

THE EXPERIENCE OF JAPANESE AMERICANSIN THE UNITED STATES:

A TEACHER RESOURCE MANUAL

This manual has been developed, prepared, printed and distributedby an Advisory Council to the Ethnic Heritage Project of the JapaneseAmerican Citizens League under a grant OEG No. 0-74-9155.

Request for information concerning this manual should be ad-dressed to:

Japanese American Citizens LeagueNational Headquarters1765 Sutter StreetSan Francisco, California 94115

Regional Offices:

Washington, D.C.Japanese American Citizens League1730 Rhode Island Avenue, N.W.Suite 204Washinton, D.C. 20038

Chicago, IllinoisJapanese American Citizens League5415 North Clark StreetChicago, Illinois 60640

Portland, OregonJapanese American Citizens League327 N.W. Couch StreetPortland, Oregon 97209

Fresno, CaliforniaJapanese American Citizens League738 Tenaya WayFresno, California 93710

Los Angeles, CaliforniaJapanese American Citizens League125 Weller StreetLos Angeles, California 90012

This project presented or reported herein was performed pursuantto a grant from the U.S. Office of Education, Departnient of Health,Education & Welfare to the Japanese American Citizens League.However, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect theposition or the policy of the U.S. Office of Education or the JapaneseAmerican Citizens League. No official endorsement of the U.S. officeof Education or the Japanese American Citizens League should beinferred.

42

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Ethnic Heritage Advisory Council, consultants and project staffwish to acknowledge the effort and contributions of the numerousindi 'duals parents. teachers, community groups and organizations

who expressed an interest in the project and who worked togetherto develop the final product. Without this additional assistance, theproject would not have been completed. To all these individuals-many thanks!

Graphics: Aizawa Associates, San Francisco, California.

i

3

ETHNIC HERITAGE ADVISORY COUNCIL

Ms. Jeanette ArakawaMs. Carol ChoyeProfessor Russell EndoMs. Lorna HillProfessor Charles IgawaMr. George KiriyamaRev. Mas KodaniProfessor Junji Kumamoto

Mr. Tsukasa MatsuedaMs. Mildred MiyaMs. Kathy ReyesMr. Dale ShimasakiMr. Henry TanakaProfessor Izumi TaniguchiDr. Mary Watanabe

CONSULTANTS TO THE PROJECT

Dr. Eleanor BlumenbergProfessor Donald EstesDr. Asa HilliardMs. Mako Nakagawa

Dr. Franklin OdoMr. Leland ShimadaDr. Belle Ruth Witkin

National Officers of the Japanese American Citizens League

Shigeki Sugiyama, PresidentJames Murakami, President-ElectGrayce Uyehara, V.P. for General OperationsIzumi Taniguchi, V.P. for Public AffairsHelen Kawagoe, V.P. for Public AffairsTad Hirota, V.P. for Membership ServicesTomio Moriguchi, TreasurerFrank Iwama, Legal CounselJames K. Tsujimura, District GovernorWesley Doi, District GovernorMichio Uchiyama, District GovernorMasamune Kojima, District GovernorGeorge Kimura, District GovernorMits Kawamoto, District GovernorLillian Kimura, District GovernorVernon Ichisaka, District GovernorDavid E. Ushio, Executive Director

Project Staff

Patricia J. NakanoValerie N. Jew

64

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Preface

listorical arid contemporary Narrative

IntroductionThe Dual LegacyIsser The First Japanese Immigrants

Ante Japanese Campaign. Political, Economic and Social ForcesAftermath of the Russo-Japanese War. The Gentlemen's AgreementThe Furor Over the "Picture Brides'The Exclusion MovementCalifornia Alien Land Law

Cultural Roots. A Source of StrengthThe Evo lutin of Japanese CommunitiesNisei' The Second GenerationThe Mass Evacuation of Persons of Japanese AncestryChallenging the Constitutionality of the Evacuation and Relocation

U.S. v. Hirabayashi and U.S. v. YasuiU.S. v. KorematsuU.S. v. Endo

A Search for Alternatives: loyalty or Dissent?Contemporary IssuesU.S -Japan Relations in International Politics and EcomonicsEqual Employment Opportunitiesthe ElderlyRedevelopment and Urban Renessal"Beyond the Melting Pot"Ethnic StudiesPolitical ParticipationThud World Effortsliterature, Arts and the Medialegal RightsFeminismThe Quest for IdentityIntermarriagesummary

II Notes on Instructional Activities

A suggested Activities and Resources (Grades K- 3)B suggested Activities and Resource (Grades 4.6)C. suggested A( tivities and Resources (Grades 73)I') suggested A( twities arid Resources (Grades 9.12)

III. Annotated Bibliography

IV Annotated MultMedia Materials

V Annotated listing of Resource Materials

5

7

PREFACE

The Ethnic Heritage Project has developed a teacher resource manualpertaining to the experience of Americans of Japanese ancestry for twomajor reasons:

1) it has been demonstrated that existing instructional materials andeducational programs either do not accurately or adequately includethe history, experiences and achievements of Japanese Americansin the United States and:or portray persons of Japanese ancestry ina distorted or stereotypic fashion; and2) that there is a critical need to begin to incorporate the JapaneseAmerican expenence in a meaningful context Into the total instructionalframework of the educational system if we are to give more thanlipservice to the concepts of cultural pluralism and multiculturaleducation.The Ethnic Heritage Project responded by developing a teacher re-

source manual that hopefully will go beyond the library shelves andinto the classroom. The project attempted to create a practical, informa-tive, and interesting resource manual that will stimulate teachers,community members and others concerned with education to becomemore conscious of Japanese Americans and their role in Americansociety. The manual includes a section on the history and contemporaryconcerns of Japanese Americans, suggested instructional activities forgrades K-12, annotated bibliography (teachers and student resources),annotated Multi-Media Resources, and other Annotated ResourceMaterials concerning Japanese Americans.

HISTORICAL AND COMTEMPORARY NARRATIVEThe manuals treatment of the historical and contemporary experiences

of Japanese Americans is not intended to serve as a definitive norcomprehensive interpretation of Japanese American history. Rather, theproject, within limited space, has attempted to provide a balancedportrayal of the history, experiences, aspirations, problems, successes

S

6

and failures of Japanese Americans as people. The interpretation mayraise questions, heated disagreements or concurrence. Above all, theproject would like to have the historical and contemporary narrativesere e as a springboard to i nstil! a desire on the part of individuals tobecome more knowledgeable about Japanese Americans.

SUGGESTED INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIESThe instructional activities section is based upon a conceptual/inquiry,

values clarification approach that Lan be used vvithin an interdisciplinaryframework. The goal of the instructional activities section is to provideteachers and others with a conceptual framework that is suitable foruse in the total educational program for the social sciences. Theinstructional activities have been designed to keep in mind the differencesin communities, i.e., it can be used in areas where there are largeconcentrations of Japanese. Americans, smaller numbers of JapaneseAmericans and where there are no Japanese Americans at all. Thesuggested activities will assist teachers in %Nays in which they can providestudents with a positive, open learning environment by using activitiesthat encourage and respect differences in culture and lifestyles withskills to make independent objective decisions based upon fact.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY, MULTI-MEDIA RESOURCESThe Annotated Bibliography is organized according to topics in

Japanese American history and subdivided according to grade levelusage, the Annotated Multi -Media Materials are organized accordingto the type of media with appropriate grade level usage, and theAnnotated Listing of Resource Materials is provided to give informationabout other materials developed by school distncts or other organizationsconcerning Japanese Americans.

In conclusion, it is the hope of the Ethnic Heritage Project that thismanila' will prove helpful, interesting and above all, practical foradaptation to the instructional program and for use in the classroom.

7

INTRODUCTION

Was it Voltaire, the I relict) philosopher, who said that history" wastricks the living play upon the dead? And it must have been t Ion, fordwho sneered at history as all 'bunt...! Others have insisted that thosewho du not remember the past are doomed to repeat it." Still otherswarn us about the lessons' of Munich and, now, of Vietnam. for manyof us, history is a subject to endure, a bore to learn and too often, abore to teat h. This is unfortunate because there is a great deal we canlearn trum the past and much that can entertain and sustain us instruggles to understand and participate in die modem. changing world

This section on Japanese American history will touch briefly un manyareas but will concentrate un events. Ideas and people as they relateto this specific ethnic group. In so doing, a fresh perspective on U.S. and

world history may emerge to challenge us to fuller discussion andunderstanding.

What, then, of the Japanese American experience what is it thatneeds to be explained? The answers will depend upon the point ofview of the respondent.

Most journalists, government officials and social scientists will saythat it is the success of the Japanese in the U.S. in overcoming severeobstacles. for them, the Japanese American experient e Is said to bethe Horatio Alger story w nt large". More importantly, this myth of amodel minority Is often used as a rebuttal to critics who claim that

American society is fundamentally racist. After all, if a group that wasexcluded, rubbed, ghettoized and exiled to concentration campscould succeed, then society is clearly capable of allowing minorities toadvance. One lesson said to be gained from such a conclusion is thatother ethnic groups must succeed in the same manner slowly, regally.

quietly. and by their own bootstraps. Unfortunately. both the lesson"and the experience of the Japanese have been misconstrued. The realstory is more complex and more interesting.

As the section on contemporary issues will indicate. there are considerable problems which remain. Nur is this strange. There are closeto 600.000 Japanese Americans. and there is considerable diversity%%Alm this population. A few are very wealthy, man} are modestlysecure. some are pour and most never seem to have quite enough.As a people, we boast of our attributes. courage, a sense of humility.innovative energies, loyalty, and compassion. That is, we are American.As a people. we regret some major faults. arrogance. Insensitivity.chauvinism, racism, and a willingness to exploit others for our own gains.

108

THE DUAL LEGACY

Some things do set Japanese Americans apart - we are a small,risible minority group continually associated with Japan, a foreignnation When war broke out between the U.S. and Japan in 1941,nearly 110,000 person of Japanese ancestry (alien and citizen alike)were forced from their homes on the West Coast and herded off towhat were called internment and relocation camps in the interior.

more recently, as Russian and Japanese catches of whales are con-demned, Japanese American children are accused of barbarous acts bytheir classmates. Worst of all, many Japanese Americans seek to prevent-possible problems with white America by adopting what appears to besuper Amer:can- postures, Other fall prey to profound pessimism

and resort to escape in the form of drugs, alcohol, fantasy or work.Has e Japanese Amencans always been this diverse - what made them

leave their homeland generations ago and what values did they bringwith them(

ISSEI: THE FIRST JAPANESE IMMIGRANTS

When the Japanese tirst began entering the Ls. in significant numbersin the last decade of the 19th Century, the U.S. already had joinedWestern European nations in a rivalry to secure raw materials andmarkets. China was seen as the biggest,prize, but in the day of thesailing ship and coal burning steamers, all the islands of the Pacific, andJapan too. became critical as way stations and military strongholds.

entually,, in the 18aX1's Cuani and the Philipines became U.S.possessions. This leap across thousands of miles of the Pacific was alogical extension of the lung history of European American conquestut Indian and Mexican territories that had reached the shores of thePacific by 18.10.

In the Spring 01 1811, President Millard Fillmore sent Commodoremathew Perry, leading a squadron of warships, to demand that Japanallow Americans to stop there. Since the 1630's, the feudal elite - ruledover by the Tokugawa clan had allowed only the Chinese, Dutchand Koreans limited access to Japan through the Island of Deshima inNagasaki Bay, When the Tokugawa rulers realized they could notrepulse Perry s supenor fleet, a series of treaties emerged 'opening up'Japan to the intense international scene. A metamorphism took placein the old feudal order as the Tokugawa were removed and theemperor brought to the fore as a symbol of the new nanunstate in 1867.

Fundamental changes had been occunng in Japan, but this newpolitical government unleashed even greater energies. The populationgrew rapidly as economic actnity reached new heights in agriculture'lad industry. Fur the new Mew leaders (the Mew period, named forthe Emperor Mew, lasted from 18681914 the major task was to

_9_ 11

strengthen the t (ninny to atoid domination by the VVestern potters,I hey knew quite well that China was being slit ed into luropeanspheres of intluent e and that south and southeast Asia had beer'

tolonwed then motto was Fukoku kyohei ur nth countr, strongmilitary

At tirst et en below the ovrthiow ot the Tokugawa, the samuraiof %metal ditterent tine, attempted to repel the kVestern gunboatsbut were sinnitily defeated As a result the Meiji leaders einhaiked ona (hoe to attain equality with the world's imperial !Amens They foundthat purchasing warships and mortars and rides was nut enougha modern anny anti fiat y were needed and that meant t moist ripting4.01111110111.1S (1.1111C11 ended the military domination ut the samurai class.)

But a modern military needed riot only weapons trom (11111.11110 itIdittIfiec it required glass and buck and woolen and leather industriesfor knot ulars windshields crinoline. limits ant! a whole complexVt. 0110111

I his shin trout leudalwm to capitalism drew peasants tram their landssearch ot robs in the towns and ones. The process of keeping ones

roots in a hometown ta tillage and going elsewhere to work wastailed dekasegi and the men and women were called dekaseginin.kIncl ot the Japanese wltu immigrated to Hawaii and mainland L.S. weredoing lust that and hence stele also tailed dekaseginin by the Japanese.

The political, intellectual and soual lives of the Japanese in Meijitimes were drasotally changed Perhaps the malor point to he madeis that the ruling elite pushed these changes primarily to make Japanpowerful enough to resist and compete with the West. Thus, in theltros universal conscription and URI taxes were imposed to Mreasethe national anoine and armed tort es Shortly therealtt I compulsoryedut anon was instituted suite !Asa learning helped instill patriotismand imprted ettit writ) people who t ould read could be taught tohandle new mat Innery acid inntorin nest tasks tar more quit kly thanilliterate peasants ben a tonsintution and the Diet were given"to the people from alxne 'mite in order to &wate greater nationalismthan to guarantee rights to the people. State Shinto was tied to the[mot-kir ststem and a Ix +weilul %Aue stein was used ti, indoctrinatethe people although as we shall see many rebelled against thisn11.111(.10.111 mut einem.

During this period Japanese were sent abroad to !yam the set letsut eastern pi,w en the British naty and tact, ales the Cierman armyand t +11%titUtitt in Trench and Amentail edutat'on systems. Other ideaspoured 'nicht! Darwinism whit h justified the rule ot the strungLiter the weak \faintest Destiny twluth protided Christian sanctumno imperialism and cultinialism and SOmialism and Mart hism whichan ism' c ballet ige mph 'dant in in t apitalean All these t urref its uf

12 in

thought tlowed through Japan of the late 19th Century and many, inone form or another, were important elements of the culture broughtover by the Issei the first generation Japanese immigrants. Theseimmigrants were far more broadly knowledgeable than is usuallyassumed and they were heirs to a dynamically changing traditionalcuIture in full encounter math the expansion of the Western powers.

Atter the sar pot es in Japan increased, and I could hardly make a living from my smallintone I prayed to Cod asking what l should do then I heard a voice saying, Co toAmerica

Ito, Kazuo Issei(Reprinted with permission of the author)

Vessel (among the rust Japanese ambassadors to the Unitedstate, ehruary 1860

These Issei (their children, the second generation are known as Nisei;the third generation are Sansei, fourth, Yonsei) were overwhelminglyyoung men who, intended to work for several years, accumulate savingsand return in triumph to their native villages. Most came to Hawaii(atter 1898, a territory of the U.S.) to work on the plantations or to themainland U S. as houseboy-schoolboys, miners, railroad workers,fishermen, farmers and migrant agricultural laborers. There had beenshipwrecked Japanese sailors in earlier t entunes, to be sure, and thereis archaeological evidence linking prehistoric Japan and North Americancultures, but the important wave of immigration began in the 1890's.

Somewhat earlier, in 1868, Just after the Tokugawa were overthrown,a group of Japanese led by a Dutchman named Schnell attempted toestablish a colony in Gold Hill, Eldorado County, California. Their'100)0 mulberry trees did not survive, however, and dreams of creatinga silk industry evaporated. What survives is a memorial to one of theyoung nursemaids Okei and the descendents of MasumizuKuniosuke who married a Black woman. The Wakamatsu Tea and SilkFarm Cplony did not flourish into a permanent Japanese community.Similarly, the efforts of Nakahama Manjiro and John Mung to establishpermanent settlements failed in the East Coast.

13

"All the dreams of youthShipped in emigration boatsTo each this far shore."

;illusion and I,Travelled over-the oceanHunting money trees.

Looking and looking ...Even in AmericaWhat? No money trees?"

KijoIto, Kazuo. Issei

(Reprinted with permission of the author)

In the U.S. the demand for labor increased, especially as the railroadsexpanded and as the unique pattern of California agriculture wasdeveloped. The railroads slowed and mines gave out before theChinese were excluded the first group to be refused admittanceto the U.S. solely on the basis of race in 1882. But the citrus and otherfruit and vegetable crops required large numbers of workers for shortperiods of time. At planting and harvesting times, migratory laborersmoved from valley to valley, from crop to crop harvesting cropsof asparagus in early spring, working in salmon canneries in Alaskauntil the end of summer and then harvesting grapes in the CentralCalifornia valleys.

Is. Lontributrons to the tuna tisning industry were many, among them pole fishing instead of nets, refrigerated boatsfor long voyages, and large scale tuna boats.

14

"America . onceA dream of hope and longingNow a life of tears.From laughter to tearsAnd then again to laughterCountless memoriesOf Joys and sorrows once feltHow could decades fly so fast!"

Ito, Kazuo. Issei(Reprinted with permisssion of the author)

The men were organized into labor gangs by Japanese contractorswho negotiated with white employers for a lump sum determined by:the number of men times the number of days times the daily wage.the labor contractors often became enormously wealthy charging themen a percentage of their wages for room and board, sometimes,for handling mail and remitting savings to families in Japan. Since somelabor gangs numbered in the thousands, it is easy to imagine thepossibilities, both legitimate and illegitimate. The work was back-breaking and dangerous, and social amenities were few thus theillegitimate activities assumed great importance.

,Immigrant railroad workers in 1884

13

.441

15

I

ANTI-JAPANESE CAMPAIGN: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC,AND SOCIAL FORCES

The Japanese are starting the same tide of immigration which we thought we hadchecked twenty years ago The thinese and Japanese are nut bona fide citizens theyare not the stuff of which American citizens can be made Personally we havenothing against Japanese, but as they will nut assimilate is ith us and their social life isso different from ours, let them keep at a respectful distant e

James D Phelan, Mayor of san Francisco 1900Daniels, Roger The Politics of Prejudice

(Copyright 1962 by The Regents of theUniversity of California, reprinted by permission

of the University of California l'ress.)

By the turn of the century anti-Japanese racism had reached organizedlevels. Earlier, individual attacks including physical assaults and mobaction had been aimed at the Issei but the 20th Century produced newand more dangerous forms. Prejudice unreasoned biases againstcertain groups had always existed. Indeed, the entire range ofAmerican views of Asian peoples were marked by prejudice; theseviews ranged from outright hostility and condemnation to the moresubtle condescension of the Christian missionaries who saw themas heathens to be enlightened and saved.

The menace of an Asiatic influx is 100 times greater than the menace of the black race,and God knows that is bad enough."

C.O. Young, Special Representative, AFLDaniels, Roger. The Politics of Prejudice

(Copyright's) 1962 by The Regents of theUniversity of California, reprinted by permission

of the University of California Press.)

the earth is occupied by the white people and the red people If the red peoplewould prosper, they must follow the mode of fife Much has made the white people sostrong, and that it is only right that the white people should show the red peoplewhat to do and how to live right .

President Theodore RooseveltDaniels, Roger The Politics of Prejudice

(Copyright (c)1962 by The Regents of theUniversity of California, reprinted by permission

of the University of California Press.)

AFTERMATH OF THE RUSSO JAPANESE WAR:THE GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT

As early as 1893, the San Francisco School Board voted to segregateJapanese children in the public school system. The Japanese Consul,Chinda, vigorously protested the measure and it was eventuallyrescinded. The next such attempt in 1906 helped spark a major inter-national crisis between the U.S. and Japan. In the background was the

1614

critical fact of Japan's rise as a military power victory over China(1894-99, participation in the expedition to smash the Boxer Rebellionin China (1900) and, especially, the defeat of Russia in 1905 whichstartled Western observers.

Japan is moss a ccurld power and is already clutching for control of the Pacific and thiswill ultimately bring her into conflict with the U.S

lames D. Phelan. November, 1907Daniels. Roger. The Politics of Prejudice

(Copyright cc) 1962 by The Regents of theUniversity'of California; reprinted by permission

of the University of California Press.)

A campaign poster for lames Phelan,/Alcor of San franos«), reflecting theaside spread antiapanese sentimentptecalent in the loons

The RusscpJapanese War was a major turning point in modern worldhistory toc nrst time a white, European nation had been defeated bya nation ,f color The implications reverberated throughout the world:Sun l'at sen Chinese revolutionary, heard Arabs in the Middle Eastdiscussing it and Name Americans recall their parents wonderingabout it on reser,,ations. What had seemed an inevitable tide ofEuropean American colonialism and imperialism had been stoppedand in racial terms alone that was stupendous proof that whites werenot invincible.

17

Less than a year ago (an) Asiatic power (was) L mita)! of the Pacific, completelyprepared for war, (and) challenged American institutions. It was the first time in historythat an Anglo-Saxon race was compelled to so+ render the right of self governmentto the dictation of a foreign power (It we du not build up our Navy) the JapaneseNavy will again secure control of the Pacific Ocean and the high seas will be controlledby a yellow race instead of by white men."

Richmond Pearson Hobson (Retired Navy Offcerand U S. Congressman from Alabama) 1908

Daniels, Roger, The Politics of Prejudice(Copyright 1962 by 1he Regents of the

University of California, reprinted by permission. of the University of California Press.)

The Japanese in the U.S. as well as in Japan were, generally, pleasedand proud of these accomplishments. Their magazines and newspaperspublished accounts for eager subscribers who had felt so victimizedand frustrated by the arrogant treatment they had been receiving.Not all Japanese responded in the same manner, to be sure, sincepacifist and anti-militarist sentiments were deeply rooted as well.Socialist and revolutionary groups of Japanese organized in Californiaand wrote to urge comrades in Japan to resist the militarism there:In fact, there were immigrants who had left Japan deliberately to avoidthe draft because of opposition to their government's actions.

Even before the Russo-Japanese War, men like Katayama Sen werespeaking to Japanese immigrants in Seattle, Washington, San Francisco,California, Los Angeles, Calfornia, Pasadena, California, Houston, Texas,Chicago, Illinois, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to urge support for theanti-war position and solidarity with the Russian workers. Katayama,who had been an early (1890's) labor organizer in Japan, went on tohelp found the Communist Party U.S.A. and was given an internationalhero s burial in the Kremlin. Others, like Kotoku Shusui, engaged ininformational and propaganda work from the San Francisco-Berkeleyarea in California while still others helped organize political ad laborgroups up and down the Pacific Coast.

In spite of these pro-labor activities, however, most of the Americanunion and progressive leaders fell prey to racist sentiments. SamuelGompers of the American Federation of Labor had campaigned for the1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and now turned his vitriol upon Katayama(and other Japanese) as that

presumptous lap with a leprous mouth %those utterances shut% this mongrel sperverseness, ignorance arid maliciousness Perhaps this Japanese socialist may beperturbed by the tact that the American workman, organized and unorganized, havediscovered that the Japanese in the United States are as baneful to the interests ofAmerican labor and American civilization (emphasis added) as are the Chinese

Of course it took more than labor fears of employment competitionthat led to racism. The politicians, big businessmen, jounalists andintellectuals were more than eager to heap abuse upon these immigrants.Several areas became important but among these the economic andlegal-constitutional were most striking.

18 16

By 19(X), pressures from Washington D.C. had 511 ceded In (unvirx-ing the Japanese government that it should not issue passports tolaborersthe dekaseginin.

The official aftermath ut the 190b San Franuse.o sLhoul segregationinLident was the Gentlemen s Agreement signed by the U.S. and Japan

Japan formally agreed to the earlier provisiuri halting immigrationut Japanese laborers from japan or KM, all. In the 1924 general aLtionto limit immigration aLLording to national origin, the Japanese eretotally exLluded. Part of the rising tide of anti-Japanese pressure Lametrom white supremaust fears that the West would be inundated byhordes of the yelluA peril'. Their propaganda often foLused on theiniueasing limber ut women arming as brides and soon bearing Lhildrenin the U.S.

.11.1.

!k^f

l 1.41.Issei and Nisei 4, luldien %silo ere affected by the can (mos«) schoolBoard wgtototed st 1100 po1ky 1906

Iht, Japanese are less assimilable vucl Inure ddliglicRIS as residents ut lips uuutry thanam other of the people Ineligible under nu' laws. gloat pride ut rat t., they hoseI Ili Idea of assuud,uu,g uI the sense of anialganiatitm Ihey do IRA curve here with anydesire or am into it to lose (lieu Iaual or 1616011,11 identits Ihey nosey cease bongJapanese hI put,uit )t then intent to lt1111111/1.' this wuutry ,viii that tat e, they seekto secure laud 11/ t1)1.11 id huge families They hale gre,Uer allibit1011 than the othersenors of biossi I lases ineligible to anti ssrth tht. 5,1111t. ILA% standards of

labor use ut ,omen and child labor they uatw,dly make - dangerouscompetitors in an esonomn way

Valentine Stuart Mt Oats by(Retired ness simper publisher former Director of the

Assoc aled Press (Al') and RePresentatve of the

101A1 IMICRAII0N 10 iflt t

1091 19001901 1010

1911 1020

11121 11110

illt1 104(1

1041 191u11111 1060

Japanese l st lesion league of aliforma) 1922-21

slAlls )1A1 1,0ANist NimicRAiioN

1,688,000 1891 1900 27 4408 791,000 1901 010 112,7061 716 000 191 1 1920 87,5764 107,000 1921 192 (1010) 19 217

128,000 1911 - 1940 01 011 000 1941 1910 02 i I S 000 19rt 1 196(1 46 210

'1719

THE FUROR OVER THE"PICTURE BRIDE" SYSTEM

the picture bride system or shashin kekkon is more properlytranslated as the arranged marriage system. Nut unlike must immigrantgroups, family arranged marriages were commonly practiced byJapanese immigrants. Photos were exchanged between marriagepartners trim across the Pacific and often, although not always, thebride and groom first met each other as she disembarked in San Francisco.Since marriages were concerns of both families as well as the individuals,Sumeur le respected by all usually arranged the rituals and ceremoniesand helped the young couple. Since the Gentlemen's Agreementallowed spouses to enter the U.S. and since the marriage was legalizedwhen the brides name was entered into her husband's family register(koseki), she was entitled to rejoin' her husband as an immigrant.

Rai st oppustion insisted these women became laborers oftenworking by their husbands' sides in the fields and, in fact, manysorter did help in this way. Agitation also centered on the highbirth rate and a was claimed that the Issei women were "breedinglike rats. Of course, the birth rate was higher than the average becausealmost the entire temale Issei population was comprised of youngbrides.

Imu

11111.1111

Iapaltese pn ttiretblrilieS and their fitvibands VII()

the bati.buue of ,s estl.ni l.1,111/.1(1011 Is rattily lui lk , the All)111('S di id Nteditearaneansbeing ettottne pro. awls to till. extort (0 %VI Ilk h they 141%4. been Nontlatized and,ittalired It tlits seat hit tvitla ds.apattly tut leader ship anti fighting, should ultimatelypat. \%ith at %%mild pass %%hat %N l' nib/anon

Nfailison (,rant 1918 (Author The Passing ofthe Great Race)

Li.uuwis uu4ei The Politics of Prejudice (( opsright by the Rettc.i its of thet nisersits of alanima reprinted In permission

of the t ersity 01 ( alifornia Press.)

2018

These immigration restrictions were not merely inconveniences topeople who sought economic or political ur religious refuge in theU.S. or to their families wading for them. They were part of a generalizedattitude insisting that the U.S. was and ought to be racially definedthat whites and Europeans from Northwestern Europe at that, shouldset the basic pattern of life. It was not until 1943 that Chinese wereallowed a token annual quota of 103 and that was largely to counterJapan's arguments that WWII was a struggle between white andyellow races.

The Japanese had to wait another decade for their quota and morethan another decade. until 1965, before less restrictive immigrationreforms were instituted, %kith major efforts organized by the JapaneseAmerican Citizens league.

Barring Japanese from the U.S. was one way of dealing with the issuebarring Issei from rights to naturalization was another. Until 1870,

only those "free, white and tvventy-one" were able to become Americancitizens. In that year, Americans of African nativity had gained thatright. Surprisingly, it was not until the 1920's that American Indianswere included.

FIVE POINT PROGRAMOf I fiE

EXC (UsION LEAGUE

1 Cancellation 01 the Gentlemen s Agreement

2 Exclusion 01 NWT V' MOO

Rigorous exclusion Of Japanese as immigrants

4 Cuntuntatiun ut the policy that Aslant. s shall be forever barred nom Americancitizenship

; Amendment ut the f ederal Constitution providing that nu Link. burn in theshall be gis en the tights ut an An ter an utiren unless both parents are of a rat eeligible for c mzenslup

Daniels, Roger The Politics of Prejudice(Copyright 1%2 by The Regents of the

University of California, reprinted by the permissionof the University ot California Press.)

As 'aliens ineligible for citizenship," Japanese were subjected tonumerous acts of legal discrimination. The laws were contested by Isseito be sure. but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled, in 1922, that they wereconstitutional. Thus, all legislation using that legal doubletalk aliensineligible for citizenship" was considered constitutional even thoughthe victims were clearly identified by race the Japanese immigrants.

21

the rights privileges, and duties of akin is date! Akdely honk II lose lit t dire' is and thuselit alien tiet IdIttrtts tittit.t -Athstatititilly Now those lit uuuthtlekaut, the nitluskuu ut goodfaith &hit Imams u. Ili woke &lass 1101,'S IRA 1.111ILISt4 i:111111,1It' against

eligible aliens whit ha, e laded to Jet lark, then iiitenbuil Two classes of aliensinesitably result from the naturalization laws those who may and those who may notbecome citizens.

lerrence v Ihompson, 1922s supreme ( Out i U s 197 .1,1's ( 1 II

t81 Id 25Sutes 2

aninaign sign ads otallog passaged the /Mien tand1awt alootina

CALIFORNIA ALIEN LAND LAW

The most devasting piece of legislation in that category alined atthe Issei was the Webb Act, passed by the California legislatureeffective in 1913. That act prohibited aliens ineligible for citizenshipfrom purchasing land or leasing for longer than three years. It wasdesigned to keep Issei labor but to prevent them from becominglandowners and settling here in the U.S. Land was critical but not theonly means of earning a liv aloud. Issei worked as shoemakers, bathhouse proprietors, laundry owners, restaurant owners, tailurs;dress-makers, barbers, labor contractors and confectionary shop merchants.Issei helpled fashion a thriving fishing industry on the West Coast fromports in Monterey, California, San Pedro (Terminal Island), California,and San Diego, California.

In the 1920's and 1930's, bills to prohibit "aliens ineligible for citizen-ship' twin owning commercial fishing boats were regularly introduced.the fishermen spent untold thousands of dollars to lobby against thesebills and, probably, paid what mounted to extortion to legislators tokeep them from being enacted. Later, during WWII, California did passsuch a law although it, like the Alien Land Law, was declared unconstitutional in the 1950's. (See Takahashi v. Fish and Game Commission(334 U.S. 410, 1948] and Oyama v. California (332 U.S. 633, 1948J.)

2220

Anti-miscegenation laws also aimed at preventing the formation utJapanese American communities since immigration was blocked,natural reproduction (even of -mixed bloods") was the only meansof perpetuation other than the limited number of illegal aliens jumpingship or risking their lives in crossing the Canadian and Mexican borders.In a general sense, then, and in spite of some white Americans whocourageously supported Japanese rights, American society saw theIssei as an exploitable labor force but as a threat whenever thebounds of that role were "overstepped."

CULTURAL ROOTS: A SOURCE OF STRENGTH

In every gray hair,In every Wrinkled featureIssei in AmericaConfide dark, secret hardshipsAnd pains or days gone by'

Proud to have black hairthe coming generationWear this cam n of sable strength!

ho, Kazuo. Issei(Reprinted %sith permission of the author)

It is interesting to note that when contemporary writers and socialscientists speak of the Japanese American experience, they tend tofocus un cultural values which sustained the Issei through difficult times.

In resisting racism against overwhelming power, virtues clusteredaround concepts like enryo (restraint) and gaman or shinbo (perseverancein adversity) or shikata ga nai (fatalism or resignation in the face of theinevitable.)These terms are difficult to translate properly but it is important to

discuss these values without adding to the stereotyped views vv hichexist. Early stereotypes depicted Japanese as a savage, vicious,pen:" sometimes with a measure of repect for (and tear of) Japanesecourage and stamina. In later year, that stereotype was replaced withan image of sly, treacherous, patient and fatalistic people. Enryo andshikata ga nai have been depicted, in more recent times, as culturalvalues central to the Issei and Nisei to help explain the generallyreserved Japanese American community. It may be fair to say that theyare important values indeed, more humility and less arrogant e couldbe used by the rest of American society. What is important here is 1.9understand that having a proper sense of restraint and wisdom inacknowledging the inevitable did not mean the Issei were a passivegroup. Their immidiate heritage included the dynamics of culturesin conflict (West vs. Japan) as well as a tenacious and vigorous traditionof revolts in Japan at the village and town levels. In designing a strategy

21 23

to survive in a hostile society, the Issei dal emphasize the virtue ofrestraint given their lack of numbers and power. Loyalty and responsi-bility to the group other Japanese were expressed in terms likeon, gimu and girl which detine the unwritten social or mural contractbinding the immigrants together and affording them a measure ofsecurity. The social structure they had lett, and which they partiallyrecreated was based oil traditional lines of dependence along hierarchival linesthat is, people worked more smoothly when it wasclear which ones ranked above or below the accepted the obligationson all involved.

Tile sense of shame was used as a sat iitiuri against behavior detrimentalto the group thus wayward children were.admonished that their actionswere hazukashii (embarrasing) and would incur haji (shame) in the eyesof others This is the aspect of Japanese culture su oversimplified andridiculed in the patronizing translation to lose face. To understandthese forces, it is important to reniember the difficulties laced by thesemen and women.

t I )a

!IL

41.4/

\rrIac iwertit. mtttrthhnpittutebridetJura »ruedhnnnrhttibuturesS Ivlu

THE EVOLUTION OF JAPANESE COMMUNITIES

like other immigrant groups, the Japanese chose to bold a placefor then iselv es and their children. Some were Christians, dedicatedto the Amerkanong influences of the Church as well as the theologyut (impassion. A number had been ( (inverted while in Japan, whilemany more were introduced to the Church as a result of social serviceactivities such as English language lessons and child care facilities. Intai t. Christian Japanese congregations were begun in the L.S. about adecade betore Buddhist priests were sent from Japan at the turn of thecentury. (here were (and, to a lesser extent, still remain) importantdifferences between Christian and Buddhist segments of Japanesecommunities.

2422

In general it may be said that Buddhists retain c loser ties with moretae ets ut Japanese t ulture !heft' IS a telldent y to equate an-izatum with the adoption of Christianity and this breath of religioustolerance has created tiitfit ulues. One re( ent example was the 1975protest generated over the appointment of a Buddhist priest to theceremonial task of ministeruig to the Caluornia State senate.

I he Issei early established their own publication to inform theircommunity and others and to create their own literature." A mimeo-graphed papaer, Shinonome (Dawn), was published in 1886 in SanFranc is«), California but was short liYed. Many others tollowed InHaw an and the Pacific ( oast clues as %%ell as in Utah and Coloradowhere smaller «mununmes existed. Ethnic newspapers continue topublish usually in Japanese and English sections to serve a largerommunity Since most of the Nisei and Sansei do not read Japanese,

the re«>nt immigrants are replac mg the Issei reados.I he most important organizations were the Japanese Associations

wiuc h pm\ ided bask political directions to the various c ommunmes.At tunes, they acted in cooperation with the Japanese (GtA4111111011 assemi omnal ' )dies, looking attet the interest of Japatiese subjects,but sometinies found that their interests c (milk ted with those of theruling parties in I okyo.

lo the Japanese go eminent, the Japaiit's(' in America were primarilyimportant as one of many factors in the complex relationship betweennations. Not scupnsingly, therefore, the Issei sometimes telt themselvesisolated fit Illt.aningtul official protection from either Japan or the U.S.

!here were other organizations such as those based on regionalorigins in Japan Prete, tural (keit similar to states as geographic al andpolitical units) links were important arid these kenjinkai provided basicsocial and econonik contacts for the in in ugrant s. In sonic' Ube wherethere were numerous Japanese from lint' prefecture as, fur example,those tram IliroJunla in Hawaii or trom akayama on lemma'Island in los Angeles. Colitt Irma, there were «runty or even villageassoc lath ins Mese organizatk k n, also sr utile! ',pl.(groups sok h as the tanomoshi or rotataig t redit association Iron) whit hmembers «mid In lot or u i turn. ref env enough capital to help starta busincss ik get Out a imam ial c Fists

25

THE NISEI: THE SECOND GENERATION

For the lssei, the education and socialization of the Nisei was a majorchallenge in a land which did not vvelcome_them and which, con-ceivably, could force all "back' to Japan.

thiiik that niy father teased that he ss as going to lose his doldren to the is ays of thistummy and he tried to hold us dus.sil as niuth ashy tuuhf 110 Ile% vr niddv an attemptto understand us and he diskoui ALIT the Amentanizabon influent_es that we C. ere undergoo ig at %l 11001 II' e. as so t uululeul t hat us 0 is ould 11%441 to all of his teathings abut ees or!. thing else but it didn t is ork out that stay

Male Nisei, from The Salvage(Copyright 1962 by The Regents of the

University of California, reprinted by permissionof the University of California Press.)

Such an eventuality necessitated an upbringing which included thelanguage and culture of Japan and so many Nisei were sent, sometimesunwillingly, to Japanese language schools after their "regular" schoolsand on Saturdays. These schools became an additional target of thoseAmericans who saw Americanization as synonymous with eradicationof any non-Anglo heritage. The issue became a heated one, arguedamong the lssei themselves, and eventually reached the U.S. SupremeCourt where the cause espoused by the crusading editor of a Japaneselanguage paper in Haw au, Makino hinzaburo, was won and secured theexistence of these schools.

Bet. Mist. of the Japai lest: ski loul, 1 began to hate all of the suit t things that they had 111Japan and I didn t think I %%mild es ei like to hie there if I had to tolluss all the things ourteat hers taught us we had to buss to the teat hers no matter %slide we met and speaklust so

Male Nisei agricultural student, from The Salvage(Copyright c 1962 by the Regents of the

University of California; reprinted by permissionof the University of California Press,)

Inevitably, however, the Nisei themselves were caught in tremendouspressures to conform to a white dominated society. One editorialcomment in The Rafu Shimpo (Los Angeles bilingual daily) of Janary 24,1932 deplored this wholesale rejection of the heritage:

%%0 need to 11110%.% 001 faith 10 ow 14/41110V ai it 0%t1) %Lill} An lent MIS are surprisedat the Ament.anization of the Japanese young people They has hopes for us to du moththat is tar abuse that whith middy of them hate act_oniplished betause they fed that%se hate the ads antages ut the two cultuius Hurl pessimism, is um attitude ut turnpausoii to theirs,' we take the lA1011/10111011 0t tultius as injurious to 0111 progress.1 e tis to 11.th out %%I WV% Is of all' 1411.4100SC u I 0% II ISRVI,I of 1./SW[10g its develop

merit Mid on top of that VW take on intlistmirm old), that Muth our is ester' environmentotters Tou utten it is that Muth the god of fashion flings to us, such as smoking for%%omen Is it our wish to be mediocre or to try to get below that(

26 24

414

Of course the writer of that editorial neglected the fact the those"more Optimistic" Americans were few and far between or that it wasan economic reality, Like in other immigrant groups, it was oftenregarded that efforts devoted to Japanese culture might be injuriousto material progress. But perhaps there is a price the Nisei paid whichhas not yet been calculated. This is a generation currently in their50's and 60's on the threshold of retirement and old age conditionsnot generoulsy treated in modern America and the lack of Japanesecultural underpinnings due to pressures to conform may become anadditional source of social and psychological problems for the NiA,

Not all Nisei were indiscriminate -Americanizers. Some were sentto Japan to receive a Japanese education and these Kibei (literally, thosewho ''returned to America ") often found themselves rejected as too"Japanesey" by their Nisei peers. The Kibei experience has not beenexplored Cully in spite of its importance. It may be that these youngpeople, returning to the U.S. in the 1930's. were ostracized as unsubtlereminders of the heritage Nisei were so anxious to discard.

In many cases Kibei had received an ultra-nationalist education inJapan of the late 1920's and early 1930's when fascism was on the rise,but there were others who, like Karl Yoneda and James Oda, returnedto join the Communist Party in opposition. Leftist causes were generallyunpopular among the Japanese Issei as well as Nisei partly becauseboth Japan and the U.S. were becoming increasingly repressive towardprogressive moY ements. b, en the Nisei found cause to justify, if notcelebrate, Japanese military successes in the 1930's.

By the 1920's, older Nisei began to assert their ability to provide leader-ship and decided to form their own (AIL organization. The earliest suchgroups were called the Amen( at: Loyalty League forerunner of thecurrent national. organization, the Japanese American Citizens league(JACL) established in 1930, Since discrimination was blatant andrampant in that period, the Japanese American Citizens League workedto protect the rights of Issei in regard to the Alien Land Law and to seeknaturalization rights and thereby secure citizenship fur the Issei. TheJapanese Anitiffan Citizens League moved in two directions simul-taneously, to convince white society that the Nisei were acceptable(hence emphasis on "loyalty- and 'citizen- in speeches and titles) andto educate themselves and other Nisei about their rights and selfimprovement.'

I in ;maid that l our an Ann'nidi uUnvn nit Iapanese din (.41 kg 1111 terl hat kground makes me appreciate MOW wily the ysondertul adsantages of this Nation I

believe in her institutions, ideals and traditions I glory di her heritage, I boast of herhistory I trust in her future She has granted ne liberties and opportunities such as noindividual enjoys in this ys odd today She has given me an edutation befitting kingsshe has entrusted RR! shin it flSpthiStiltiltit'S of the ltatil illSe Slte has permitted me tobuild a home to earn a hefiliood ii tsorsImp (twit speak and do t as I please-as a treeman equal to every other man

25

27

Altiunigh some Klisiduals flay distilinniate against me. I shall never became bitteror low faith, ha I know that sut b persons are not repiesentative of the majority of the

American people f iue I shall du all uk my [tosser to dist.uurage such prances, but Ishall do it in the Amenctni %say above boat d, in the open through courts of lass, byethic, anon by posing myself to be tsurthy ul equal treatment am/consideration I amlift" lit ms belief that Amok. di i sPutbnial Ishii) and attitude of fair play writ fudgeutrrenship and patriotism on the basis of auUuu and achievement, and not on the basis ofphysit al charts'. tensticsBecause I hibliese ut Amen, a, and I trust she believes Hi n re, and be tause I have received

Innumerable benefits now her I pledge IllySeit to du ho,tor to her at all times and allplat es to summit her c. onstitutioi I to obey but ;ass s, to respect her flag, to defend heragainst all enemies toleigt1 and d011itbStil, to a tivth, assume my duties and obligationsas a citizen t heeittillc al td isrtilout alfy reWfatiolliS ishatsueser, ut the hope that f maybet unto a better American in a greater America

THE MASS EVACUATION OF PERSONS OFJAPANESE ANCESTRY

Things like being a loyal Amenkan and all that stuff nes er affected me before the ssarI itist took it for granted that I came trunk a Japanese home but I thought I is as American

enoughbecause of lily a pool kolltat is I &Ili t h1101% anything about politics and Issas atssays proud of hying in the best t olintry ur the ss odd even though lily folksstressed japan once in a While I lust took it MI granted that certain parts of me WereJapanese and the rest American

NBC' student, The Salvageopynght = 1962 by the Regents of the

tilversity 01 California reprinted by permissionof the University of Cahtornia Press.)

suits issoant e of keoltge onto (Kki't Japanese and Japanese Americans hadIttle t Mut e but to butuedts pat k Melt most needed possessmns and welfaregibe mat timed 1442

2826

[here are shelves full of books, articles and reports un the cur icentratiuricamp experience it rs undoubtedly the must extensively written aboutperiod in Japanese American history To that extent as well as for otherreasons, it is most difficult to recapture in limited space and time. Eventhe basic facts are extremely involved. On December 7, 1941 the FBIbegan to take into custody those Issei community leaders it had hadunder surveillance fur sonic months as potentially dangerous. Includedwere business leaders, Japanese language teachers, instructors ofmartial arts such as judo and kendu (Japanese lei icing), Buddhist priests,ex Japanese Army veterans (including some in their 70's who had foughtin the 1894 93 Sinu Japanese War) and fishermen on 1erminal Island,Los Angeles, California, who were suspect because their pioneeringefforts in tuna fishing necessitated extensive coastal maps and shortwave radio, sophisticated equipment was crucial to the industry. Fishingtleets ranged from northern California to waters south of Mexico inorder to supply the canneries fur exclusively commercial reasons.

ti

rk% 4MIIC1r.,'`.11

r44.2.11

of the mat4 ..«bnes (luring the ewmation in felnuary of 1912

These Issei and a few Nisei like Togo Tanaka, then a recent UCLAgranduate. who worked as English language editor of the Los AngelesRafu Shimpo, were detained for periods ranging from clays to monthsbefore their families were informed and before interrogation andhearings were held Interestingly, a handful of these men, mostly aliensineligible for citizenship, were provided individual hearings to try to"prove" their innocence. Later, the rest-of the Japanese two

/Ca

27

thirds Amencan-burn Nisei were (Adulated en masse with no hearingsof any kind The first group ut Issei arrested were sent to what weretermed "internment camps in places like Missoula, Montana, Lordsburg,New Mexico. Santa Fe, New Mexico, Livingston, Louisiana, and CrystalCity, Texas where their families sometimes Joined them.

On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order9066 which authorized the Secretary of War to designate certainmilitary areas and exclude any and all persons of Japanese ancestry(alien and nun-alien alike) float them. Then the military, politicians likeMayor Bow ron in Los Angelcs and California Attorney General CarlWarren and columnists like Walter Lippman were urging the evacuation

citing as proof of the great danger, the fact that not a single case ofsabotage or espionage had been uncovered. The Japanese in Americawere, presumably, su tightly organized and disciplined that they weremerely awaiting the proper time to unleash their treachery. With fewexceptions, an entire nation ut people succumbed to racist stereotypesof this yellow peril" and determined that democratic principles neednot apply to the Japanese Americans.

....-.........-.........."7,, , ,ii,,,E.

....14t0.4' Vi7 ...i'-.64.,....,_ .. - ..... . .!i it gitit, and guani lo,A.,111,11 all tiii/Pl ,P% lTV au oillitittus sight to ttI ttiSpiat rd 1,1111114

Consequently, aliens and citizens of Japanese ancestry were sent toID relocation centers 111 areas which were invariably subject toextremes in weather. From spring, 1942 into the autumn of that year,Japanese Americans were sent to assembly centers," hastily conflictedbarracks on race tracks like Santa Anita, California or lantoran, Californiaor state fair grounds, and then to the concentration camps in the interior.

30 28

Herd em up pads rvn off and give diem the inside room of the badlands Let em bepinched hurt hungry and dead up against it

Henry Mct more, S f Ixamtner, January 19-12Daniels, Roger The Politics of Prejudice

( opynght 1%2 by The Regents of theUniversity of California, reprinted by pernassion

of the University of California Press )

I

Betore being sent to the main tamps families ss ere moved to temporary assemblyc enters at fairgrounds and rat e tracks in California

Among non-Japanese today, the general reaction to the campsranges from guilt to defensive support using arguments of militarynecessity or protection for the Japanese. It was dear, to the militaryat least, that any Japanese capability of landing an invasion force on thePacific Coast had vanished with the June, 1942 midway engagement thatdestroyed the Japanese Navy's attack capacity. Even in the immediateaftermath of Pearl Harbor, J. Edgar Hoover insisted that his FBI prepa-rations made mass evacuation unnecessary.

For a month or so even newspapers called for reasonable treatmentof the Japanese Americans. And of course the Hawaiian JapaneseAmericans in Hawaii, 2,000 miles closer to Japan and comprising onethird of the population, were never evacuated although individualcommunity, religious and business leaders were assembled and shippedto the mainland Lamps Authorities in Hawaii feared the economic andstrategic disruption of a general evacuation and turned, instead, to theimposition of martial law over the entire Territory. Pressures un themainland were more intense and irrational.

Personal reactions to the evacuation of approximately 110,000Japanese Issei and Nisei from West Coast homes to hastily constructedcamps are revealing. Even three decades after the fact, both Japanese

and non-Japanese Americans insist that the 1942 actions formed anhistorical watershed in the history of Japanese in the U.S. but disagree,sometimes violently, as to the proper interpretation of that period.

2431

1 thought tli.at the Nisei had 110 .haute anyway they Itimed, Japan really Jun t want usand Ibis iountiy dot it wait us either, I dun t give a damn oho wins the war lust su theydun t bother me But we are getting the lao, deal As lung as I look like a lap theymake iia act like one hoer it 1 want to be a guud Arrow air, they think Urn supposedto At like a lap al id they don t want to give me a chance They think I am inferior

Nisei errand boy, 1942, from The Salvage(Copyright 1962 by The Regents of the

University of California, reprinted by permissionof the University of California Press.)

In dos solonn huur we pledge uur fullest cooperation to y uu, Mr. President, and to uurtowitry There kannut be ally question. There must be no doubt. We, our hearts, areAmerican r loyal to America. We must prove that to all of you."

telegram to President Roosevelt, 12, 7l42from Japanese American Citizens league

( )pen hay barracks hong quarters at camp,

CHALLENGING THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THEEVACUATION

Several major challenges to the constitutionality of this process weremade by Nisei and a few sympathetic attorneys from the AmericanCivil Liberties Union and groups like the Quakers and Black Muslims.The first cases involved Cordon Hirabayashi of Seattle, Washington andMinoru Yasut of Hood River, Oregon. Hirabayashi had already becomea Quaker and a conscientious objector. In addition to defying thecurfew, he refused to report to the Civilian Control Station to registerfor the evacuation from the designated military area. Hirabayashi was

32 30

semen( ed. served out a sentence and the U.5U.S Supreme Court ruledthat his conviction was constitutional. Minoru lases, Lieutenant of the

5, Army Reserse, graduate of the liniyersity of Oregon law school in19 39 and employee of the Japanese Consulate in Chicago untilDecember 7, 1941, defied the curfew. In Portland, Oregon, after beingunfairly ousted by the U.S. Army, Yasut was determined to challengemilitary authority He demanded to be arrested for yiulation ut thecurlew Yasut was convicted and the Supreme Court upheld themilitary authority to enforce curfews upon citizens without declaration01 martial law,

basted 1111 I. Ob. /I did dill lStly are utttvlti Ilk I HISISIIII II with out traditions andideals They are at variant a- with the prii II, 44(.4, 110 who ti ve mellow v aging war (\ a.

1 (WI it it LIOSe 1/ail eyes lit the iat t that Sol a el itunes the Uld \Amid thiSt./(411 torn by racialanal rr ligious. a walk ts and has suites ed the as urst natd art at,guish het Jose tit inequalityit treatment tor daterent groups Ilime was one law for one and a ditterent law for

another Ni alung is wntttu more hauls situ sm. laws than the (ompa( t of the Plymouth,,,,,,agers to have lust aid equal laws It) Id), dart any group aaruwt he HSSIIIIILII(11 IS todahlia that the great Arriesitaii expel in RI it has tailed, that our way of lite has tailed whent,Iitnaaed o ath tit, a tumid! and( hung it of t ertaili groups to tile lands of their forefathers

A, a lima al we en ibid., e many grisule. III E111.111 :1111011e, the oldest settlementsItl a Ata maa,t wrath hate isolated tliemsela es for religious and ( Aural reasonsI/KIY IS the rust time XA tar .15 I dill await, that ave have sustained a substantial restriction

a at the personal liberty tit (itizeris sat the 1 s based upon the si((ident of rat as tit ancestryIncur e frank \turphs

s I firabayashi 12013 s 81 144U.S. v. Korematsu

In California, Fred kurcinatsti hoped to avoid the eyacuatton inlandand tiled suit to challenge the constitutionality of the process itself,His case also reached the U.S, Supreme Court which, by a 6.3 maturity,der ided that the military you'd indeed mow citizens about on thebasis 01 race in time of war. Justice Frank Murphy, in his dissentingopirli called the clyision a legalization of racism and Justice Robertlay ks, in deplored the highest Court s yalidattun of the principle of racialdisc umination In criminal procedure and of transplanting Americandozens The pony iple then lies about like a loaded weapon ready for

the hand of any authority that cant bring tom aryl a plausible claim ofurgent need;

f dissent therefore nom this legalization tit racism Raid' OS( rminatton al any formand iii any degree has no lustiliable part .whatsuev en in our demociatis way of lite It isunattrattise in any setting but it as utterly retailing an rung free pem,li who haveernbrawd the prim iples set ford in the ( (institution of the United Mato, All 'Twangstit this station are kin in some way In blond III a ulnae to a foreign task! Yet trim areprimarily and net (SSAINN a part tit the uess ailst distant t mill/anon ail the ( rated statesIre, must ai t orda igL la treated .at all times as dl 111,41s of the Amen( all experimentae as entitled to all the rights and tredom. guaranteed in the ( anistitution

Its5taa efrank \lurph'iI s s Kure:must, 12111s 214 1 9.1.1

i1 33

to hell ulth habeus corpus until the danger is overWestbrook Pegler 1942

(Bos%%orth, America's Concentration Camps)

A third case tried by the U.S. Supreme Court was a habeas corpuspetition filed on behalf of Mitsuye Endo. In her case the Court orderedher release from the custody of the War Relocation Authority, theciS han bureau created to administer the l() camps. As an admittedlyloyal citizen, she would be free to travel as she pleased. In sum, then,legal precedent tells us that the government, whenever it declares anemergency, can remove us from our homes and prohibit us fromcertain areas all on the basis of race. In spite of the Endo decision,the act of the mass evacuation of persons of Japanese ancestry wasand is still considered legal and constitutional.

I join in the 010111011 Oi the t unit but I an lA the 'less that dotenuun nr Relocationlectors ut persurisul fIptil IOW JntCAIV regardless of loyalty Is 110( os6 Unauthorized

c.ungiess or the bus, calve but is aitutlier VXIIIIIpIt ut tilt Wit 011SfaUflOndi resort toracism 111110(1d ii the elitii0 uaLuattun program As stated more Wily III my dissentingopinion w Fred Tosusabwo korentatsu s L. itod states, ratral discrimination ot thisnature heals nu wasiaiable relation to iliditdo uetessity and Is utterly rump to theideals and traditions ot the American people

Justice Frank Murphy12 U.S 281 1944

The constitutional issues, although perhaps the most important, werenot necessarily the ones uppermost in the minds of the Japanese.There were economic considerations business, homes, possessionsof all types from mementoes to automobiles and commercial fishingboats which were lost. Land was escheated or defaulted most of itin areas which, after WWII, became immensely valuable as centers ofurban and suburban growth. A far too conservative governmentestimate put evacuee losses at about 5400 million. A good deal of thepressure to remove the Japanese, especially from rural areas, had comefrom white farmer and landholding groups such as the Farm Bureauand the Grange.

We w Charged %%all %%Jilting to get rid of the laps for selfish reasons. We might asis, ell be honest We du It s a question ut tthether tlw Mute man lives on the Pacific

uric Of the bruuailma 111VN I, an le into ails valley to uurk and they stayed to take userAustin Anson, (4°m/elShipper

Vegetable Association of Central Californiafrom The Saturday Evening Post, May 9,1942

Conran, Executive Order 9066(Reprinted by permission of

The California Historical Society.)

3432

A SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVES: LOYALTY OR DISSENT?

In the camps, inmates were paid from $12 to $19 per month for jobsranging from laborers to doctors. Those salaries made it impossible tomaintain mortgage and other payments through the war. The averageNisei was about 19 years old so the economic implications were lesscritical although students of all levels found their educations disrupted.Family life was disrupted not least because barracks style quarters

and mess hall meals made family life difficult to maintain. In mostcases, the traditional Japanese and American pattern of male-father-breadwinner was turned on its head with citizen children and wivessecuring iobs that paid more. In any case, the warfare-welfare mainte-ance did not encourage a strong sense of responsibility or initiative.In spite of these conditions, many evacuees responded with a greatdeal of leadership, work and foresight. Hospitals were administered,classes were taught, skills learned and issues debated as the inmatepopulation tried to look to the future.

The celebrated 442nd Regimental Combat Team, largely recruitedfrom Nisei behind barbed wire of camps and the 100th Battalion fromHawaii became the most decorated units in U.S. Army history whileother Nisei went to prison as draft resisters, arguing that they wouldnot go into combat until the liberties being systematically denied themand their families were restored.

IIIPANE(1"14".._-441101AM,c: ""Ill 1.. feAw.,,,,,.. v..A

11116...Z. "NM" N "di 4. C r

.. ' .-1Nrcr . _, 4

k: ''t J

In Nan Japanese tor EquafaN and sec way dernonsttated in New York Crty lotIssei rouralitation tights

353

Fron,lather to Son Journey to Washington One Sunday in December

On is at the v ery heart ut Japanese cohorts! On requires that ,,vheii one t Jai' is aidedby another he illlUIS a debt that is never cancelled, one that must be repaid at everyopportunity without stint ur reset The Inucty es have great on tut America ,

It has been good to us, And Clow I ,a mild never have chosen it to be this way it Is youwho must try to retuoi the goodness of this country If it is necessary. you must beready to to .

I know Papa, I understand.The Honorable Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawati. 1942

How, then, do we make sense of this seemingly incredible part ofAmerican history? Was it a regrettable but necessary part of a nation'sstruggle for survival or an aberration a flaw in an otherwise democratictradition? Or is it part and parcel of a long tradition of systematicoppression of poor and minority groups Blacks in slavery, Indianson reservations, Latinos in barrios, and Whites in Appalachia? Theanswer to these questions rest largely on our interpretation of the lastthree decades of Japanese Americans history and the probable futureof Japanese Americans in the U.S. and world race relations.

Even before the end of WWII, the War Relocation Authority headedby anion Myer had urged the relocation' of Japanese from the inlandcamps. This was a major Job because of die-hard racists who urgeddeportation (of both alien and citizen) to Japan or perpetual reservation-like futures for the evacuees. One measure in Congress, which nearlypassed, even called for the sterilization of all females to preventreproduction of the entire ethnic group! Residents of areas into whichJapanese Americans tried to move (including their old neighborhoods)sometimes resorted to dynamite and shotguns to keep them away whileothers worked to smooth the difficult adjustment. Reports of earlydifficulties reached inmates and there was some reluctance to leave thebarbed wire enclosures. It was not until 1946, in fact, that the last of thecamps were dismantled, and individuals allowed to leave and attemptto rebuild their lives. These conditions, in addition to the armed guardsin watchtowers with searchlights and the lack of basic human:civil rightsjustify the term concentration camps although no one suggests thatthe American version rivals WWII Nazi attempts to exterminate Jews,gypsies and political dissidents.

There are some analogies, however, and those vv hich relate to effectson the victims are worth noting. The first is the misleading but wide-spead belief that Jews and Japanese marched silently and stoically, totheir fates unresisting, passive victims of fate. Recent researchmakes clear the widespread and varied forms of action (or inaction, even)adopted by both groups to deny their captors the ultimate victory ofcontrol over their very will to live and help shape their own lives. So,

36 34

in the case of the Japanese, strikes against living and working conditionstook place and riots flared into violence in several instances. Moresignificant and sustained was the refusal to participate in civic activitiesalthough, initially for most of the camps, the Issei were denied thoserights. On the other hand, these camps became arenas in which JapaneseAmericans were (aside from the white guards and administrators) theentire community and not small minorities. They ran the entire gamutfor valedictorian to yogore or young "tough," labor leader to entrepreneurand aspiring politician to disgruntled cynic. Nominal participation todayby Nisei and Sansei may stem as much from a strategy designed topreempt anti-Japanese sentiment by aligning with other interest groupsas from a desire to contribute to thedirections and policies to be adopted.

there is, in short, a legacy of passion and struggle inherent in theconcentration camp experience but the majority of Nisei, or at leastthose who have assumed leadership, have adopted a strategy ofminimizing its importance. This tendency may be changing in a periodwhen ethnicity and ethnic heritage are becoming more 'legitimate."There is a movement, presently, to urge passage of national legislationproviding reparations or compensation to Japanese Americans for theirincarceration during World War II. There are many, however, who arestill reluctant to discuss their experience even with their own children.Some observers believe that one reason is the generalized responseof victims to blame themselves like rape victims when society ishostile or suspicious of them. In many cases, the strategy has been toreduce uncomfortable barriers, like the past, to promote harmony.

An NB( reporter asked (Jim Matsuuka), How many people are buried here in the(Mantanar (ont entration Lamp) t ometary?' and he said, A %%hole generation. A wholegeneration of Japanese who are now so frightened that they will nut talk. They re quietAment ans, littn, re all buried here.

Sue kunitonu Embrey on Art !Jansen and BettyMutson,Voices Long Silent, 1974

There can be no doubt that post WWII material progress has beenimpressive for Japanese in America. Most socio-economic indices pointthis out in education, occupation and income levels. Particularlyimportant advances, through the legislature and judiciary, were madein the 1950's when the Issei gained the right to naturalization thusending their status as "aliens as ineligible for citizenship." Anti-miscegenation regulations were removed and the courts upheld theright of the Issei to own land and engage in commerical fishing. In theseparticular battles, the leadership of individuals such as Sab Kido, ThomasYatabe, Mike Ntasaoka of the Japanese American Citizens League wasarduous but successful in securing rights for the Issei and Nisei. Moreprofessional and business occupations opened up particularly in thescience and technology fields where expertise is more readily quann-

_ 37

tiable and less liable to race prejudice. Residential patterns changedas Nisei tougnt restrictive covenants barring Japanese from whiteneighborhoods. These were trying years for the Issei who wererebuilding their lives and for the Nisei who were creating theirs._How, then, should we understand the process of development fromconcentration camp to middle class in one or two decades? It is temptingto rely on explanations which stress the energies, talents and persever-ance of the Japanese American but this clearly will not suffice unless

we assume that the pre-war Issei and Nisei lacked these attributes Oneapproach begins by describing the concrete realities of post-MA/II U Ssociety as the context within which the Issei and Nisei had to struggle.

The war hackdone much to accelerate shifts in traditional race relations.A major difference was the increased migration of Blacks, Chicanosfrom the South and rural areas to the North, West, and cities wheredefense jobs awaited workers. On the West Coast, these coloredminorities began to replace the Japanese and other Asians as themajor 'problem.' In comparison to Blacks, especially, the Nisei appearedless threatening to white society. Perhaps more important was thegeneral economic upswing for which the Nisei were unusually well-prepared. This was particularly true in the scientific and technical fieldsbut also in the service and teaching areas.

Another dimension, also beyond the immediate control of theJapanese American, was the changing role of Japan in U.S. worldpolicy. Until 1945 the Japanese had been depicted as brutal, sneakysavages atter 1945 as a nation to be occupied and "rehabilitated"along democratic, Western, lines. Until 1949, the U.S. deliberately keptthe Japanese economy and military weak, permitting labor unions togrow powerful and the cartels, the zaibatsu, to be deemphasized Butin 1949 the Chinese revolution culminated in the establishment of the

Peoples Republic and the withdrawal of Chiang Kaishek's Nationaliststo Taiwan. Then, in 1950, the war between North and South Koreabroke out. These international challenges to American supremacy inEast Asia made Japan a critical ally in fact, the U.S. still maintains about300 military installations there. In rapid succession, American occupationauthorities clamped down on the labor movement, encouraged thezaibatsu to resume economic activity and control, and began promotinga more positive image of Japan. As a result, Japanese Americans alsobenefitted from this improvement between the two Pacific allies.

Domestic race relations and foreign policy shifts decisively influencedthe treatment of Japanese Americans in the 1945 1950 period, how-ever, the individual and collective skill and courage of the lssei andNisei should not be underestimated. Again. however, it must be saidthat the efforts of the Japanese Americans cannot, in and of themselves,explain their relative success." It is particularly important to stress thispoint since the ethnic Horatio Alger" model minority stereotype isbased upon the misleading assumption that determined tugs on thebootstraps are sufficient to raise the socio economic level to entire

3836

minority groups. I his line of ieasoning makes it a simple matter todeduce that those groups which continue in relative poverty are themselves to blane for not trying hard enough. This, in turn, leads to theofficial policy of the benign neglect of oppressed minorities a

polity which pits race against race and workers against workers bytaxing some to support others

.1Sanseil.ourmstea thouttlittuils perusing the st ene from atop her father s shuulders

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

If it a essental to understand the development of Japanese Americanhistory in a proper cunte,st, so is it critical to understand the present andorobable tuture in the same way. Since the world itself was the arenain the past, the same but rapidly shrinking" world is what we need tosee. the most striking development is the rapid dismantling of theEuropean empires and the emergence ut the Soviet Union to challengethe U S. as a second super power. Former colonies in Asia, the MiddleEast. Latin America, and Africa have become important forces knowncollectively as the third World. The example of China, in particular, hashad profound repercussions throughout the world.

Albeit oversimplified, one major point is the shift in the global political-eLunomic balance of power from capitalist to socialist-communistorientations. Immediate consequences may be seen in the reducedability of Western corporations (e.g., oil and agriculture) to extract superprotits from rhird World countries. As a result, the American publicis generally squeezed for higher taxes and prices while real wagesand service are reduced. Japanese American, like most otherAmericans, are affected by these trends since very few are not wageearners.

37. 39

Another general development is the increase in domestic liberationmovements feminist, gay, gray, youth and ethnic. Japanese Americansfit into all such categories and the dilemmas are pointed and plentiful.It might seem strange to note the active participation of this 'successfulminority" in all such movements unless that concept itself is challenged.One key is the shifting of questions posed. Previous generations, withnotable exceptions, argued over the best strategies for assimilatingwhereas, increasingly, the questions are. what is it we are trying toassimilate into and what kind of society can we help create?

Recent trends among various American ethnic groups have helpedclarify these issues, particularly by emphasizing pride in their cultu.-9sand hentages. Implicit in these trends is a reformulation of what it meansto be 'American.- In the past most Japanese, including both Issei andNisei, accepted the White Anglo-Saxon Protestant norm as "given."Most may still accept this, as may the Sansei and fourth generation,Yonsei. But, increasingly, the old norms are breaking down and JapaneseAmericans find it impossible to avoid the problem of resolving con-tradictory attitudes and feelings.

U.S.JAPAN RELATIONS IN INTERNATIONALPOLITICS AND ECONOMICS

One such example is the new U.S. Japan relationship. Perhaps themajor "lesson" from the concentration camp experftce was the dangerof association with Japan. For several decades now, Japanese Americanshave avoided that identification and still do, especially on occasionswhen tensions mount. And yet, in this era of ethnic pride, there is arenewed sense of identity with the culture and economic proficiencyof Japan. It is important to encourage pride in one's heritage butdangerous to assume that uncritical pride in a ra.e or nation will beany healthier than the negative self image the new movements aretrying to supplant. Contemporary Japan finds itself beset by problemsbequeathed by its tradition racism directed at the Korean and Amuminorities, discrimination and exploitation of Okinawans, industrialpollution of such magnitude that it dwarfs the U.S. version, corporateand official governmental mows to export jobs and exportation ofpolluting plants to other Asian countries.

As with American society, then, Japanese Americans must as thermselves what it is about Japan that they admire. !here are aimirablequalities.

4038

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES

At home, iii the U 5., employment, promotion and working conditionsconcern Japanese Americans who find that prejudice and discriminationdid not end in 1950. Alienation at work is a major problem for thosewho find that the dictates of,the economy prevent satisfaction in seeingto a job well done or producing a socially useful product. Nisei farmers,for example, point to the control exercised by giant agribusinessconcerns v% hich order the planting of specific types of tomatoes whichpack and ship well, but one lacking in taste.

THE ELDERLY

Nisei and Sansei see the aged and aging being cast aside by Americansociety as unproductive and, therefore, "valueless", in many casesbecause younger (and cheaper) labor has replaced them. For the Isseiaging is a doubly painful process since so many are non-English speakingand often isolated in both physical and cultural terms from the balanceof society. To alleviate this isolation, small groups have formed toprovide social services, recreational and cultural activities for theIssei In major cities such as Los Angeles, Sacramento, San Francisco,Fresno, Stockton, San Jose, Seattle, Denver, Portland and Spokanethese groups have organized health fairs with volunteer medical aid,translation and counseling services, outings and hot meal programs aswell as task forces to protect Issei rights to decent housing.

Ail

414Issei and Nisei getting together for a summertime picnic,

4139..

REDEVELOPMENT/URBAN RENEWAL

For sonic of the Issei, home is a cheap hotel room in the Nihonmachior Li I Tokyo or Japantown of a metropolitan area. As with otherurban areas, however, these sites are being designated as slums andbeing redeveloped fur commercial purposes and to increase the taxbase. In some cities, the Japanese.' character of the site is being trans-muted from a living, residential (albeit run-down) community to onedesigned to attract tourists and as headquarters for Japan-basedcorporations. Here, too, Japanese Americans find thems,iv es caughtin a dilemma. As things stand, there are only a few choices availableeither leave the areas as is, inadequate and unsafe or redevelop withthe consequence that must residents and small business are pushedout. These were once centers of Japanese American culture andcommerce small shops, restaurants, traditional arts, theaters, andsocial services,. in short, a focus of ethnic activity which could havebeen capable ut nurturing generations of Japanese Americans in theirunique culture. Some groups are now urging more input from thesmall businesses and residents so that redevelopment includes humanconcerns as well as property and profit.

"BEYOND THE MELTING POT"

The cultural legacy ot the Japanese in Amenc., is widely debated.As with so much ut this discussion, tnere is an inevitable return to thequestion, what is or should be "American"? Here, it may be useful topoint out that our educational system (including the media) is heavilyethnic-oriented. Beowulf, Robin Hood and Maid Marian, Richard theLion-hearted, the Magna Carta, Queen Elizabeth, Shakespeare andBluebeard are part of our English-ethnic heritage. Joan of Arc andNapoleon have become integral parts ot American folklore from ourFrench-ethnic past. Michelangelo and Galileo from the Italian, Bach,Mozart and Beethoven as well as the fairy tales from the BrothersGrimm came from our German legacy. Our children Japanese and

non-Japanese have little or no exposure to the Japanese past. except,perhaps, to the kamikaze pilots of WWII depicted in feature films orcomic books. To correct this imbalanced, eurocentnc approach,multicultural textbooks, audio-visual resources, and perspectives arebeing explored by some community groups and school systems.

ETHNIC STUDIES

At the college and university level, ethnic studies programs arid coursesresearch, compile and disseminate information not readily available.There is considerable interest among Japanese American youth in their

42 Lio

-,-,ast and their culture o they have interacted with the rest of Americansociety, There even appears to be a resurgence of Sansei and Yonseienrollment in Japanese language courses and active participation in theBuddhist Churches These developments are occuring simultaneouslywith increasing pressures to cut back due to economic restrictions,thus resulting in the realization that political power must be generatedto implement ur protect Japanese and Asian American programs inail areas of society.

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Political activism among Japanese Americans is most easily notedat national levels where Senator Daniel Inouye and CongressionalRepresentatives Spark Niatsunaga and Patsy Takemoto Mink, all fromHawaii, and Norman Mineta of California, have been prominent. TheHawaiian contingent, in spite of notorious incidents such as the onein which Inouye was referred to as that "little Op" during the Watergatehearings, has generally avoided identification as specifically JapaneseAmerican advocates. Minority politicians representing multi-ethnicconstituencies must do more than present the concerns of their ownethnic groups, to be sure, and the pressure to avoid the label of spokes-person for a single element is great, An unfortunate consequence isthe fact that small minorities like Japanese Americans find themselveswith few outspoken advocates for their rights.

THIRD WORLD EFFORTS

Political parties represent only a small sector of political activity inthe U.S. and grassroots movements are becoming more evident amongJapanese Americans. This is particularly true among the youth althoughnot exclusively, so. Professional, civil service and other occupationalcategories are striving to bring together Japanese Americans who some-times work together with other Asian Americans to protect their rightsand interests. These particular types of associations or caucuses are notnew they represent, first, the fact that upward mobility has taken placeand, second, the fact that such mobility dues not represent the demiseof racial discrimination What is new is the ability of Japanese, Chinese,Korean, Filipino and Pacific Islander (including Samoan and Guamaniangroups to work together. This unity provides a great voice throughgreater numbers and is responsible for considerable activity at nationaland local levels. .

4341

tfA

0A

Sansei s.,.ortortg at a motriourillN festtvaliti %.,1,1 I tam 0,0

LITERATURE, ARTS AND THE MEDIA

One group of professionals creative writers has emerged. Theyare primarily Sansei but a few are Nisei, attesting to the fact that theentire generation was not buried" at Ntanzanar. To a large extent, thepaucity of poetry or fiction or biography dealing with Japanese AmeriLans,written by Japanese Americans, has to du with the racism in the marketplace economy. That is, publishers intent un profit have not beenanxious to print books about a small minority, 1 his is not the entireanswer, to be sure, since many works considered to be significant arepublished with a full knowledge that no profits were to be expected.This aspect of media (not just publishers but film, radio and 1\ as well)simply ignores the existence and significance of Japanese Amen(ansexcept in sensational situations,

At times, this racism is couched in terms of qualifications establishedalong Euro-American lines. The editors of Aiiieeeee! An Anthology ofAsian-American Writers, put it this way:

The assumption that an ethnic minority w ram thinks in, bell% es hewrites in, ur has ambitions toward writing beautiful, correct and wellpunctuated English sentences is an expression of white supremacy.(he universality of the belief that correct English is the only languageof American truth has made language an instrument of ( ulturalimperialism." At another point, they also insist that:

The minority writer works in a literary environment of which thewhite writer has no knowledge ur understanding. the white writer canget away with writing for himself,- knowing full well he lives in a worldrun by people like himself. At some point the minority w niter is askedfur whom he is writing, and in answering that question must decidewho he is." 44

42

In deciding who they are, Japanese Americans redefine their life andwork orientation. There is an important distinction between ethnicorganizations which seek to improve life chances for their membersand ethnic organizations which perceive that fundamental changes arenecessary in order to improve life chances for their members. Thus,in Los Angeles, for example, Japanese American writers and performerssupport The East West Players an Asian American repertory theaterwhich promotes and highlights individual talent. Japanese Americansalso work in The Asian American for Fair Media in New York andLos Angeles which exposes racism in the media and seeks morerealistic portrayals by Japanese and other Asians and an end to thestereotypes served up in everything form cartoons and ads on TV tothe latest Disney and action films.

LEGAL RIGHTS

But if the media only serve to reflect social reality then it is thatreality that must change first. To that end a great deal of ferment isevident to those interested in Japanese Americans in the U.S. Since thelaw is such a critical institution in the U.S., young lawyers are involvedin redefining their roles. An Asian law Collective in Los Angeles and theAsian American Law Caucus based in Oakland and New York City seethemselves as cutting edges for advocacy and action to redefine therole of attorneys in ethnic communities. Japanese American socialworkers and educators also find themselves at odds with their traditionalroles when it becomes clear that those roles tend to disguise themagnitude of the problems at hand. The ferment, the reevaluationtaking place make inevitable the global and national realities earliermentioned. If socialism and communism are paths selected by moreand more people throughout the world, then is there not a necessityto study Marxism in a more objective fashion and not simply as anenemy ideology? If women throughout the U.S. are 'reinterpretingtheir roles, then must not Japanese American women do the same?

FEMINISM

One prominent movement to alter traditional roles is that of Americanwomen and the feminist struggle reaches into the Japanese Americancommunity.

Like other minority women, however, Japanese American womenoften find that the "mainstream- feminist movement does not speakdirectly enough to their concerns. This is partly, but not entirely, a

matter of class background since the white women's movement derives

4345

so much of its strength from the inequality fared by middle and uppermiddle class women. The struggle to end the tyranny of sex definedroles is clearly of concern to Japanese American women whoseethnic culture is, it anything, even more restricting and male oriented.And yet, significantly, they often find that their problem as women areinextricably tied to their problems as Japanese (e.g., stereotyped imagesas submissive and docile) and as wage earners (e.g., as unwmplarntngsuper-efficient secretaries). And they feel and see the results moreclearly in the disproportionate incidence of drug overdose and suicidesamong Sansei women as well as the futile attempts to conform towhite American beauty standards, such as that of a buxom blond withlarge blue eyes. These standards may be changing but many womenhave already been convinced that their OSN 11 beauty is unacknowledged.

THE QUEST FOR IDENTITY

All of these problems lead us back to an original question intowhat kind of society are Japanese Americans assimilating? Whatresponsibility du Japanese Americans have in helping determine theconfigurations of that society and what strengths do Japanese Americanshave to share in that struggle? These are the ingredients of vv hat is nowgenerally termed the identity problem that is, the usual searchingof healthy youth compounded by lack of direction in their own ethnicity.How can Japanese American youngsters be proud of their heritagewhen they know nothing of it? Civen that confusion over their identity,assimilation (or being absorbed) into white America is too often seenas the only alternative.

:71

.1)

P At*1.3141.4l.4.At a community picnic, Sansei relax and prepare to pattik 'pato in relaye

46 44

INTER-MARRIAGE

The degree of Japanese American assimilation can be measured alongmany vaned lines such as education, occupation, residence and incomeas well as social deviance (juvenile delinquency, drug abuse, etc.).All these indicate closer parallels to white American patterns now butperhaps the most interesting is the recent rise in intermarriage. Sincemarriage has long been the most personal and emotional boundarybetween races, religions and nationalities, social scientists treat it asa special index of change. Arid since the rate, where charted (as inSan Francisco, Honolulu, Fresno and Los Angeles), is approximately;*04J it may be argued that the Japanese Americans are very nearlyassimilated in spite or ethnic identity questions. One of every twoSansei marnges, in short, involve a non-Japanese partner. Of coursethese spouses are not all white in Hawaii, recent data indicates thatonly one third of the non-Japanese spouses were white. The ratioelsewhere is certainly higher.

The topic is still highly charged with emotion and young people,assured earlier by their families that marriage should be betweencompatible individuals irrespective of background, are disappointedand frustrated to find that such unions are sometmes bitterly resentedwhen actually planned Anti-miscegenation laws existed in many borderand southern states until the late 1960's, aimed primarily at preventingBlack-White marriages. In California, those barriers for Japanese wereremoved in 1948. These laws were judicial expressions of racialoppression and nut primarily instruments to prevent race-mixing. Theactual fact of mixed races is as old as the U.S. with European colonistsand Black slaves so closely related that the vast majority of AmericanBlacks have some white ancestry. It is apparently a measure of anti-Blackprejudice that we consider someone with the smallest detectableBlack ancestry, Black rather than white. Those who consider themselvesotherwise we term 'passing'.

A few lssei did marry non-Japanese in spite of hostility from their owncountrymen as well as other Americans. Later, as-they were removedfrom the West Coast in 1942, the official ruling was that anyone witheven 1 '16 Japanese background was ordered to comply as Japanese.In a strange way. this insistence that the merest iota of 'colored blood'made one colored, was an expression of fear that the white racewould be overwhelmed by such amalgamation. And yet, logicallyspeaking such insistence guarantees that outcome. Not all societies,even ones previously dominated by European colonists such as in SouthAmerica, insisted un strict color boundaries by discouraging marriagewith the natives. The American version is particularly interesting andcomplex and appears to be changing, at least for Japanese Americans.

4745

One significant change is the perspective on the mixed children.Where, in the past, society insisted that they were Japanese now theyseem to be regarded as non-Japanese (although not necessarily Whiteor Black or Chicano either). Why the shift? Perhaps this, too, is amanifestation of the tendency to use the Japanese American exampleto "prove" a point that cannot be proven otherwise that is, that raceprejudice is not an immutable part of our society. And yet, are theconsequences really much healthier for Japanese Americans? Theresolution of the problem, it seems, is for a minority to intermarryitself clear out of existence! If it seems that this interpretation putsAmerican society in a "damned if we do and damned if we don't"position, it probably does. The real resolution, it would appear, wouldbe the elimination of oppression, exploitation and manipulation usingracial categories as one instrument. When these injustices disappear,then and only then, will individuals actually be free to marry as theyplease and learn and transmit the cultures of their choice with a fullmeasu, e of respect for people who have made other choices.

i:...141164., al

4:21C,-Guess who we've got buried here this inc."

CONCLUSION

Reduced to basic and personal levels, an introduction to the JapaneseAmerican experience should begin to help everyone create a societycapable of appreciating the diverse elements making up our society.For Japanese Americans, this means a self-conscious move to under-stand their own past and present their identities, individual andcollective. For others, it very likely means an examination of their ownethnic heritages as well as the conscious study of Japanese Americans.This process helps discourage patronizing or detached attitudes whichtend to prevent closer understanding of the people or the issues. Butin other ways the study of an ethnic group is like the study of anycomplex subject it is not mystical and it requires serious effort.

4846

Among other things, this means that possessing Japanese genesguarantees little in the way of knowledge or understanding. Being"sensitive" and "caring" is also important but insufficient since well-meaning mistakes can be as serious as malicious ones.

What, if anything, makes the Japanese American experience unique?And what does that answer tell us about the state of race relations inthe U.S. and in the world? It is clear that, in spite of impressive advances,there are serious problems afflicting Japanese Americans. Perseverance,courage and work have overcome many barriers the U.S. is not SouthAfrica or Rhodesia. But if we are not the "model minority', then are wea "middleman minority', forever identifiable and vulnerable to scape-goating in times of crisis?

Jews in Europe, Chinese in Southeast Asia and East Indians in Africahave been victims of mass upheavals because they representedsmall, powerless groups who could be blamed for social ills Par-ticularly as greedy merchant groups accused of directly exploiting thepeople There are only a few Japanese American merchants in workingclass and poor areas but there are increasing numbers being acceptedinto services and professions such as teaching, social welfare and lawenforcement. These are agencies which stand indicted as instrumentsof pacification or control and which become direct targets of manypeople. Japanese Americans may, in this interpretation, becomebuffers and shock absorbers for those in power.

Both these theories, model minority and middleman minority, areinteresting and can lead to useful discussion of race relations. Twofactors missing from both are. 1) the international scene, includingU S. Japan relations, and 2) the ability of Japanese Americans to moveactively in directions they choose. The first lies beyond the control ofmost of us although, as our history indicates, it can be decisive in itsimpact The second is an ideal toward which more and more Japanese(and other) Americans are working. Perhaps learning that many differentgroups are also progressing in this line is a major step foward to fullerand more satisfying participation in tomorrow's world.

49

47

(NOTE. All Japanese names still be iendeled ur the Japanese style that is. last amewith no (0111111a, followed by the first name )

U.S. JAPAN CHRONOLOGY

U.S.

1818 American and British %%haling shipsn to enter Japanese pints asking

for permission to replenish food andwater supplies. The lokugawaguna to summarily orders themturned away

1837 The American merchant shipsMorrison attempts to establishcontact with Japan, but is driven off.The leader of this private expeditionrecommends that the U.S, Government send a naval force to "open'Japan

1844 Us and China sign treaty of Wang-lisia opening Shanghai to Americanships this treaty port, coupled ssiththe need for waling stations andthe acquisition of California. gaverise to an interest in establishingrelations with Japan

48

JAPAN

1616 lokugawa Shogunate restricts allforeign merchantmen, exceptChinese, to the ports of Nagasakiand !Natio.

1619 As a result of the ShimabaraRebellion (16374638) the TokugawaShogunate closes all Japanese portsto foreigners except the closelyregulated Dutch and Chinese atNagasaki. No foreigners could enterJapan (capital crime) and Japanesecould not leave, Those Japaneseresiding outside Japan at the time ofthe edict could not return

1825 the Tokugawa Government issuesan edict calling for the roubleejection of all foreign ships fromall Japanese coastal waters.

1842 edict of 1825 relaxed by seniorCouncilor Minim ladakuni so thatships drifting accidently intoJapanese territory were to beprovided with fuel and water, I kiwever, the Governments basic policyof isolation was unchanged

so

1846 Commodore James Biddle is givenorders to establish initial diplomaticrelations with Japan. He is cornnpletely rebuffed by tlub lokugawaShogunate

1846. By 1850, the U.S. had become a1850 Pacific power. The Oregon question

was settled in 1846. California wasacquired in 1848, giving the U.S. afrontage of over 1200 miles on thePacific with great harbors at SanFrancisco and Puget Sound. Japanlay on the direct route from SanFrancisco to Shanghai, with Japanas a prospective new market.

1852 De Bo Ws Review, an influentialSouthern Commercial journal, pro-phesied a 5200,000,000 annualtrade with Japan. Aroused bypetitions and other evidence ofpublic interst, President Fillmoredetermined to make an effort to"open" Japan. In January 1852, corymand of the expedition is given toCommodore Matthew C. Perry.

1853 On July 8, 1853, Perry sails into Edo(Tokyo) By with four men-of-war.After delivering Fillmore s letter toTokugawa officials, Perry sails away,promising to return in one year.

1854 Commodore Perry returns in Februarywith eight menof-war. The treaty ofKanagawa is signed on'March 31,1854. The treaty of Kanagawa isfollowed by a series of treaties withother European powers.

1898 Townsend Hams, the first Americanriplomatx agent to Japan, concludesthe Treaty of Ansel, opening newports and setting the pattern ofAmencanjapanese relations for thenext fifty years.

49

1853 Tokugawa Shogunate fain one ofits most difficult predicaments sinceits founding in 1600, finally decidesto sign a treaty with the U.S.

1854 On March 31, 1854, Japan signs theTreaty of Kanagawa with the U.S.This treaty, the first concluded witha western power, opens the ports ofShinxxla and Hakxlate to Americans.

1860 The first Japanese Embassy to theWest crosses the Pacific on theKanrin Maru and meets PresidentBuchanan on May 17,1860 to ratifythe new commercial and friendshiptreaties.

51

1870

18'0-1880

twelve Japanese are admitted tothe Us Naval Academy by specialact of congress

Large IX,m1xis of Japanese studilitsattend U.S colleges and Ulm ersities,including.1.1egata Tanetano - IlarvardNeshuna Joseph - AndoverKaneko Kentaro I larvardMatsudaira ladaatsu Rutgers

1882 the U.S Congress. acting under avariety of social pressures, passesthe Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

the Act also stipulated: "I lereafterno state court or court of the UnitedStates shall admit Chinese to citizen-ship

1893 San Francisco Board of Educationintroduces a regulation providingfor the segregation of all Japanesechildren in a Chinese school TheJapanese Government, through itsConsul Chinda Suterm, protestsand the regulation is withdrawn.

52 50

1868 The Tokugawa Shogunale falls andauthority and power is returned tothe throne. The Emperor Meiji comesto the throne as a teenager andwill rule (or the next 45 years. theMeiji Era is 1868-1912.

the Meiji Government authorizesthe ininugratoon of laborers to I !amidas plantation workers. the JapaneseGovernment revokes permissionlater the same year on receivingrelx)rts of immigrant mistreatment.

1869 lire first group of Japanese immigrantsarrive in the U.S. to establish theWakamatsu Colony at Gold Hill,California.

18:4 Curriculum in Japanese elementary1880 schools influenced mainly by the

American educational system.Normal schools established underthe direction of the American edu-cator, Marron M. Scott. Japaneseleaders in education like FukuzawaYukichr visit the U.S.

1876 The Japanese Government sponsorsan exhibit at the Central Exhibitionin Philadelphia. 1 he exhibit is atypical Japanese house and is oneof the Central Exhibition's majorattractions.

1885 Japan and I lawag sign a treaty reopen-ing Japanese immigration toOn February 8th, the ship, City of

arrives wth 900 immigrants-men, women and children.

1898 Hawaii annexed by the U.S. as aterritory, Some 60,000 Japaneseresiding in Hawaii are then able toproceed to the Mainland withoutpassports.

The U S. Supreme Court rules in thecase of the US. v. Wong Kim Ark thatThe constitutional declaration with

regard to American citizenship thatis based on birth within the U.S.includes all persons so born regard-less of their race or the citizenshipof their parents ."

1901 Japanese Association of Americafounded in San Francisco. One ofthe primary reasons the organizationis formed: ". . fight racial dis-crimination:"

1904 The National Cunvenuon of theAmerican Federation of Labormeeting in San Francisco, resolvesto exclude Japanese, Koreans andChinese from membership.

1905 1) San Francisco Chronicle beginsan anti-Japanese series that will runfora year and a half2) California legislature urges theU.S. Congress to limit Japaneseimmigration.1) 67 organizations meet in S.F. andform the Asiatic Exclusion League ofSan Francisco.4) Portsmouth Treaty causes renewedanti-Japanese feelings in the U.S._

51

1895 Japan,, defeats China in the Salo-Japanese War (1894.1895), She gainsFormosa and the Pescadores Islands.Russia, France and Germany forceJapan to return the lktotung Peninsulato China. As a result, there is anoutburst of antiforeign feeling inJapan.

1900 Under pressure from the U.S. theJapanese Government agrees not toissue any more passports to laborersdesiring to come to the U.S. Hawaiiis not mentioned in the agreement.

1904 Japan declares war on Russia andRusso-Japanese War begins. Gener-ally, Amencan sentiment is with theJapanese The Japanese Governmentsends Baron Kaneko Kentaro tothe U.S. to build popular supportfor Japan. Kaneko renews friend-ships with President Roosevelt andAssociate Justice Holmes.

1905 Japan and EJS.Sla sign the PortsmouthPeace Treaty with the U.S. as medi-ator. Roosevelitsura understandingsigned recognizing Japans paramountposition in Kowa. Provisions of treaty,omitting a Russian paid indemnity,cause outburst of antigovernmentand anti-American feeling in Japan.

53

14U6 s F. School Board orders the segregallon ot 93 Japanese studentsPresident Roosevelt sends Secretaryor Commerce and labor Metcalfto California to investigate. Metcalf",rinds the diarges agatnst the Japanesecontradictory and exaggeratedPresident Roosevelt sends a messageto Congress berating s,F SchoolBoard and calling for legislation toallow the Japanese the right otnaturalization.

1907 U S Congress passes immigrationbill which forbids Japanese laborersfrom entering the U.S. via Hawaii,Mexico or Canada

S F. School Board rescinds order.

Anulapanese riot breaks out in S Fin May causing U S. Governmentconsiderable embarrassment Asecond anti'Japanese riot in S.F.takes place in October

1908 The Asicatic Exclusion Leaguereports 231 organizations are nowaffiliated 195 of these are laborunions,

Gentlemens Agreement formalizedby Secretary of State Root andForeign Minister Hayashi.

1909 Washington becomes alarmed atthe tone and intensity of anti-Japaneselegislation introduced into Californialegislature 12 telegrams pass between President Roosevelt andGovernor James Gillett on thisquestion.

Argi-Japanese nots in Berkeley, Ca,

1410 27 anti-Japanese proposals introducedinto the California legislature. TheWhite House urges Governor HiramJohnson to seek moderation.

Picture brides begin to arrive to lointheir husbands in the U.S.

54 52

1906 Japan connbutc5 5246,000 for earth-quake victui,. in S.F This is morethan all other foreign contributionscombined

Japanese Consul S. Uyeno protestSF. School Board decision. JapaneseAmbassador Aoki Shuzo is orderedto confer with the Amencan Govern-ment to find a solution to the S.F.school problem. Strong anuArnencantooling breaks into the open overthe S.F. school question.

Some contemporary Japanesehistorians believe this is the genesisof the series ot events that ends inWWII.As a result ot the S.F. school crisis

1907 and the anti Japanese riots, there iswidespread talk of war with the U.S.

1908 Under the provision of the Gentle-men's Agreement,-Japan agrees notto issue visas to laborers wishingto come to the U.S.

1911 President Taft intervenes directly tostop the anti-Japanese legislation inCalifornia because a renegotiationof a treaty with Japan was beingconsidered at the same time.

191 1 ,,California Legislature passes theWebb Act This first anti JapaneseLand Law Act denied Japanese theright to own land in California.

1)15 The Hearst Press into bales it 1 chowPeril" campaign. for example, onSeptember 28, 1915, The New YorkAmerican reported with a bannerheadline. "Japan's Plans to Invadeand Conquer U.S.A." This type otpress contributed to a new surgeot anti-Japanese feeling

1917 Alien Land Law modeled on theWebb Act passed by Arizonalegislature,

1920 California's Alien Land law isamended to close all loopholes.It forbids Issei to buy land in thenames of their Nisei children whoare Us citizens by birth.

1922 The U.S. Congress passes Cable Actwhich provides that ". any womanwho marries an alien ineligible forcitizenship shall cease to be anAmerican citizen," This meant thatif a Nisei or 'Caucasian married an

sho lost her citizenship. If sucha marriage was ended by divorceor death, a Caucasian woman couldreapply However. a Nisei womancould not because she was ot'race ineligible for citizenship"

1912 The Emperor Meiji dies and is suc-ceeded by his son Yoshihito as theEmperor Taisho. This event initiatesthe Taisho Era (1912-1926).

Renewed outbursts of antrArnencan-1913 isni and calls for war with the U.S.

are evident in the Japanese press

1914- Japan declares war on Cennany and1918 the other central powers.

1915 Japanese mass media coins the termbeika ( Amencan Pen!) to counteractthe use of "Yellow Peril" by theAmerican press

1921 Under pressure from the U.SGovernment, the Japanese ceaseissuing passports to picture brides.

53 - 55

The U.S. Supreme Court rules inthe case of Takeo Ozawa v. U.S.that the naturalization process islimited to "...free white personsand aliens of African nativity." Theessence of this decision meant thatthe Issei were effectively and per-manently denied any access to US.citizenship, thus becoming "aliensineligible for citizenship."

1923 Idaho, Montana and Oregon passAlien Land Laws modeled on Cali-fornia's Webb Act.

In the case of Terrace v. Thompsonthe U.S. Supreme Court rules thatbecause one who is not a citizen"lacks an interest in ... the state",the state may rightfully deny himthe right to own and lease real estatewithin its boundaries . ", thus up-holding the Anti-Alien Land Law ofWashington of 1921.

1924 Congress passes the ImmigrationExclusion Act. This Act denied allimmigration to the U.S. from Japan.

1929 Saburo Kido, Thomas Yatabe andClarence Arai meet in April to pro-pose that a national Nisei organiza-non be founded and that a foundingconvention be held in the summerof 1930.

I.. -. . 5654

1924 Japanese newspapers protest 1924Exclusion Act. Japanese theatreowners vote to boycott Americanmovies, July 1st was declared tobe a "Day of National Humilation."Protest meetings were held through-out Japan. Baron Kaneko Kentaroresigns in protest as President of theJapan-American Society. As oneJapanese historian put it:"... thesense of shame and humiliationcreated by the passage of the Ex-clusion Act promoted the formula.tion of a negative Image of the U.S.that had fatal consequences forJapanese-American relations in the1930's,"

The Emperor Taisho dies and issucceeded by his son Hirohito whohad been acting as his father's regentfor four years. The new emperortakes the reign name Showa. TheShowa Era dates 1926-present.

1930 First convention of the nationalJapanese American Citizens leagueis held in the summer of 1930, atwhich time the delegates adopta resolution to deal with the CableAct.

1931 Cable Act amended, allowing Niseiwomen married to Issei to retaintheir U.S. citizenship.

1941 -' U.S. and Japan fight as enemies in1945 WWII,

1942 President Roosevelt signs ExecutiveOrder 9066 authonzing the Amy toremove civilians from designatedareas of the western U.S. 112,000Japanese Americans are so moved.

A coalition of anti-Japanese groupsled by the Native Sons of the GoldenWest and the American t egon filea case in U.S. district Court to depriveJapanese born in the U.S of theircitizenship. This case -- Regan v. Kingwas argued by Ulysses S. Webb,author of California's Alien landlaw. The Ninth Circuit Court ofAppeals denied the petition without comment.

1943 Hirabayshi, Gordon v. U.S.Yasui, Minoru v. U.S.

1944 Korematsu, Toyasaburo v. U.S.

In the case of ex parte Endo,Mitsuye v. U.S., Court rules thatloyal citizens may not be held by agovernment agency without recourseto due process

1946 U S, Government lifts all wartimerestrictions placed on alien Japanese.

President Truman decorates thecolors of the 442nd RegimentalCombat Team.

55

1933 Japan withdraws from the League ofNations.

1941 Japan joins the Axis Powers in1945 WWII.

Ili

1945 Nuclear bombing of Hiroshima/Nagasaki.

Japan surrenders unconditionallyto the Allies.

57

1948 Oyama v. U.S.: In 1944, the state ofCalifornia tiled a petition ro escheattwo parcels of land belonging to theOyama family on the contentionthat there was an intent to violateand evade the Alien land Law. TheCourt ruled in favor of Oyama.

1951. U.S. and Japan sign a mutual security1961 treaty pledging to each other's

defense.

1952 US.-Japan Peace Treaty takes effect.

Walter- McCarran Immigration andNaturalization Act passed. It extendstoken immigration quotas to Asiannations.

1965 President Lyndon Johnson signs anew immigratm bill which eliminatesrace, creed and nationality as abasis for unmigration.

1970 President Nixon signs bill amendingthe 1965 Immigration Act whichfurther liberalizes immigration tothe U S

1971 The United States returns Okinawato Japanese sovereignty.

Repeal of Title II of the InternalSecurity Act which allowed for legalpreventitive detention of individuals.

58

1947 Japan adopts a new constitutionwhich renounces the country'sright to wage war

1948 Execution of General Tux) Hedekiand six other major war criminals.

1952 Japan resumes its status as asovereign nation

1956 Japan joins the United Nations as theeightieth member.

1960 JaparU.S. Security Treaty revisedwith incorporation of more favorableprovisions for Japan.

President Eisenhower cancels ascheduled visit to Japan becauseof antitreaty demonstrations inTokyo.

1975 Imperial Household Ministryannounces that Emperor Hirohitowill pay a state visit to the UnitedStates mn October.

56-*

PREFACE TO INSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

The educational system has traditionally and grossly ignored theneed to prepare students for the realities of our multicultural society.The school curriculum is presently ill-equipped and unprepared tocorrect misinformation, stereotyping and ethnocentric thinking. Inorder to foster culturally pluralistic attitudes within youngsters andcreate a vital enriching atmosphere in the classroom, teachers mustfirst become aware of elements detrimental to this growth.

Most parents, students and teachers have very limited access toaccurate and humanistic information regarding Japanese Americans.Television has a profound influence in the formation of images, feelingsand attitudes in adults and children. Children enter schools with pre-conceived notions about themselves and others. Unfortunately toomany of these notions are based upon stereotypes.

What is a stereotype? A stereotype can be defined as a commonlyheld mental picture about a particular race, event or issue that is basedupon oversimplified opinions. Stereotypes begin with strongemotional feelings and end up as fact without the benefit of logic.Specifically, let us look at hovv stereotyping may affect children ofJapanese ancestry.

There are three basic stereotypes of persons of Japanese ancestry.1) the "sneaky, inscrutable 'yellow peril' ", 2) the "perpetual foreigner",and 3) the "model minority'.

The "sneaky, inscrutable 'yellow peril' stereotype is persistentand pervasive. It is a commonly held view of all people of Japaneseancestry, which began at the onset of their immigration to the UnitedStates and continued through the period of World War II. Stereotypessuch as these continue to exist today resulting in great damage byfostering "privileged" and "non-privileged" mentality in children.Negative characteristics ascribed to persons of Japanese ancestryhave included:

sly, cruel, mysterious, exotic, short, squat, cute, naive, slant eyes,buck teeth, heathen/pagan, dirty, subversive, disloyal, unoriginal, etc.

These cruel stereotypes are misinterpretations and misunderstandingsof the culture (language, diet, customs, religious beliefs, values andlife-styles) of persons of Japanese ancestry. Political, economic andsocial institutions, including the educational system in the United States,legitimized these stereotypes to the extent that punitive laws werepassed strictly on the basis of race to deny citizenship, propertyownership, and equal educational and equal employment opportunitiesto person of Japanese ancestry. Few corrective measures have beentaken to reduce stereotyping. The mass media (television, newspaper,periodicals, comic strips and movies) foster these distorted and fraudulentimages The educational institutions perpetuate racial stereotypes andracial discrimination by failing to include an accurate, comprehensive

57 59

and balanced portrayal of Japanese American history, achievements,concerns, problems and participation in shaping U.S. history.

As the "perpetual foreigner", Japanese Americans are continuouslyasked questions such as:

What nationality are you?What country were you born in?How long have you lived here (in the United States)?Don't you think you're lucky to be in America?What kind of life do you live in Japan?Where did you learn to speak English so well?Why are you so different from most Japanese people I know? You'renot quiet, shy, timid, or docile and you speak English so well. Howdid you become so "American"?If you don't like what's happening in the U.S., why don't you goback to Japan where you belong?

The conscious or unconscious attitude that most people have aboutJapanese Americans is that "they don't "belong", "they must be 'foreign' ".

`Whether the questions are asked in ignorance or out of maliciousnessis of little consequence because, in fact, they do cause damage. Thepersistence of these questions and the associated mentality sometimesdraws hostile response from the Japanese Americans. This hostilityoften bewilders the naive inquirer.

As the "model minority', Japanese Americans are often perceivedas stereotypic caricatures. These caricatures share common physical,economic, social and cultural attributes. It is not uncommon to hearone or all of the following statements made about persons of Japaneseancestry.

Japanese Americans are highly educated;

Japanese Americans are highly motivated learners and high achieversin school;

Japanese Amenuins participate in the same ethnic holidays and practicethe same religion;

Japanese Americans can speak the Japanese language and have beento Japan or should go to Japan;

Japanese Americans have 'made it" and are economically successful,

Japanese Americans are well-behaved, disuplined, have respect forauthority and the law;

Japanese Americans can do flower arrangements, tea ceremony,bonsai, ondo (dance), kendo, karate, etc.;

Japanese Americans are shy, timid, non-agressive, non verbal.

All the above statements are innocuous at first glance but do have verydetrimental aspects. The Japanese American people are often expected

60 58

to be "experts" in all aspects of the Japanese culture. These expectationsha% e a heavily unrealistic burden. Some Japanese Americans exhaustthemselves trying to meet expectations of others or suffer theembarrassment of ignorance. Character traits ascribed to the wholerace "locks-in" those who deviate and pressures individuals to conformity.

What is the effect of stereotypes on Japanese American students andother students? The Japanese American is made to feel embarrased orashamed of his:her cultural traditions and ancestry while becomingsomewhat confused about his;her ethnic identity. A non-JapaneseAmerican student, on the other hand, is inclined to acquire an un-realistic understanding of the role and contributions of JapaneseAmericans in the U.S. while developing an inflated sense of superiorityas the dominant group in the U.S.

Let us look at some of the ways in which conscious or unconsiousattitudes about persons of Japanese ancestry might affect behaviorin a learning situation.

Teachers (and'or administrators) should strive to eliminate stereo-typic expectations of Japanese American students, e.g., JapaneseAmerican students are expected to be well-behaved, quite, timid, non-agressive, highly motivated learners, high achievers in math and science,but not language or literature.

Teachers need to create a learning atmosphere in which being differentis an enhancement to the total classroom. Rather than the teachersingling out the Japanese American child, hopefully the class atmos-phere will draw the child to identify himberself. The cultural contributionthat is shared freely by the individual reduces the possibility ofembarrassing a child by soliciting information he,She does not have.

Teachers (and'or administrators) should respect the Japanese Americanstudents who are able to speak the Japanese language.

Teachers (and'or administrators) must recognize that other studentsdo need to acquire facts and positive feelings and attitudes aboutJapanese Americans and other ethnic groups. Unfortunately ethnicstudies as such are often considered relevant only to the specificethnic group.

Teachers must continually grow in their own awareness, knowledgeand respect for the various people of America. direct involvement inthe concerns of visible minorities such as protest letter writing,community service work, inservice courses, attendance at organizationalmeetings, etc, are only a few, of the wealth of learning resources availableto the teacher for personal enhancement.

Above all, teachers should be conscious of the diversity of life styleswithin Japanese American communities. Japanese Americans are nutmonolithic, static oddities, They are a vital, dynamic part of our totalsociety,

61

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t to

us?

How

do

you

see

your

self?

How

do

you

thin

k ot

her

peop

le s

ee y

ou?

How

are

we

alik

e? H

ow a

re w

e di

ffere

nt?

Wha

t wou

ld it

be

like

if w

e al

l lik

ed to

do th

e sa

me

thin

gs?

If w

e ha

d no

cho

ke a

nd e

very

one

had

to li

ke th

e sa

me

thin

gs a

nd d

o th

e sa

me

thin

gs, h

ow w

ould

you

feel

?

Why

is it

impo

rtan

t to

know

the

way

you

feel

and

why

?

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok in

a m

irror

and

desc

ribe

them

selv

es.

Ask

them

to d

raw

a s

elf-

port

rait.

Hav

e st

uden

ts k

eep

a da

ily jo

urna

l of

even

ts, f

eelin

gs a

nd a

ctiv

ities

.

Rai

nbow

, Dar

uma

san

p.75

Mem

ory

Des

crip

tion

p.76

Rai

nbow

, Sta

nd U

p &

Be

Cou

nted

p.7

7A

Flo

wer

p.7

8

Con

cept

Reg

ion

v1

We

disc

over

ed th

at w

e fe

el d

iffer

ently

at d

iffer

ent t

imes

, eve

n in

the

sam

e da

y.

We

can

say

that

we

chan

ge a

nd d

ono

tst

ay th

e sa

me.

rr

Hav

e st

uden

ts b

ring

a ph

oto

of th

em-

selv

es w

hen

they

wer

e yo

unge

r.

Ask

them

how

they

are

diff

eren

t or

alik

e.

Hav

e cl

ass

mak

e a

spec

ial d

ispl

ay w

ithph

otos

or

draw

ings

of e

ach

indi

vidu

al.

It m

ight

be

appr

opria

te to

com

pare

with

cla

ss s

choo

l pho

to.

Rai

nbow

, Dra

win

g &

Col

orin

gA

ctiv

ity p

.79

Per

sona

l Uni

quen

ess

Des

ign

P.8

0T

he O

rang

e E

xper

ienc

e p,

81W

hat D

o Y

ou S

ee?

p.82

Key

Que

stio

ns

Who

and

wha

t mak

es u

p A

mer

ica?

Act

iviti

es

Cut

out

pic

ture

s th

at s

how

diff

eren

tpl

aces

and

peo

ple

doin

g di

ffere

nt th

ings

.A

sk s

tude

nts

to tr

y to

find

out

whe

reth

eir

pare

nts,

gua

rdia

ns, g

reat

gra

nd-

pare

nts

wer

e bo

rn. H

ave

stud

ents

sha

reth

is in

form

atio

n.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Mag

azin

es, n

ewsp

aper

s

Rai

nbow

, Who

's a

n A

mer

ican

p.83

Rai

nbow

p.8

3

Whe

re d

o w

e liv

e?A

sk s

tude

nts

to lo

ok a

t a m

ap a

ndpo

int

out u

nits

, i.e

., st

ates

that

mak

e up

the

U.S

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

cou

nt th

e nu

mbe

r of

stat

es in

the

U.S

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

find

on

a m

ap th

est

ate

and

regi

on in

whi

ch th

ey li

ve.

Ask

the

stud

ents

to m

ark

the

plac

eon

the

map

whe

re th

ey li

ve.

U.S

. map

Rai

nbow

, Peo

ple

Pos

ter

p.84

Fin

ger-

pupp

ets

of A

mer

ica

p.85

Sta

te a

nd lo

cal m

aps

Ask

stu

dent

s if

they

wer

e bo

rn in

the

sam

e st

ate

or c

ount

ry.

Ask

thos

e w

ho w

ere

born

in o

ther

sta

tes

or c

ount

ry to

find

on

map

and

pla

ce a

mar

ker

ther

e.

Wha

t typ

es o

f are

as d

o w

e fin

d in

the

U.S

.?

Ask

stu

dent

s to

des

crib

e ch

arac

tens

tics

of th

e pl

ace

in w

hich

they

live

, e.g

., ci

ty,

tow

n, s

ubur

b, fa

rm, e

tc.

You

may

wis

h to

hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

sssi

ze o

f an

area

, num

ber

of p

eopl

e liv

ing

in a

n ar

ea, c

limat

e, la

bor

(indu

stria

l v.

agric

ultu

ral).

Hav

e th

em li

st th

e th

ings

that

are

diffe

rent

and

alik

e fo

r tw

o ar

eas.

Mag

azin

es, o

ld c

alen

dar

pict

ures

whi

ch c

an b

eus

ed to

dev

elop

task

car

ds.

How

do

peop

le w

ho li

ve in

diff

eren

tpa

rts

of th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s sh

are

and

help

eac

h ot

her?

Ask

stu

dent

s ho

w a

nd in

wha

t way

spe

ople

livi

ng in

a c

ity, t

own

or s

ubur

bbu

y th

e fo

ods

they

eat

; ask

whe

re fo

odis

gro

wn.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

find

pic

ture

s of

a c

ity,

tow

n, fa

rm.

Ask

them

to th

ink

of o

ther

thin

gs o

rse

rvic

es th

at a

farm

ing

area

cou

ldpr

ovid

e, e

.g.,

woo

l, po

ultr

y, m

eat.

Stu

dent

s co

uld

plan

t flo

wer

or

vege

tabl

ega

rden

and

team

pro

cess

by

whi

ch s

eeds

deve

lop

into

flow

ers,

veg

etab

les;

the

amou

nt o

f tim

e an

d th

e ca

re r

equi

red

Wor

ld, U

.S.,

stat

e m

aps

Old

pic

ture

mag

azin

es

Con

cept

Com

mun

ity

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t do

we

mea

n by

the

term

com

mun

ity?

Is th

ere

som

ethi

ng s

peci

al a

bout

the

com

mun

ity in

whi

ch y

ou li

ve?

Wha

t are

som

e of

the

thin

gs th

atyo

ulik

e ab

out y

our

com

mun

ity?

Wha

t are

som

e of

the

thin

gs th

atyo

udi

slik

e ab

out y

our

com

mun

ity?

Are

ther

e a

varie

ty o

f cul

tura

l gro

ups

who

live

in y

our

com

mun

ity?

(In

geog

raph

ic lo

catio

ns w

here

diff

eren

tcu

ltura

l gro

ups

do n

ot r

esid

e, th

ete

ache

r sh

ould

ask

stu

dent

s to

thin

k of

plac

es in

the

U.S

. whe

re th

ese

grou

psm

ay li

ve.)

Ask

stu

dent

s ho

w p

eopl

e in

agr

icul

tura

lar

eas

buy

fabr

ic fo

r cl

othi

ng o

r ot

her

good

s fr

om la

rge

citie

s or

sub

urbs

.

Dis

cuss

with

stu

dent

s th

e di

ffere

nts

defin

ition

s of

the

term

com

mun

ity.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

des

cnbe

the

com

mun

ityin

whi

ch th

ey li

ve, e

.g.,

the

com

mun

ityw

here

sch

ool i

s lo

cate

d. S

tude

nts

can

take

a w

alki

ng fi

eld

trip

.

Wha

t gro

ups

of p

eopl

e m

ake

up th

eco

mm

unity

, wha

t kin

d of

wor

k do

they

do, e

tc.?

Hav

e st

uden

ts p

repa

re a

list

, e.g

., pa

rk,

play

grou

nd, z

oo, f

low

ers,

tree

s,m

ount

ains

, lak

es, r

iver

, oce

an, m

useu

m.

Hav

e st

uden

ts p

repa

re a

list

, e.g

., ai

ran

cifo

r w

ater

pol

lutio

n, tr

affic

, dus

t,to

oqu

iet,

too

smal

l, to

o la

rge.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Use

mag

azin

es, l

ocal

new

spap

ers

for

pict

ures

.

Boa

rd o

r bu

tche

r pa

per

Pic

ture

s of

loca

l com

mur

ity

Ask

stu

dent

s to

vol

unte

er if

they

kno

wa

lang

uage

oth

er th

an E

nglis

h.

Ask

them

if th

ey k

now

wor

dsin

ala

ngua

ge o

ther

than

Eng

lish.

Nam

es: U

yeda

, Mur

akam

i, A

be,

Nis

him

oto,

Wat

anab

e

SF

US

D T

each

er L

earn

ing

Cen

ter

)AC

E (

Japa

nese

Am

eric

anC

omm

ittee

on

Edu

catio

n)

Wor

ds:

Arig

ato

(Tha

nk Y

ou);

Say

onar

a (G

ood-

Bye

); K

onni

chi-w

a (G

oodD

ay);

Gak

ko(S

choo

l); M

e (E

ye);

Mi-M

i (E

ar);

Kuc

hi(M

outh

); H

ana

(Nos

e); O

cha

(Tea

);C

ohan

(C

ooke

d R

ice)

; Han

a (F

low

er)

Try

to a

rran

ge fi

eld

trip

s to

Jap

anes

egr

ocer

y st

ore,

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

Bud

dhis

t tem

ple

or C

hris

tian

chur

ches

,co

mm

unity

cen

ters

, com

mun

ity g

roup

s,la

ngua

ge s

choo

l, bi

lingu

al c

lass

, sho

ps.

Are

ther

e sp

ecia

l fes

tival

s an

d ho

liday

sce

lebr

ated

in y

our

com

mun

ity?

Hav

e st

uden

ts id

entif

y w

hat t

hese

holid

ays

and

cele

brat

ions

are

. Ask

them

how

thes

e ce

lebr

atio

ns a

nd h

olid

ays

got

star

ted

and

why

they

are

impo

rtan

t to

thei

r co

mm

uniti

es.

Dis

cuss

the

spec

ial f

estiv

als

and

holid

ays

that

one

gro

up, t

he J

apan

ese

Am

enca

ns,

cele

brat

e.

For

exa

mpl

e-N

ew Y

ear's

Day

Sho

gats

u Ja

nuar

y 1

Thi

s is

a v

ery

impo

rtan

t cus

tom

that

isob

serv

ed b

y m

ost J

apan

ese

Am

eric

anco

mm

uniti

es. S

peci

al fo

ods

are

serv

edon

that

day

and

goo

d w

ishe

s ar

e ca

rrie

dto

fam

ilies

.

Girl

's D

ay H

inam

atsu

n M

arch

3T

his

is a

ver

y sp

ecia

l day

set

asi

de fo

rJa

pane

se A

mer

ican

girl

s. S

peci

al d

olls

are

give

n to

girl

s.

San

Die

go U

nifie

d S

choo

lD

istr

ict,

His

tory

and

Cul

ture

of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans,

197

2

Uch

ida,

Sum

i's P

rize

(old

cou

ntry

set

tingc

an b

eus

ed to

dem

onst

rate

diffe

renc

es b

etw

een

Japa

nese

Am

eric

an' J

apan

ese

cele

brat

ions

.)

Boy

's D

ay T

angc

, ^/c

i Sek

ku M

ay S

Thi

s is

a v

ery

spec

ial d

ayse

t asi

de fo

ryo

ung

Japa

nese

Am

eric

an b

oys.

Eac

hbo

y is

giv

en a

car

p (f

ish)

flag

that

is fl

own

by th

e fa

mily

.

Spr

ing,

Sum

mer

and

Aut

umn

fest

ival

sD

ates

var

y ac

cord

ing

to g

eogr

aphi

clo

catio

n.

Japa

nese

Am

eric

an c

omm

uniti

esce

lebr

ate

popu

lar

natio

nal,

regi

onal

and

and

loca

l hol

iday

s.

In J

apan

, som

e U

.S. h

olid

ays

are

cele

brat

ed, e

.g.,

Chr

istm

as.

Uch

ida,

The

Birt

hday

Vis

itor

The

For

ever

Chr

istm

as T

ree

Who

are

som

e of

the

lead

ers

in y

our

com

mun

ity?

Why

are

they

cal

led

lead

ers?

Wha

t thi

ngs

have

they

sha

red

with

the

com

mun

ity?

Hav

e st

uden

ts fi

nd o

ut w

hoso

me

loca

lle

ader

s ar

e an

d ha

ve th

em m

ake

up a

list

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts li

st th

e ac

com

plis

hmen

tsth

at h

ave

bene

fited

the

com

mun

ity.

The

teac

her

will

be

able

to p

rovi

de s

tude

nts

with

the

abili

tyto

iden

tify

basi

c hu

man

nee

ds a

nden

cour

age

stud

ents

to d

evel

op p

ositi

veat

titud

es fo

r di

ffere

nt n

eeds

, val

ues

and

lifes

tyle

s.

Con

cept

Nee

ds

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t are

som

e of

the

thin

gs th

atyo

une

ed fo

r ev

ery

scho

ol d

ay?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts h

elp

prep

are

a lis

t of

thin

gs, e

.g.,

food

, pla

y, tr

ansp

orta

tion

(bus

, str

eetc

ar, c

ar, b

icyc

le, f

eet)

,cl

othi

ng, p

aper

, pen

cils

,cr

ayon

s,bo

oks,

etc

.

Ask

them

to c

hoos

e th

eon

e th

at is

mos

t im

port

ant t

o th

em a

nd e

xpla

in w

hy.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Indi

vidu

al s

tude

nt

Wha

t are

som

e of

the

thin

gs th

at a

llpe

ople

nee

d to

sta

y al

ive?

Why

do

you

thin

k th

at p

eopl

e ne

edth

ese

thin

gs?

Hav

e st

uden

ts u

nder

stan

d th

e ba

sic

hum

an n

eeds

, i.e

., fo

od, s

helte

r, s

leep

,re

crea

tion

and

affe

ctio

n.

Foo

d:A

sk s

tude

nts

if th

ey h

ave

ever

bee

nhu

ngry

.

Ask

them

to d

escr

ibe

how

they

felt

(sad

, gru

mpy

, tire

d, a

ngry

).

She

lter:

Ask

stu

dent

s to

thin

k ab

out w

hat t

hey

wou

ld h

ave

to d

o to

pro

tect

them

selv

esfr

om r

ain,

win

d, c

old

or b

ugs.

Hav

e st

uden

ts p

lan

a ca

mpi

ng tn

p in

an

area

whe

re th

ere

are

no h

ouse

s or

apar

tmen

ts.

Sle

ep:

Ask

stu

dent

s to

des

crib

e th

eir

feel

ings

whe

n th

ey d

o no

t get

eno

ugh

slee

p.

Ask

them

wha

t thi

ngs

mig

ht k

eep

them

awak

e at

nig

ht, e

.g.,

thun

der,

ligh

tnin

g,fir

e en

gine

, sca

ry d

ream

, sto

mac

h ac

he,

etc.

Rec

reat

ion:

Ask

chi

ldre

n w

hat i

t wou

ld b

e lik

e if

they

had

to w

ork

all t

he ti

me.

Pic

ture

s of

you

ng c

hild

ren

and

the

basi

c hu

man

nee

ds

Indi

vidu

al s

tude

nt

Indi

vidu

al s

tude

nt

Indi

vidu

al s

tude

nt

Indi

vidu

al s

tude

nt

Ask

them

to d

escr

ibe

thei

r fe

elin

gs if

they

had

no

time

to p

lay

gam

es w

ithfr

iend

s, li

sten

to th

e ra

dio,

rea

d a

book

,go

to th

e m

ovie

s, r

ide

a bi

cycl

e or

wat

ch te

levi

sion

.

In e

ach

soci

ety,

peo

ple

have

iden

tifie

d di

ffere

ntso

lutio

ns in

the

iden

tific

atio

n an

d pr

oduc

tion

of g

oods

to m

eet b

asic

nee

ds. T

hete

ache

r w

ill b

e ab

le to

pro

vide

stu

dent

s w

ith th

e ab

ility

to a

ppre

ciat

e di

ffere

nces

in m

eetin

g ne

eds.

Con

cept

Nee

ds

Div

ersi

ty o

fne

eds,

val

ues

and

lifes

tyle

s

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t kin

ds o

f foo

d do

you

like

the

mos

t? th

e le

ast?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts c

hoos

e th

e fo

ods

they

like

mog

tleas

t.

Mak

e up

a li

st o

f foo

ds u

nder

cat

egor

ies,

e.g.

, fru

it, v

eget

able

s, s

wee

ts, f

ish,

poul

try,

mea

t, da

iry p

rodu

cts.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Pic

ture

s fr

om m

agaz

ines

,bo

oks,

coo

kboo

ks th

atsh

ow d

iffer

ent f

oods

and

tabl

e se

tting

s

Do

you

thin

k th

at a

ll pe

ople

eat t

hesa

me

food

s an

d pr

epar

e th

em in

the

sam

e w

ay.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

be

enco

urag

ed to

sha

reid

eas

abou

t the

var

ious

food

s th

at th

eyea

t.

Ask

stu

dent

s if

they

eve

r he

lp in

coo

king

a sp

ecia

l mea

l, e.

g., h

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RAINBOW PROGRAM ACTIVITIESFOR THE

ETHNIC CULTURAL HERITAGE PROGRAM

Compiled by:Ms. Mako NakagawaSeattle Public SchoolsSeattle, Washington

TITLE: Value Scale

OBJECTIVE:

The value scale of each individual is different, influenced by his experiences,beliefs, likes and dislikes, standards, etc. What is valued highly by one personmay not be valued at all by another. But this does not make one right orwrong Everyone's personal judgment is correct only for the individual andshould not be forced upon another.

MATERIALS NEEDED:Pencils and papers.

PROCEDURE:Pass out a paper to each child and ask them to write down the four seasons,summer, fall, winter and spring, Then ask them to rank them according topreference, best, second best and so on down. Now have them share theirranking with the group. Discuss why they each ranked the seasons their way."Why isn't everyone's list the same?" (Discuss) "Does it mean that one person slist is more correct or better than another's?' (Discuss) Stress that each rankingwas right for the one who w rote it every person has the right to a differentset of values, we are all different. "If your classmate's opinion does not agreewith yours, is his wrong?" "Can w e learn to respect the other person s values,too?" Don't we all have the right to like or dislike things and not have to thinkalike? What are some things we can do to show that we respect another'sopinions even though they may not agree with your' (Discuss)

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Instead of seasons, one can use T.V. programs or food or sports.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:The children will see that each has a good reason for their opinions and thatdifferences are expected because everyone does not think alike. No onesopinion should be forced upon someone else. Different values or differentpeople should be respected.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:Ask the children if they would try to respect the other person s value scaleeven if it does not agree with theirs, Try to practice this and come back toclass next week reporting what, if anything, happened.

71

TITLE: Feelings

OBJECTIVES:Everyone has feelings. We should be aware of this and respect one s feelings,avoiding words and acts that could hurt others.

MATERIALS NEEDED:Strips of paper, felt pen and empty can.

PROCEDURE:Start the discussion by relating an incident where sumeunes feelings were hurtbecause of something said. Ask the children, Can you tell me what arefeelings?,Can you name some feelings?" (As they nair,e them, write them downun the strips of papers, e.g , happy, mad, scared, proud, sad). How can youtell by looking at a person what he feels?' (Discuss) I've written all the differentfeelings you ve mentioned on these strips, now I'll fold them and put them intothis can. Lets du some acting.' As the can is passed around, take out a strip,look at the feeling written on it, and without a sound or a word, act it out. Therest of us will try to identify the feeling. (If the child dues ,not want to act outa certain feeling, he can return it to the can and take out another one to du.Let everyone have their turn.) We were able to identify these feelings becausethey showed un the outside. Are there times when we feel something insideus but it does not show un the outside?' (Discuss) Can you remember beinghurt by someone, but not showing it outwardly?' (Discuss) What are someways we hurt others feelings?' (Discuss things we say ur do.) 'Do you likeeveryone rn your class? Why? Are these reasons really important enough fordisliking someone?' (Discuss) Have you unintentionally hurt someone ?"Have you ever purposely hurt someone?" (Discuss)

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Instead of writing the feelings un strips of paper, have a large drawing ofa person (outline) and let the children w rite,,ttlese feelings un it, showing thatthese feelings make up the person. Maybe they could make simple face sketchesdepicting the different feelings.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:The children will become more aware of their different feelings and how theiractions ur words can affect others su much. Relating their on experienceswith these feelings, and remembering the pain, they can appreciate how othersfeel, too. Hopefully. they will be more sensitive to each other's feelings.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:Ask the children to make a contract with you that they agree to try for oneweek (until they meet with you again) to avoid hurting someone s feelings.Tell them to be very honest about it and report un their efforts next time.

'7 4

72

TITLE: Fortune Cookie

OBJECTIVE:

Understanding and appreciation tur other people begins with compassion forothers individual needs Happiness can be derived from making other peoplehappy In order to make other people happy, one must know what makesthat other person happy Happiness is an individual state of mind based onindividual values.

MATERIALS:

Fortune cookies, paper and pencils

PROCEDURE:

f he leader and children sit around in a circle. The leader explains Theseare called Chinese fortune cookies. You probably know that they havefortunes inside them that often make people a little happy. The leader thenasks each child, What makes you especially happy?' Each child will then tellthe group what makes him or her happy and why. For example, one child maysay 'It will make me happy if I cykild du my math problems because geometryis hard for me' While fur another child, geometry may be easy, therefore thefirst child's wish would have no value for the second child. After every childhas ,nade a wish, then the leader asks the group, "Lets make a wish for Bobbi,something that will make her just a little bit happier. The children will haveto either recall what Bobbi s wish was or make up a new wish which, basedon their understanding of Bobbi s needs, will make her happy.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:By playing this game. each child will learn that other children s wishes aredifferent from theirs because of differences in individual values and needs.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:The children can make wishes for their loved ones at home. Fortune cookiescan be purchased for the children to stuff their own fortune for specificpeople outside their classroom.

7573

TITLE: I or Sorry

OBJECTIVES:

to help youngsters to understand mato become aware that being hurt bysomeone else s thoughtlessness and !awing soinvosic- by our own thoughtlessness is part of lite I low eyer, we all tan benefit positively by our willing' lessto at knowledge our shortcomings and by try mg to soothe our thoughtlessness by saying "I'm sorry.'

MATERIALS NEEDED:None

PROCEDURE:1. Ask you.igsters to think ut and share with the others (it they like) times when

they have been hurt by someone else.

2, Ask youngsters to think of and share with the others (it they like) times whenthey hurt someone else

3. ()MUSS with youngsters their feelings during these experiences.

4 Dist uss with youngsters the fact that when problems are resulted in apositive way (e g, saying I'm sorry') everyone feels better.

i. Encourage youngsters to think ut sunreuue whose feelings they may hatehurt previously (ur may hurt, in the ensuing week) and to try to result ethose hurt feelings by apologizing Acknowledge the tact that at times itmay be difficult to do.

6 Do something nice tor someone they ve hurt.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:Hopefully, youngsters will gradually find it more satisfying and perhaps, easierto acknowledge their shortcuma igs and make efforts to rectify them in somepositive way.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:Following week, ask youngsters to share (it they like) airy times they may hatemade apologies to someone they hurt ur tried to make up for hurting thatperson in some other way,

74

TITLE: Daruma sdn ( Dull 1111 be purcildsVd if' gitt stores in Japailese Americancenters)

OBJECTIVES:

Tu help children achieve the spirit and determination to go un even whenthings are not running smoothly.

MATERIALS NEEDED:Daruma san

PROCEDURE:

This is Daruma san. He represents an Indian philosopher who meditated inone position for su lung that he lost the use of his eye, his arms and his legs.legs.

In Japan, a doll like this is given to a person starting a business venture byfriends as a good luck charm. After a year has gone by and if the person is stillin business, he and his friends will gather together and paint the eyes in theDaruma san. This is a happy occasion for the Daruma san is no longer blind,but can see and is successful,

Nuo, push the Daruma sari down. No matter how many times you push himdown, he returns to his original up' position. In spite of all his handicaps, hehas the determination to get up and start over.

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Tell in a story form.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:Children will realize that they tuu can achieve the spirit to lift their heads uphigh and try again.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:i. Draw a picture of Daruma san.

2. Leader and children can set up sumo goals to accomplish. For example,how can we help each other when we are feeling down? Make a list ofsuggestions and ideas.

3. When chiltheir and leader decide that this set of goals has been met, theycan paint the eyes in their Daruma san.

A FUN GAME:Children sit in a circle with their legs and arms crossed, They sway from side toside in rhythm and sing in unison:

'Daruma-san, Daruma san "Daruma-san, Daruma-sanNna miko shimasho let's look at one anotherWarattara dameyo To laugh would not be goodIchmi-sarrshego' One-Two-Three-Four-five"

Lc eryi gic. must have a serious expression on his her face and should stare ateach other The first person to laugh is "out

75

77

TITLE: Memory Description

OBJECTIVES:

An activity to show how observant the students are about each other.

To see what one student notices the most about his or her tellow classmate.

MATERIALS NEEDED:(3 students)

Describer2. Guesser (Identify)3. Student being described

PROCEDURE:

The first student is chosen to describe another classmate in the room.

The next student, guesser, will be chosen and sent to a part of the roomlacing the opposite way from the class.

The last student Involved will be chosen by the describer Oust student). Thedescriber uses the limit of three descriptions. Examples. height, color of hairor eyes, etc By these descriptions, the second student will then try to identitythe student being described.

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:This activity is done very well by using a blindfold on the guesser. Let thedescriber choose what features he ur she may like to best describe the otherstudent.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:Sometimes through this activity we learn more about the child who describesanother child They also point out things that are different and they relate tothis in a much more positive attitude.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:The activity should be done with a different set of three students. Discussionshould follow and questions of why they chose the particular three descriptions.

78 76

TITLE: Stand Up and Be Counted

MATERIALS NEEDED:Eight toot length of rope.

PROCEDURE:'I, Explain ground rules and exercise.

a. Rope is held stretched out at each end by two of the youngsters.

b. Statements will be read aloud to the others.

I heir responses will not be ,ocal. but expressed by standing at somepoint along the rope.

1) Explain where they stand for varying answers:Agree Disagree

partially agree partially disagree

'd. Read sample statement and stand along rope yourself indicating yourown response.

2. Begin exercise and carry on for no more than five minutes.

3. Discuss exercise.a. Promote discussion by pointing out that they did not respond exactly

alike to all statements and that nu ones response is better than the other.

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Instead of using rope, have youngsters indicate responses by.

I. Agree: wave hands in air.

2. Disagree. thumbs down allow no 'unsure responses here.

FOLLOWUP ACTIVITIES:In the weeks to follow. occasionally ask youngsters to relate (if they wish) timeswhen they spoke out or acted openly to support what they believed.

'Sample statements.I. All children are sloppy). Girls are smarter than boys.3. Its OK to eat a lot of candy every day.. leachers know everything.1, Sometimes its O.K. to cheat on a test.6. football is the most fun sport to play.

I ia.,ing Mends of many difterent races (?) is nicer than living friends of onlyone race (?).

8. Its O.K. to hit someone back if they hit you first.9. Everyone should have a pet.

10. People who w ear nice clothes are always nice themselves.

7977

11 Summer b more tun than winter12 Its 0 K to tease someone who speaks differently than you du.13. 1alking with your mouth lull of tood is polite.14 Being tall is better than being short,1S Its important to have a fancy home.

Good idea nut to u, e sta ten lents which may be too threatening ur may niakesonic youngsters u duly uncumturtable by respundine, in pain. at this time.

TITLE: A Flower

OBJECTIVES:

All flowers have their own beauty but when une kind ut flower is put with ,aherdifferent kinds of flowers, they become a beautiful bouquet.

MATERIALS NEEDED:Different colors of construction paper (flower)Green construction raper (stem)12" x 18" construction paper to br used as background to glue the vase of

flowers on.Scissors and glue

PROCEDURE:Instruct each student to:

Draw a stern on green construction paper about foul inches high. Draw aflower on their choice of color construction paper about twc, inches high.(Their favorite kind of flower).Cut the outline of both the stem and flower.Glue the stem to the flower,

Group LeaderDraw a vase at least eight to nine inches high.Cut the outline of the vase and paste it to the 12 x 18 construction paper.When the students have completed their flower have them discuss why theparticular flower they have chosen is their favorite.After the discussion each student can glue their flower to the vase.

gUGGES r ED VARIATIONS:Felt Ilo%% ens on a felt background.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:The beauty of une flower is lovely but the beauty of &Beloit kinds of flowerstogether is even more lovely. We hope through this exercise the students willlearn to appreciate the difference and beauty of each individual and understandthat America is a beautiful bouquet of people west:Ian

FOLLOW.UP ACTIVITIES:This same idea can be expressed using the tam bowl. lath fruit has its owncolor and flavor.

8078

TITLE: Drawing and Coloring Activity

OBJECTIVES:

By drawing pictures ut each other, students may recognize and see the beautyof the individual

MATERIALS NEEDED:Paper, c rayons small bus, strips with names of each student in the class.

PROCEDURE:

Put all the names of each student in the small bus. Have every student pickout one name from the box

Explain that they will draw a picture of that classmate. It is important to keepthe name a sec ret.

Later, after the pictures are dune, collect the drawings with the MUMS ut thestudents who did the drawings.

f he class will then lurk at each drawing and guess who the drawing is ut.

When a student guesses the right student, ask what in the picture identified itmore clearly

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:This acuvuy nla), work in reverse Instead of drawing another student, theycan draw a picture of themselves. 'then see how the rest of the class can guess.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:'This activity points out that we are Milady nut the same. Life is more fun andbeautiful with each of us as different from the other person.

FOLLOW UP ACTIVITIES:Ibis can he dole agani studtlits will must likely draw a different name fromthe bus

talk about the expressions of the tace5 drawn on some of the students.

7981.

TITLE: Personal Uniqueness Design

OBJECTIVES:

Each child makes a design incorporating thr1.1' things that are 1111111111e to kill.

I his name2. his signature

his creative ability

MATERIALS NEEDED:Calmed papers, paints. pencils and crayons.

PROCEDURE:Explain the term "Unique . Instruct the children to fold the paper at halt lei igth-

ise, unfold it and write his own name un the fold bile like a sigliature in pencil.Co over the pencil with pail it and quickly refold it, rubbing the paper to transferthe painted lines to the opposite side of the paper. Unfold it and tell the childrento go over any lines not clear Tell them to hold the paper vertically and seean interesting design appear. Instruct them to add color or fill in areas orembellish in any way they like to make it inure interesting. Afterwards, discusswith the children their feelings about creating something uniquely their own

their personal uniqueness desigi i. Mount on colored background and makea display

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Instead of paints use crayolas and press witli warm iron to transfer the design.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES:Children will see that they each hate a uniqueness, that each child is special inhis or her own way and that it is these unique differences that make usinteresting individuals.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:Each child can make two lists, one listing the sindarities the cl niche: e. aidthe second listing the differences they have. Discuss the two

82

80

TITLE: I he Orange txperren«

OBJECTIVES:

to view each person ac art individual aid not in a itAlt'llIVe wt' lend to lumppeople together instead ot seeing theta as 1.1111glIV uuiisitivals

MATERIALS NEEDED:

One orange for eath student and a brow n bag for the leader

PROCEDURE:

Leers one is seated in a at le or arum id a table Leader explains to group thateveryone is to take one orange out ut the bag. Alter be pit ks the utange hewill be given a test minutes to make Mends with the orange. I hen we will taketurns int roduc trig our Mond to eat h other.

Alter five or ten minutes (depentln ig upon the group) the leach,' ilia Ameshis Mend to set the mood I ben all die t !old, et take touts introducnig IBS Mend.Alter everyone is done, pass the bag and ask eseryune to put Ins friend in thebag I he leader then rolls the oranges out of the bag of to the Little and askseveryone to and his 'Mend

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Use potato, etc,

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:All oranges look the same until you take the unit' to betmile trends.

lhe children will take time to make mends,

81

TITLE: What Do ti on see

OBJECTIVES:It shock the childun that ditty], e) in perk eption and interpretation arepart tit eak h child s uniqueness

MATERIALS NEEDED:Drawing paper wrh symbols drawn On Pent ils or (rayons.

PROCEDURE:

(Jive each child a piece tit papei on which a *I111)01 or symbols have beendrawn. Ihe same siiibols should be oil each child s paper. Each childas to

picture letting the sy nbols suggest the subject and become partof the picture rm. ourage each child to du own plume, not looking at each°Mei s until et.icki lc is through Atter they are all finished, compare the picturesen iphasiting dittereuc CS in perk Vptilil i and interpretation. Explain that no onepu turk. Is the right interim etabon of the symbols ... that each picture is rightfor the person who dew it Make a parallel with other interpretations we makein lite

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:ead tit drawn symbols, use 0101vkl paper cut outs and have each child

arrange the pekes at. ordnig to then own kind Of design or picture.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:Children will see how everyone s picture was ditterent though starting withthe same symbols because each child intelpreted them his own way. thatthough everyone s was ditterent, everyone s was right.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:Show some pictures illustrating different situations and let each child make uptheir own captions to them. Conipaie them with each others and discuss.

82 84

TITLE: Who s an An

OBJECTIVES:

to clarity in youngster s minds what the term American means,

MATERIALS NEEDED:World map or chalk board with chalk and eraser.

PROCEDURE:I Discuss with youngsters story ut chnstopher Columbus dis«fvery of

America.2 Use maps or drawing of world on chalk board to show how people migrated

to America from all parts of the world.

I Discuss how all people who came or come) to live in the U S are Americansa. Discuss technicality of American 'Citizenship' d it comes up.b Impress upon youngsters the fact that persons of all ethnic or religious

backgrounds are part of the U.S.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:Hopefully, youngsters will come to feel secure, comfortable and finally proudof the fact that they are 'Americans' no matter what ethnic background theyhave,

TITLE: Rainbow Concept, not a melting pot

OBJECTIVES:

Our country is made up of people of many different cultures: America is greatbecause of her cultural pluralistic make-up. The differences of the people andtheir cultures should not be assimilated into one type, but exist side by sidewith one another respecting each other's uniqueness.

MATERIALS NEEDED:

White paper cut into arched shapes, water colors, brushes, and water.

PROCEDURE:

Talk to the class about the concept of "America the melting pot ut the world.Ask if they understood what was meant by this statement. Then explain that itmeant many different people thrown into one put and everyone molding intoone type of person Now pass out the arched shaped paper to each child,a brush and some water colors and container of water. Tell them to take onecolor and paint the whole paper with it. Then select another color and paintover it completely Continue this with two or three other colors until theresults is a muddy mixed hue Talk about each color representing a culturebeing mixed up with many others so that the result is an indisunguisablecultural mush. Ask the children if that is preferable. Now, what do you think Imean when I say. 'America is like a rainbow (I et them disc%-again.) Thenexplain that it means to me (if they could not explain themselves) many differentpeople of different cultures living side by side without everyone being thesame Pass around another arched paper and this time ask them to pick onecolor and paint it as a stripe starting at one edge of the arch and continuing to

03 85

Ow ()tiler edge select ,another color 11 Id panit it alongside of the Lust the sameo,a, an a stripe Wiitrnuer un to other colors until the paper is covered. Ask themwhat it looks like (The results should look like a rainbow,) Nuw ask themwlucti painted paper they led best it:pi-est.:as America to them. Bring out thelat t that, like the variety ut different colors in a rainbuss make it beautiful,,L) the ,,ariety ut drttenvrt people um Anierica makes her beautiful, interestingand unique.

SUGGESTED VARIATIONS:Instead ut paints, one can use (Wien!' a ((awed cellophane paper to shuyymixture and c lear c olors.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:The results that the children see lur theurselses If I a tangible way are the beautyut all daterent (uIurs side by side not having to mix and assimilate things.I hat each color should be accepted and respected for its urn beauty andthat together they enhance one another.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES:talk about the beauty ut cultural pluralism and next wile gu into the PeoplePoster,

TITLE: People Poster

OBJECTIVES:

Our county} is made up ut many different people ut color, This is what makesAmen( a SO rich and beautiful. The contribution of her many different culturesis her greatness and uniqueness.

MATERIALS NEEDED:Old magazines, scissors, glue, large poster (unstruction paper, and felt pen.

PROCEDURE:

Ifate the children (oiled as Malt), old magazines, catalogs, etc., shossingpictures ut people. Tell them to cut out pictures of people ut different colors.(Notice the mostly black and Mute world ai magazines.) After they hay equite a collection have them cut away any unnecessary printed matter orbackground trona the people. Draw an outline of the United States aboutthree loot wide on colored construction paper (pieced together) and cut thisout. On this silhouette place all of the cut out people shapes in a pleasingarrangement,lent, uyerlapping, etc. Wiwi) the group is satisfied synth ale lump usttuitlet them glue the pictures dusyn. When all gluing is completed, let them selecta name for their people poster, (e.g. People Puyer'. America, land ut Color ,Vsere All Different, Isn t that Beautitul ). If the group cannot decide orr one

title, let them put many labels on then poster.

SUGGEST VARIATIONS:Instead of the U.S. outline, use a rambuyy idea %rah a 11111111 colored archedshape on which the pictures can be glued. rifle e.g. Rainbuss People',Ranibuo, land A child suggested making up a niagazine slam, rig all different

people in ads, stories, etc., using cut-outs again.

8486

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:Through the meth= of the art Corm of collage, the children can tangibly"make" a beautiful America with all her different people rn lose harmony.They can see that a world of many different colors is more interesting andbeautiful and preferred.

FOLLOW- UP ACTIVIFIES:After the poster is completed, put it up un display and discuss it. They can showit to other children or add their own pictures to it. Ask them to look aroundthem at school and see the beauty of so many different children playingtogether.

TITLE: Fingerpuppets of America

OBJECTIVE:

As all the fingers of a hand are necessary for the hand to function efficiently,so all the different peoples of America are necessary for her to become trulygreat.

MATERIALS NEEDED:

Origami paper, scrap yarns, scissors, stapler and felt pen.

PROCEDURE:

The leader holds up his hand w ith his fingers apart and says, Look at the fingersof your hand see how each finger is necessary to the total efficiency of thehand Each finger has its unique quality and function and their working alltogether makes the hand a very efficient tools. (Demonstrategripping, pickingup, etc.). If you took away any one of the fingers, you sure would miss it.The hand could still function but not as efficiently. Its better to have all five.

"Now let's say that the hand represents America with the fingers its people.Think of all the different kinds of people living here and name them. (As theyname each group of people put the finger puppet that represents them un afinger until all are covered.) They should have all the colors of people inAmerica, red, yellow, black, brown and white. All five fit nicely on the fingers.Talk about the uniqueness of each puppet with each adding to the country sgreatness as a whole The beauty of all the colors of man living together,respecting each other, side by side (Manipulate the finger-puppets apart andtogether.)

"Now let's each make our own finger puppets and perhaps do a play unAmerica's people Pass out materials needed and show them how to makequick and easy puppets.

Make five origami paper puppets Roll origami paper into tube and staple.Fold down top for head Draw facial features arid clothing with felt pen. Addyarn hair Puppets should be of yellow, red. white, black and brown origamipaper.

85

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:eAll see through this crust niauuer that this eouolry is made up of

many peoples ot whir cruel that it IS 01(11 unique dilterelik.es vvhldllotitributeto the total greatness ot America

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY:the digid«11 edn mdI e up d I" about the datelt't it Peoples Ot America andusing their tingei puppets put oil d presentation to the t lass the song, lhist and is 't I .11 td, 11 as l and is laid" t. odd be swig manvulating the puppets

8886

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will

be

able

to d

iscu

ss th

e hi

stor

ical

role

of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

as o

ne o

f man

y Im

mig

rant

gro

ups.

Con

cept

Imm

igra

tion

Key

Que

stio

ns

Why

is th

e U

.S. c

alle

d a

"nat

ion

ofim

mig

rant

s"?

Act

iviti

es

Ask

stu

dent

s w

here

they

wer

e bo

rn.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

try

to fi

nd o

ut w

here

thei

r pa

rent

s, g

uard

ians

, gra

ndpa

rent

s,gr

eat g

rand

pare

nts

wer

e bo

rn.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

iden

tify

on U

S. m

ap a

ndpl

ace

mar

ker

whe

re h

orn

Ask

stu

dent

s if

they

kno

w a

nyon

e in

thei

r co

mm

unity

who

was

bor

n in

anot

her

coun

try.

Fin

d ou

t wha

t cou

ntry

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

pla

ce m

arke

rs o

n w

orld

map

whe

re a

nces

tors

cam

e fr

om.

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok u

p in

the

dict

iona

ryth

e di

ffere

nce

betw

een

imm

igra

tion

and

emig

ratio

n

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

U.S

. map

Wor

ld m

ap

Mar

kers

Imm

igra

tion

figur

es

Dic

tiona

ry

Who

are

the

imm

igra

nts

and

why

did

they

em

igra

te to

the

U.S

.?H

ave

stud

ents

rea

d se

lect

ions

that

giv

ea

pers

pect

ive

as to

why

imm

igra

nts

cam

e.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

sele

ctio

ns th

at te

llab

out w

hy J

apan

ese

chos

e to

leav

e Ja

pan

and

com

e to

Haw

aii a

nd th

e U

.S. a

s on

eof

the

vario

us im

mig

rant

gro

ups.

Vis

ual C

omm

unic

atio

ns,

Wat

arid

ori (

S)

Ito,Issei(1)

Uch

ida,

Sum

urai

of G

old

Hill

(S

)

Con

cept

Val

ues

Atti

tude

s

Ask

stu

dent

s to

de.

elo

p a

prof

ileor

sim

ilar

prob

lem

s th

at a

n im

mig

rant

mig

ht e

xper

ien«

-

Hav

e st

uden

ts k

eep

a pe

rson

al d

iary

chro

nicl

ing

feel

ings

if th

ey w

ere

leav

ing

thei

r ho

me

in a

noth

er c

ount

ry to

set

tlein

the

U,S

a n

ew c

ount

ry, F

or e

xam

ple,

ask

stud

ents

wha

t the

y m

ight

feel

like

if th

ey c

ould

not

spe

ak o

r un

ders

tand

anot

her

lang

uage

, fou

nd d

iffer

ent f

oods

and

cust

oms.

Inou

ye &

Elli

ott,

Jour

ney

toW

ashi

ngto

n, C

hapt

er 1

(S

)

Lear

ner

Eth

nic

Stu

dies

Lib

rary

:Ja

pane

se in

Am

eric

a (S

)

Dan

iels

, The

Pol

itics

of

Pre

judi

ce, C

hapt

er 1

(T

)

Inte

rvie

ws

with

loca

lin

divi

dual

s or

res

ourc

esp

eake

rs fr

om th

e Ja

pane

seA

mer

ican

com

mun

ity

Do

you

thin

k th

at J

apan

ese

emig

rate

dto

the

U.S

. onl

y?

Wha

t ()M

ei c

ount

ries

do y

ou th

ink

they

mig

ht h

ave

emig

rate

d to

+

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

sea

rch

to fi

nd a

ccou

nts

of J

apan

ese

who

em

igra

ted

to C

anad

a,M

exic

o an

d H

awai

i, w

hich

was

stil

l ate

rrito

ry a

nd n

ot a

sta

te.

Ito, i

ssei

(T

)

Con

roy

& M

iyak

awa,

Eas

tA

cros

s th

e P

acifi

c (1

)

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t im

port

ant v

alue

s di

d Ja

pane

seim

mig

rant

s br

ing

with

them

from

Jap

anto

the

U.S

. at t

he tu

rn o

f the

cen

tury

?ce

ntur

y?

Act

iviti

es

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

res

earc

h so

me

of th

eva

lues

that

wer

e he

ld in

Jap

an d

urin

gth

e M

eiji

perio

d (1

868.

191

2); T

aish

o(1

912-

1926

) an

d th

e S

how

a pe

riod

(192

6-pr

esen

t).

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re (

T)

Pet

erse

n, J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

(T)

(In

area

s w

here

new

ly a

rriv

edim

mig

rant

s liv

e, th

e te

ache

r m

ay w

ish

todr

aw o

n th

e cu

rren

t situ

atio

nan

dva

lues

sys

tem

s of

thes

eva

rious

gro

ups.

)

How

do

you

thin

k th

at th

ese

vario

usva

lues

mig

ht h

ave

help

ed th

e Ja

pane

seim

mig

rant

s in

"se

ttlin

g" in

the

U.S

.an

d es

tabl

ishi

ng c

omm

uniti

es?

How

do

you

thin

k th

at th

ere

mig

ht b

ea

conf

lict b

etw

een

valu

es s

tres

sed

in J

apan

,th

e U

.S. a

nd p

erha

ps o

ther

cou

ntrie

s.

Exa

mpl

es o

f val

ues

that

Jap

anes

eim

mig

rant

s br

ough

t with

them

incl

ude,

but a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

the

follo

win

g:

On

- O

blig

atio

nG

in -

Dut

yG

aman

- P

erse

vera

nce

Haz

ukas

hi -

Em

barr

assi

ngE

nryo

Res

erve

, Res

trai

nt (

Sel

f-di

scip

line)

Hap

- S

ham

eS

hika

taga

nai -

Acc

epta

nce

of c

hang

es in

circ

umst

ance

and

env

ironm

ent

Gen

eral

ly th

ese

valu

es s

tres

sed

grou

pco

oper

atio

n, h

arm

ony

and

cons

ensu

s:pr

ide,

acc

epta

nce

of a

cha

ngin

g en

viro

n-m

ent;

a st

rong

sen

se o

f gro

up o

blig

atio

nan

d du

ty. (

See

His

toric

al N

arra

tive

unde

r S

ectio

n I.)

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

Sam

urai

of G

old

HA

I(U

chid

a. Y

oshi

ko)

and

try

to id

entif

y so

me

of th

e va

lues

and

writ

e an

ess

ay a

s to

how

it a

ffect

ed th

e liv

es o

f thi

s fa

mily

inC

alifo

rnia

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts id

entif

y va

lues

str

esse

d in

the

U.S

. suc

h as

rug

ged

indi

vidu

alis

m.

Hav

e st

uden

ts o

rgan

ize

a de

bate

focu

sing

on th

e ad

vant

ages

and

lor

disa

dvan

tage

sof

var

ious

val

ues,

e.g

.,In

divi

dual

will

v. G

roup

har

mon

yC

ompe

titio

n v.

Coo

pera

tion

San

Die

go C

ity U

nifie

dS

choo

l Dis

tric

t, A

Gui

defo

r T

each

ing

and

Und

erst

andi

ngJa

pane

se A

mer

ican

His

tory

and

Cul

ture

Uch

ida,

Sam

urai

of G

old

Hill

(S

)

cz n

Con

cept

His

tory

Imm

igra

tion

How

do

you

thin

k th

at J

apan

ese

valu

esha

ve c

hang

ed?

Hav

e ot

her

grou

ps v

alue

sch

ange

d ov

er ti

me?

Why

do

you

thin

k th

at a

lot o

f Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

s ta

ke p

ride

in th

ese

valu

es?

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

and

inte

rvie

win

divi

dual

s ab

out t

he c

hang

es th

at h

ave

have

take

n pl

ace

in o

ther

gro

ups.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

cha

nges

that

hav

e ta

ken

plac

e in

the

U.S

., e.

g.,

from

a p

redo

min

antly

agr

icul

tura

l to

mor

e te

chno

logi

cal s

ocie

ty.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss th

e ad

vant

ages

and

disa

dvan

tage

s of

cha

nge,

e.g

., w

hat

are

som

e of

the

prob

lem

s th

at w

e fin

dto

day

in la

rge

urba

n ar

eas

that

we

wou

ldno

t hav

e fo

und

in s

mal

ler

agric

ultu

ral

com

mun

ities

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts c

ompl

ete

a m

atrix

tode

term

ine

adva

ntag

es/d

isad

vant

ages

of

an a

gric

ultu

ral o

r te

chno

logi

cal s

ocie

ty.

Key

Que

stio

ns

How

did

eve

nts

in U

.S. h

isto

ry a

ffect

Japa

nese

imm

igra

nts?

How

did

law

s he

lp o

r hu

rt J

apan

ese

imm

igra

nts?

How

do

you

thin

k yo

u w

ould

feel

if y

ouw

ere

unab

le to

be

a ci

tizen

and

hav

erig

hts?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t and

dis

cuss

the

follo

win

g ev

ents

:

1882

Chi

nese

Exc

lusi

on A

ctE

cono

mic

,La

bor

1886

Jap

anes

e go

vern

men

t aut

horiz

edIm

mig

ratio

n to

U.S

.Lab

orS

tude

nts

shou

ld b

e aw

are

that

Jap

anes

ew

ere

inel

igib

le fo

r ci

tizen

ship

and

vot

ing

right

s.

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

-cu

lture

(T

)

Eth

nic

new

spap

ers

and

publ

icat

ions

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Ric

hmon

d U

nifie

d S

choo

lD

istr

ict (

T)

Leat

hers

, Jap

anes

e in

Am

eric

an (

5)

tenB

roek

, Jac

obus

, Bar

nhar

t,M

atso

n, P

reju

dice

, War

and

The

Con

stitu

tion

Why

do

you

thin

k th

at it

was

unf

air

that

Japa

nese

imm

igra

nts

coul

d no

t buy

land

even

thou

gh th

ey h

ad th

e m

oney

to p

ayfo

r th

e la

nd?

Do

you

know

of o

ther

gro

ups

ofim

mig

rant

s th

at w

ere

not a

llow

ed to

to th

e U

.S.?

1906

Seg

rega

ted

scho

ol in

San

Fra

ncis

coes

tabl

ishe

d fo

r Ja

pane

se a

nd J

apan

ese

Am

eric

an s

tude

nts

1907

Gen

tlem

an's

Agr

eem

ent

1908

1913

Far

mer

s an

d la

bor

orga

niza

tions

pres

sed

for

Alie

n La

nd ta

w.

1920

Alie

n La

nd L

ease

Law

(C

alifo

rnia

)(O

ther

sta

tes

pass

ed s

imila

r re

stric

tive

law

s)19

24 O

rient

al E

xclu

sion

Act

Hav

e st

uden

ts w

rite

abou

t one

of t

hese

even

ts o

r la

ws

and

how

it a

ffect

edJa

pane

se

Dan

iels

, Pol

itics

of P

reju

dice

,C

hapt

ers

2.8

(T)

Dan

iels

, Ibi

d. C

hapt

ers

4.6

(1)

Dan

iels

, Ibi

d. C

hapt

er 7

(T

)

Why

do

you

thin

k Ja

pane

se c

omm

uniti

esde

velo

ped

and

for

wha

t rea

sons

do

you

thin

k th

ey w

ere

sepa

rate

d?

As

a re

sult

of p

revi

ous

read

ings

,st

uden

ts s

houl

d lis

t why

Jap

anes

eco

mm

uniti

es w

ere

esta

blis

hed,

e.g

.,la

ngua

ge, c

usto

ms,

law

s w

hich

pre

vent

edJa

pane

se fr

om li

ving

in c

erta

in a

reas

,fr

om b

orro

win

g m

oney

, etc

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t som

e of

the

soci

al o

rgan

izat

ions

that

wer

e fo

rmed

to h

elp

new

ly a

rriv

ed in

divi

dual

s.

JAC

L w

orks

hop

1

Wha

t rol

es(s

) di

d Ja

pane

se im

mig

rant

spl

ay in

U.S

. his

tory

and

wha

t ach

ieve

-m

ents

hav

e th

ey b

een

able

toac

com

plis

h?

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

evel

op a

mat

rix o

fva

rious

occ

upat

ions

. Ask

them

wha

tki

nds

of w

ork

mos

t im

mig

rant

s di

d w

hen

they

firs

t arr

ived

. E.g

.

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(1)

Ric

hmon

d U

nifie

d S

choo

lD

istr

ict (

1)

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re (

1)

Her

man

, Mas

ako,

The

Japa

nese

in A

mer

ica

See

sho

rt B

iogr

aphi

es a

ten

d of

sec

tion

also

.

Con

cept

His

tory

Mig

ratio

n

Rac

ial

Dis

crim

inat

ion

Key

Que

stio

ns

Did

you

kno

w th

at J

apan

ese

imm

igra

nts

and

thei

r ch

ildre

n w

ere

evac

uate

d an

dse

nt to

live

in fe

nced

cam

ps in

the

U.S

.?

How

do

you

thin

k yo

u w

ould

feel

if y

ouw

ere

forc

ed to

leav

e yo

ur h

ome,

pet

s,fr

iend

s an

d go

to a

str

ange

pla

ce lu

stbe

caus

e yo

u or

you

r an

cest

ors

cam

efr

om a

cer

tain

cou

ntry

?

Whe

re d

o yo

u th

ink

thes

e ca

mps

wer

elo

cate

d?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok th

roug

h th

e bo

okE

xecu

tive

Ord

er 9

066.

Ask

them

to d

escr

ibe

the

feel

ing

in th

epi

ctur

es.

Sho

w fi

lmst

rip o

f eva

cuat

ion.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss te

elin

gs d

escr

ibed

in J

ourn

ey to

Top

az.

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok a

t map

list

ing

loca

tions

and

num

bers

of p

eopl

e w

holiv

ed in

eac

h ar

ea.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Con

rat,

Exe

cutiv

e O

rder

906

6

JAC

L w

orks

hop

2

Uch

ida,

Jou

rney

to T

opaz

Map

of 1

0 R

eloc

atio

n C

ente

rs

Wha

t cha

nges

do

you

thin

k Ja

pane

sean

d Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

peo

ple

foun

daf

ter

leav

ing

the

cam

ps?

Wha

t cha

nges

do

you

thin

k m

ight

hav

eta

ken

plac

e in

the

Japa

nese

and

Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

peo

ple

afte

r ca

mp?

Wha

t cha

nges

do

you

thin

k m

ight

hav

eta

ken

plac

e am

ong

the

nonJ

apan

ese

peop

le?

Do

thin

gs in

you

r co

mm

unity

sta

y th

esa

me

all t

he ti

me?

Mos

t Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

s re

turn

ed to

thei

r ol

d ho

mes

and

oth

ers

mov

ed to

new

are

as w

here

diff

eren

t gro

ups

help

edpe

ople

to r

eset

tle, e

.g.,

Chi

cago

Res

ettle

men

t.

Con

duct

a fi

eld

stud

y to

nea

rby

com

mun

ity.

Kita

gaw

a, ls

sei a

nd N

isei

(1)

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

, p. 4

75-

Set

siik

o N

ishi

(T

)

Tho

mas

, Dor

othy

. The

Sal

vage

(I)

Con

cept

Com

mun

ities

Div

ersi

ty

cr)

Wha

t thi

ngs

(bui

ldin

gs, s

tore

s, h

ouse

s,ap

artm

ents

) or

peo

ple

have

cha

nged

?

Wha

t mig

ht b

e re

ason

s th

at c

ause

dch

ange

?

Do

you

thin

k th

at th

e re

mov

al o

fJa

pane

se a

nd J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

was

fair

or u

nfai

r?

Wha

t are

the

reas

ons

you

wou

ld g

ive

for

fairi

unfa

ir tr

eatm

ent?

Ask

stu

dent

s to

thin

k ab

out t

he d

iffer

ent

even

ts d

urin

g W

WII

and

the

trea

tmen

tof

Jap

anes

e an

d Ja

pane

se A

men

c.an

s an

dho

w it

hur

titie

lped

them

.

Org

aniz

e a

stud

ent d

ebat

e.

Stu

dent

s

Key

Que

stio

ns

Whe

re d

o Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

s liv

e in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes?

Act

iviti

es

Use

info

rmat

ion

from

the

1970

cen

sus

data

sho

win

g st

ates

in w

hich

Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

s re

side

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

find

out

whe

reco

mm

uniti

es o

f Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

s liv

e,e.

g., s

ome

area

s ha

ve g

reat

erco

ncen

trat

ions

of a

gro

up li

ving

in a

sta

te,

city

.

Ask

them

if th

ey li

ve in

citi

es, t

owns

,su

burb

s, fa

rms.

Fin

d 5.

25 J

apan

ese

Am

eric

an s

urna

mes

.Id

entif

y an

d pl

ot o

n co

mm

unity

map

.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

U.S

. cen

sus

bure

au s

tudy

U.S

. map

City

dire

ctor

ies

U.S

. cen

sus

data

Pop

ulat

ion

pyra

mid

s

U.S

. Dep

t. of

HE

W, A

sian

Am

eric

an A

ffairs

Offi

ce,

A S

umm

ary

of a

Stu

dy o

fS

elec

ted

Soc

io-E

cono

mic

Cha

ract

eris

tics

(T)

In w

hat w

ays

do y

ou th

ink

that

Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

com

mun

ities

may

be

alik

e or

diffe

rent

?

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok a

t the

num

bers

of

Japa

nese

Am

eric

ans

in d

iffer

ent

com

mun

ities

.

U.S

. map

In w

hat w

ays

do y

ou th

ink

that

indi

vidu

alJa

pane

se A

mer

ican

fam

ilies

who

do

not

live

in la

rger

eth

nic

com

mun

ities

may

be

alik

e or

diff

eren

t?

Hav

e st

uden

ts id

entif

y w

here

the

larg

est

num

bers

of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

live,

i.e H

awai

i, C

alifo

rnia

, (L.

A.,

San

ta A

na,

San

Fra

ncis

co),

Illin

ois

and

Was

hing

ton.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

iden

tity

othe

r st

ates

inw

hich

sm

alle

r nu

mbe

rs o

f Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

s liv

e, i.

e., O

rego

n, U

tah,

Pen

nsyl

vani

a, N

ew Y

ork,

etc

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts p

ick

one

area

whe

re y

ouw

ould

find

a J

apan

ese

Am

eric

anco

mm

unity

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

are

a, i.

e.,

city

, tow

n, c

ondu

ct fi

eld

trip

to s

eeac

tual

are

a an

d to

che

ck o

ut a

ccur

acy

of d

escr

iptio

n(s)

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

are

a, i.

e.,

city

, tow

n, e

tc.

Fin

d ou

t wha

t oth

er g

roup

s liv

e in

the

area

.

If st

uden

ts li

ve in

an

area

whe

re th

ere

is a

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

com

mun

ity,

perh

aps

the

stud

ents

cou

ld w

rite

lette

rsto

Jap

anes

e ne

wsp

aper

s, c

onta

ct a

loca

lor

gani

zatio

n or

com

mun

ity g

roup

to g

etcu

rren

t int

orm

atio

n ab

out t

he J

apan

ese

Am

eric

an c

omm

unity

. Pla

n a

field

trip

to v

isit

a Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

com

mun

ity.

Hel

p st

uden

ts to

com

pile

a p

rofil

e of

asp

ecifi

c Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

com

mun

ityfo

r w

hich

they

wer

e ab

le to

get

info

rmat

ion,

U.S

. cen

sus

data

Eth

nic

new

spap

ers

Japa

nese

Am

eric

an in

divi

dual

s

Boa

rd, b

utch

er p

aper

Do

you

thin

k th

at th

ere

are

diffe

renc

esbe

twee

n Ja

pane

se p

eopl

e liv

ing

in J

apan

,Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

peo

ple

and

othe

rgr

oups

livi

ng in

the

U.S

.?

Sho

w fi

lmst

rip o

n m

oder

n Ja

pan.

Bas

ed o

n th

e Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

prof

ile,

ask

stud

ents

to li

stso

me

of th

e th

ings

that

are

the

sam

e an

d di

ffere

ntab

out

Japa

nese

and

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

s an

dot

her

grou

ps in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

Use

sm

all r

esea

rch

grou

ps w

hich

will

be r

espo

nsib

le to

pres

ent i

nfor

mat

ion

to c

lass

by

usin

g re

port

s,m

aps,

disc

ussi

ons,

etc

.

Dou

bled

ay M

ultim

edia

Japa

n S

erie

s

U.S

, map

Map

of J

apan

Uch

ida,

His

ako'

s M

yste

ries

InB

etw

een

Miy

a

Do

you

thin

k th

at th

ere

are

diffe

renc

esH

elp

stud

ents

to d

evel

op a

pro

file

ofbe

twee

n Ja

pan

and

the

U.S

. as

coun

tnes

?th

e fo

llow

ing

usin

g Ja

pan

and

the

U.S

:

Tec

hnol

ogic

al in

dust

ries

Clim

ate

Gov

ernm

ent

Urb

anE

duca

tion

Sub

urba

nA

rts

Rur

alR

ecre

atio

nLa

ngua

geH

ousi

ng, e

tc.

Die

tH

olid

ays,

fest

ival

s

Are

a

(Not

e: In

form

atio

n no

t rea

dily

ava

ilabl

e fo

r da

tes

of d

eath

and

one

birt

h.)

Indi

vidu

alA

chie

vem

ent

Agr

icul

ture

Geo

rge

Shi

rna

(Bor

n 18

70,

Initi

ally

a la

bor

cont

ract

or. K

now

as

the

"Pot

ato

Kin

g" in

the

San

Joa

quin

del

taim

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. 189

0)ar

ea a

roun

d S

tock

ton.

Cal

iforn

ia. H

e w

as a

ble

to c

onve

rt Id

le a

nd m

osqu

ito-

infe

sted

mar

sh la

nds

into

pro

duct

ive

acre

age

to g

row

pot

atoe

s. S

erve

das

Pre

side

nt o

f the

Jap

anes

e A

ssoc

iatio

n of

Sto

ckto

n fo

r 13

yea

rs.

Juta

ro N

akat

a (b

orn

imm

igra

ted

to U

.S. 1

900)

Con

vert

ed b

arre

n de

sert

land

nea

r F

resn

o, C

alifo

rnia

into

pro

duct

ive

vine

yard

sS

erve

d as

dire

ctor

of I

ndus

tria

l Ban

k of

Fre

sno

and

Tru

stee

of t

he F

resn

oB

uddh

ist T

empl

e

Kan

aye

Nag

asaw

a (B

orn

1853

,B

orn

ricos

uke

Ison

aga

of S

amur

ai F

amily

in K

agos

him

a P

refe

ctur

e In

186

5im

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. 186

7)ch

osen

to v

isit

Eng

land

as

one

of th

e re

pres

enta

tives

of h

is P

rete

ctur

e S

pent

two

year

s in

Abe

rdee

n, S

cotla

nd a

nd r

etur

ned

to E

ngla

nd in

186

7 fo

r ed

ucat

ion

CS

-)M

et T

hom

as L

ake

Har

ris, a

n A

mer

ican

hum

anita

rian

and

was

per

suad

ed b

yH

arris

to c

ome

to th

e U

.S.(

New

Yor

k st

ate)

to p

artic

ipat

e in

the

"New

Life

"re

ligio

us s

ect.

In 1

875,

the

"New

Life

" m

oved

to C

alifo

rnia

whe

re th

e es

tate

of

Fou

ntai

ngro

ve (

San

ta R

osa.

Cal

iforn

ia)

was

est

ablis

hed.

In a

dditi

on to

rel

igio

usac

tiviti

es. v

iney

ards

. orc

hard

s, g

rain

pro

duct

ion

was

pur

sued

. Hor

sebr

eedi

ngw

as a

lso

purs

ued.

Ham

s ad

opte

d N

agas

awa

and

will

ed h

is e

stat

e to

him

.

Zin

taro

Yam

ada

(bor

n 18

76,

Firs

t to

intr

oduc

e m

oder

n sy

stem

in tr

uck

gard

enin

g in

Los

Ang

eles

are

a.im

mig

rate

d to

U.S

, 190

0)S

erve

d as

Pre

side

nt o

f the

Jap

anes

e F

arm

ers'

Ass

ocia

tion.

New

spap

ers

Kyu

taro

Abi

ko (

born

186

5,In

volv

ed in

pub

lishi

ng b

usin

ess.

Pre

side

nt a

nd G

ener

al M

anag

er o

f Jap

anes

eim

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. 188

5)ne

wsp

aper

, "T

he D

aily

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

," in

San

Fra

ncis

co P

resi

dent

of

Gos

pel S

ocie

ty c

onne

cted

with

Jap

anes

e M

etho

dist

Chu

rch.

Shi

ro F

ujio

ka (

born

187

9,im

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. 189

1)E

ngag

ed in

pub

lishi

ng b

usin

ess.

Edi

tor

of "

Nor

th A

mer

ican

Tun

es: J

apan

ese

daily

in S

eattl

e fo

r 8

year

s. M

oved

to L

os A

ngel

es a

nd w

as c

onne

cted

with

edito

rial d

epar

tmen

t of L

os A

ngel

es "

Raf

u S

him

po."

In 1

919-

1920

. Pre

side

ntof

Cen

tral

Jap

anes

e A

ssoc

iatio

n of

Sou

ther

n C

alifo

rnia

. Qur

ing

WW

II ac

tive

in R

ice

Cam

paig

n to

sen

d fo

od to

sta

rvin

g pe

ople

in E

urop

e.

ItsR

.Ke

re"

,eel

,

Fis

hing

Law

imm

igra

ted

to U

.S. 1

903)

1.0S

-K

inzo

Yas

ahar

a (b

orn

1867

,im

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. in

1903

)

Har

ry T

. Tom

io (

born

188

2,im

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. in

1889

)

Tor

uchi

ro H

on (

born

189

1,im

mig

rate

d to

U.S

. in

1906

)

Mas

ahar

u K

ondo

(bo

rn 1

877,

imm

igra

ted

to U

.S. i

n 19

08)

Kat

suta

ro T

anig

oshi

(bo

rn 1

880,

imm

igra

ted

to U

.S. i

n 18

94)

Med

icin

eP

eter

M. S

uski

, M.D

. (bo

rn 1

875,

imm

igra

ted

to U

.S. i

n 18

98)

Ent

erta

inm

ent

Kin

taro

Ses

sue

Hay

akaw

a (b

om 1

889)

imm

igra

ted

to U

.S. i

n 19

09)

Com

pany

in S

outh

ern

Cal

iforn

ia. D

urin

g W

WII,

act

ive

in s

eeki

ng J

apan

ese

invo

lvem

ent t

o se

cure

sub

scrip

tions

to R

ed C

ross

and

Lib

erty

Loa

ns.

Eng

aged

in H

otel

& B

rew

ery

busi

ness

in L

os A

ngel

es. A

t ons

et o

f Pro

hibi

tion

Law

, Bre

wer

y bu

sine

ss c

onve

rted

to J

apan

ese

Foo

d F

acto

ry fo

r N

ils°

(fer

men

ted

soy

bean

cur

d) a

nd S

oy S

auce

Fac

tory

. Als

o in

volv

ed in

shi

ppin

g to

Sou

ther

nC

alifo

rnia

and

farm

ing

in M

exic

o.

Edu

cate

d in

U.S

. Ran

one

on

the

larg

est d

epar

tmen

t sto

res

in S

outh

ern

Cal

iforn

ia.

Par

tner

and

gen

eral

man

ager

of H

ori B

roth

ers,

a la

rge

furn

ishi

ng s

tore

in L

osA

ngel

es.

Edu

cate

d at

Impe

rial U

nive

rsity

of J

apan

, app

oint

edas

Com

mis

sion

er o

fIm

peria

l Fis

herie

s In

stitu

te a

t Tok

yo. C

ondu

cted

inte

rnat

iona

lre

sear

ch o

nfis

hing

met

hods

and

fish

can

ning

. In

1908

, sur

veye

d P

acifi

cco

ast,

then

wen

t to

New

foun

dlan

d, E

ngla

nd, F

ranc

e, B

elgi

um, I

taly

, Ger

man

y, R

ussi

a,S

iber

ia,

Dar

ien

and

retu

med

to J

apan

in 1

911.

Dev

elop

ed fi

shin

g in

dust

ry in

San

Die

go,

Cal

iforn

ia in

191

2. O

rgan

ized

the

M &

K F

ishe

ries

Co.

Pre

side

nt o

f the

Mex

ican

Indu

stria

l Dev

elop

men

t Com

pany

of S

an D

iego

and

Pre

side

nt o

f the

Jap

anes

eA

ssoc

iatio

n of

San

Die

go. H

e w

as a

ctiv

e in

the

San

Die

go In

dust

rial E

xpos

ition

and

Am

eric

an W

ar R

elie

f org

aniz

atio

ns.

Atte

nded

Low

ell H

igh

Sch

ool (

San

Fra

ncis

co, C

alifo

rnia

). G

radu

ated

from

Wis

cons

in U

nive

rsity

in 1

902

and

grad

uate

d fr

om N

orth

wes

tern

Law

Sch

ool

in C

hica

go w

ith a

law

deg

ree

in 1

907.

Beg

an p

ract

icin

g la

w in

190

9 in

Los

Ang

eles

, Pre

side

nt o

f the

L.A

. Jap

anes

e A

ssoc

iatio

n an

d ac

tive

inw

ar a

ctiv

ities

for

Libe

rty

Loan

s, W

ar S

avin

gs, S

tam

ps, R

ed C

ross

and

oth

er r

elie

f org

aniz

atio

ns.

Als

o T

reas

urer

and

Tru

stee

for

the

Japa

nese

Chi

ldre

n's

Hom

e of

Sou

ther

nC

alifo

rnia

.

Wor

ked

as p

hoto

grap

her

whi

le s

tudy

ing

med

icin

e at

Uni

vers

ity o

f Sou

ther

nC

alifo

rnia

in 1

917.

Pra

ctic

ed m

edic

ine

in L

os A

ngel

es.

Atte

nded

Uni

vers

ity o

f Chi

cago

, maj

orin

g in

dra

ma.

Arr

ived

in L

osA

ngel

esin

191

2 an

d be

cam

e in

volv

ed w

ith le

gitim

ate

thea

ter.

Bec

ame

popu

lar

scre

enst

ar in

191

3.

Major Source Prefectures ofJapanese Immigrants to theUnited States 1880 1924

Hiroshirna°k°T°m°

Yamaguchi

FukuokaSaga,

NagasakiKumamoto

4

Oita

Kagoshima

Waka yomo

0 300 miles

Stole

Map courtesy of Professor John Estes, Santa Barbara, California

Maximum Capacity of the Ten Major Japanese AmericanRelocation Centers

Heart(10m.001111vm

II.

.wytAn

Tule La ke,Coan MP 0116,000) Minidoko, tdono

(10,000)

Llropoz.o.ch

0 (10,000) ronodo.ColMonson r,Co (8,000)(10.000) -L---

Poston,Artz.(20,000)ID 'Gila River,Aroz

(15,000)

0 0mries=131SCALE 100

Rohwe r,A rk"410,000)

JeromtATk(10,000)

Map courtesy of Professor John Estes, Santa Barbara, California

98

Map courtesy of Professor John Estes, Santa Barbara, California

101,

99

U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and WelfareOffice for Asian American Affairs

Washington, D.C.

A SUMMARY OF A STUDY OFSELECTED SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

JAPANESE AMERICAN HIGHLIGHTS

Immigration and Population

The Japanese Americans are the largest Asian American subgroup with a 1970population of 591,000 persons. 7 2% of all Japanese Americans live in Hawaiiand California.

Between 1960 and 1970, the Japanese American population in the United Statesincreased by 27%. Since 1970, the rate of Japanese immigration to the UnitedStates has remained low, averaging 5,000 persons per year. About two-thirdsof the additional persons added to the population since 1960 were attributableto births while the remaining third were new immigrants.

There has been a shift in the Japanese American population from one that ispredominantly male to one that is predominantly female and the gap is widening.Two factors are involved. first there is a higher percentage of Japanese femaleimmigrants and secondly women tend to outlive men. Males are now only 46%of the Japanese population, and among the elderly, only 43%.

Japanese Americans have a smaller percentage of young people under 18 intheir population than does the U.S. population as a whole (29% compared to34%). Part of this may be due to a lower birth rate among Japanese Americans.Another factor is a relatively high intermarriage rate between Japanese Americansand non-Japanese Amencans. The children and grandchildren of these parentsmay no longer be enumerated as Japanese by the Census.

The percentage of all Japanese American adults who are elderly (11% of persons18 and over) is lower than the, U.S. average (15%). In rural areas, the concen-tration of elderly Japanese Americans is higher (16% of persons 18 and over).

Among all immigrants who came to the United States prior to 1925, 91% havebecome U.S. citizens. But only 46% of all Japanese who immigrated this earlyhave become citizens.

Of all Japanese American males 16 and above, 70% have finished high schooland 19% have completed college figures well above the U.S. averages of54% and 13% respectively.

1.0Z100

As with the men the percentage of Japanese American women who havecompleted high school (6N is greater than the U.S. female norm (55%). Thedifference between the Japanese American and the total population is not asgreat tor women as tur men The percentage of all women in the U.S. (8%).The percentage, however, is lower than the percentage among women in theother Asian subgroups.

The eduction attainment of the elderly Japanese Americans is much lower.Japanese American males 65 years old and over have had a median of 8.5 yearsof education and elderly Japanese American females had had 7.9 years.

Over In of Japanese American children, 3-4 years old are in some type ofpreschool program This rs mon: than double the participation rate fortheU S (14%) Among the factors creating this higher enrollment rate is the veryhigh labor force participation rate of Japanese American women (nearly 50%).

The college enrollment for voting Japanese American adults 18.24 years old(56% of males and 48% of females enrolled) is higher than for any other groupexcept for the Chinese.

Employment Characteristics

Over the decade the proportion of Japanese American women in the laborforce increased from 44% to nearly 10%. The biggest change occurred in theproportion of married women in the work force. In 1960, only 12% of all JapaneseAmerican wives were working while in 1970 51% were.

The labor force participation rate ut Japanese American men (79%) is 2% higherthan the rate for males in the total population (77%).

Considerable differences exist between occupational distribution of JapaneseAmencans born in the United States and those born in Japan. 45% of all employedforeign-born Japanese American men are in so-called upper status white -collar occupations as professionals and managerial workers. Less than a thirdof the U S born men are in skilled and semi-skilled blue-collar Jobs whileonly 13%ot the foreign -born Japanese males are so employed.

Family Characteristics

86% of Japanese families have both husband and wife, the same rate as that ofthe country as a whole Of such families, the percentage with children under18 (61%) is higher than in the country as a whole (56%) while the percentagewith children under six (27%) is lust at the national rate, suggesting perhapsa lower birth rate among younger Japanese.

One third of all married Japanese American women have married outside oftheir ethnic group 4 3% of the women 25-44 years old and 46% of the 16-24years old are married to nun Japanese. Many of these women are post-WorldWar II Japanese wives of former American servicemen.

103101

Among Japanese American primary individuals (persons who Iwo alone) the

ratio of males to females is almost equal. I wo-thirds of all elderly JapaneseAmerican primary individuals, however, are women As in the total population,

many Japanese American women who have outlive their husbands are left

on their own in their old age.

Japanese American families are slightly larger than families in the total U Spopulation. The average white family in the United States contains 3 5 persons

while the average Japanese American family contains 3.7 persons I he fact that

the Japanese American family tends to be larger tilan average U S families is

due to extended family relationships, the presence ofadult relatives such asgrandparents, aunts and uncles, etc. While 12% oc all families are extended

families, among the Japanese American families, 16% are.

Educational Characteristics

68% of all U.S.-born Japanese American women are in white-collar occupationschiefly as clerical workers, on the other hand, 68% of the foreign-born womenare in blue-collar jobs.

While most of the foreign-born Japanese American males immigrated asprofessionals or as students, sizeable proportions of the foreign-born Japanesefemales are elderly or war brides. Hence the distribution of jobs of foreign-born males and foreign-born females differs sharply.

There is a clear evidence that many members of the Japanese Americanpopulation in the United States are underemployed. The proportion workingin higher status white-collar jobs has not kept up with the proportion who arecollege educated. The gap is greatest among Japanese of foreign birth Thereare only 0.9 foreign-born Japanese men in the higher status jobs for every onewho is college educated while there are 1.5 men in the total U.S populationemployed in the higher status jobs for every college educated male.

About 5% of all Japanese American males are employed on farms, the samepercentage as for men in the total population. Among the employed elderly,however, 15% are on farms. Another 22% of these elderly Japanese Americanmales are working as non -farm laborers.

Income

Almost a third (30%) of Japanese American men, 16 and over, earn less than

54,000 a year (almost the same as the national rate 3 I%) while another third(33%) of the JapaneseAmerican males earn over $10,000 a year Although one-third are among the middle and upper income groups, one-third are also amongthe low income groups in the U.S. society.

Only 51% of all U.S. families have more than one earner. In over half of allJapanese American families, both husbands and wives work. compared to only39% of the husbands and wives in the total population. Another factor is that

over a third of all Japanese Americans live in Hawaii where the cost of livingis at least 25% higher than the rest of the U.S.

58% of all employed Japanese Amer ion w omen are wining less than $4,000a year, This percentage is sm alder than the proportion of women in the totalpopulation ((AM) who earn a s little but tar higher than the proportion foundamong men in any ethnic gro up.

Except in Hawaii, the income levels of Japanese Amman families with a femalehead are similarly low. Only, 18% of such families in Hawaii, but nearly athird (IN of such families in California, and a very high 47% of such familiesin areas outside ut Hawaii and California survive on less than $4.000 a year.

Poverty Characteristics and Sources of Income

20% of all Japanese Amenc.on families are receiving Social Security whichis the same prOpul will as rest of the population. l he average amount ofSocial Security income that a panese American families are receiving is lowerthan the average anntunt rec.c.Nved by families in the total population however.

There is an average of 2.1 families in IRA erty for every one family receivingpublic assistance in the United States, the ratio for Japanese Americantamilies is 2.2 to one. The radio most unbalanced in states outside Hawaiiand California where there are f 8 Japanese American families with incomesbelow poverty for every one family on welfare.

Nationally, the rate of poverty among Japanese American families (,%) islower than the U.S average ( 11%) Of all Japanese American families outsideof Hawaii and California. hov-v ever. the rate of poverty is up to 11% equalto the U.S. average. 01 all to reign burn Japanese families, 1'% had incomesunder the poverty level in 1970. Of all Japanese American families in povert),twoMtths are female headed.

A fifth of all Japanese Americans, 65 years old and over are poor. Overhalt (58%) of them live alone_ Among Japanese Americans, a majority of theelderly poor %thy live alone are tsomen, many of whom have become widowed.

105

103

0

0

SELECTED DATA

1970 Census of Population U.S. Dept. of Commerce

Subject Reports:Japanese, Chinese and Filipinos

in the United States

POPULATION AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

Japanese and Japanese Americans by Place of Birth

Japanese Americans in the New England StatesJapanese Americans in the Middle Atlantic StatesJapanese Americans in the East South Central StatesJapanese Americans in the South Atlantic StatesJapanese Americans in the West South Central StatesJapanese Americans in the West North Central StatesJapanese Americans in the East North Central StatesJapanese Americans in the Mountain StatesJapanese Americans in the Pacific StatesJapanese Americans in New YorkJapanese Americans in IllinoisJapanese Americans in WashingtonJapanese Americans in California

JAPANESE AND JAPANESE AMERICANSBY PLACE OF BIRTH

1970 Census

19,114(49.02%)

19,901(50.98%)

11,467(31,69%)

29.025(68 11%)

12,781(45.09%)

15,567(54.91%)

n=10.(X) persons

foreignborn(20.88%)

77.116(16.17%)

106 104

native(79.12%)

199.682(81.83%1

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE NEW ENGLAND STATES1970 Census

Maine Male Total 3 08200.7%)215 Female Total. 4 488 (59.3%)

..-1, TOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION:7,570 (1.3%New Hampshire of total Japanese American population in U.S.)252

Vermont73

Rhode Island

744

Connecticut1571

Massachusetts4715

III = 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES(excluding New York)

1970 Census

Male Total: 4 703(40%)Female Total: 7 061(60%)Two-state Total: 11.761( 2% oftotal Japanese American population in U.S.)JA Population in New `took: .......... 19,794TOTAL REGIONAL POPUIATION- 31,555

New Jersey6344

r5ennsy vania417

0= 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE EAST SOUTH CENTRAL STATES1970 Census

Kentucky920

Tennessee857

Alabama1043

Mississippi378

Male Total. 1 161 (36.3%)Female Total: ..... .. . . .. 2.037 (63.7%)TOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION: 3.198 ( .5%of total Japaese American population in US.)

105

107[I= 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES1970 Census

Male Total: ... . 5.517 (33.6°0Female Totok .10.8105(66.4 °)TOTAL REGIONAL POKLATION: 16,41212.8* of total lapantse American populationin 11 S.)DeLmare

312

Maryland36 17

District of °luina716

Virginia1296

West k'rginia266

Nott110rolina2088

South Caroluo675

Ceorgra1 114

TIonda1968 0 = 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE WEST SOUTH CENTRAL STATES197() Census

Arkansas568

Louisiana876

Oklahoma1214

Male total 1,111 (35.2%)Female Total , . . 5,763 (64.8%)TOTAL Rf GIONAl LMION: 8,894 (1.5%of total Japanese American population in U.S.

108106

Texas6216

0= 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE WEST NORTH CENTRAL STATES1970 Census

Iowa773

North Dakota312

South Dakota199

7 Nebraska1253

Kansas1566

Minnesota Male Total. . 3,539 (38.8%);2693 Female Total: 5 577 (61.2%)

TOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION: 9,116 (1.6%of total Japanese American population in U.S.)

Missouri2320

= 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE EAST NORTH CENTRAL STATES(excluding Illinois)

1970 Census

Male Total. 6,172 (38.8%)Female Total. 9 737 (61.2%)Four-State Total. 15,909(2.7%of total Japanese Amencan population in U.S.)JA Population in Illinois: 17,64STOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION: 33,554

Indiana2100

Wisconsin2449

107

Ohio5896

Michigan

109

5464

0= 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE MOUNTAIN STATES

1970 Census

Montana613

Idaho2012

Wyoming457

Male Total. 9 330 (45.9%)Female Total. 10,988 (54.1%)TOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION: 20,318 (3.4%of total Japanese American populaiton in U.S.)

New Mexico937

Arizona2530

Utah4862

Nevada1046

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN THE PACIFIC STATES(excluding California, Washington, Hawaii)

1970 Census

Colorado7861

= 500 persons

Male Total. 3 088 (43.7%)Female Total. 3 979 (56.3%)Two-state Total: 7 067 (1.2%of total Japanese American population in U.S.)JA Population in California 213,277JA Population in Washington: 20,188JA Population in Hawaii. 217,175TOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION:.... 457,707

Alaska854

I : 110108

Oregon6213

= 500 persons

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN NEW YORK1970 Census

3551 750 = 100 persons

238170

of total JA population25211 6519794 (3.4%

269 60in U.S.)2941 55

3391 50

5261 45

6871 40

1066 1 35

I276 1 30

& Up 1 475

74 308

69 1 326

641 273

59 1 294

54 1 480

49 1 596

44 962

39

34

991 25 29

1 1227

1 1207

1 1266

725

4881

4501

418

20

15

10

5

10651 Under

Male Total 9,439(47.7%)

24 1 607

19 137814 1 438

9 1582

5 1 936

Female Total 10,355(52.3%)

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN ILLINOIS

1970 Census

2541 7 ,1741..ip 2840 = 100 persons118 71 74 284

17645 (3.0 161 65 202of total JA population 204 60 64 212in U.S.)

4291. 55 59 1 338

6081 50 54 1 503

862 1 45 49 I 953710 1 40 44 1 1082

551 1 35 0) 993

376 1 30 34 1 674

538 1 25

6931 20

774 1 15

673 1 10

833 1 5

587 1 Under

Male Total 8,371(47.4%)

29 l 551

24 1 626

19 1 733

14 1 719

9 1 625

5 1 495

Female Total 9,274(52.6%)

109

111

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN WASHINGTON1970 Census

354 1 75 & Up 1 4670= 100 persons

132 170 -74 1 349

.20188 (3.4% 208 1 65 -69 216of total JA population 1701 60 -4185in U.S.)

347 [ SS -59 1 270

5111 50 -54 1 584

953 1 45 -49 1 1092

577 1 40 -44 i 1407

526 1 35 -39 11195

3451 30 -34 1765

563,1 25 -29 1591

847 1 20 - 24 1 890

1097 1 1115 -19 978

949F 10 -14 981

9011 'S - 9 1 742

533 1 1503Under 5

Male T F'Total 8,973 emale Total 11,215(44.4%) (55.6%)

JAPANESE AMERICANS IN CALIFORNIA1970 Census

11= 500 persons2797 r 75

1679F 70213277 (36.3% 2293 1 65of total JA populationin U.S.) 20321 60

34111 55

65541 50

8420 1 45

83001 40

6775 1 35

64721 30

71291 25

79801 20

9479 1 15

101701 10

9221 1 5

7245 L 4

_ Male Total 100,2041 112 (46%), ...

& Up 1 3343

- 74 12520

- 69 1 2495

- 64 1 2058

- 59 1 3064

- 54 1 5676

- 49 1 9662

- 44 1 12426

- 39 1 11619

- 34 1 8910

- 29 1 8464

24 1 8461

- 19 1 8823

- 14 1 9558

- 9 1 8933

& Under 17061

Female Total 103,073(53%)

110

EMPLOYMENT CATEGORIES AND INCOME

Major Occupation Groups of Employed Femaleswithin Japanese American Population

Major Occupation Groups of Employed Maleswithin Japanese American Population

Employment Status of Japanese AmericanPopulation in the United States

Income of Japanese American Persons in 1969

MAJOR OCCUPATION GROUPS OF EMPLOYED FEMALESWITHIN JAPANESE AMERICAN POPULATION

(16 years old and over)

Major Occupation Groups

Professional, technicaland kindred workers

Ntinagers, administrators(except farm)

4,475(3.83%)

8,072(6.90%)

Sales workers

Clerical and kindredworkers

Craftsmen, foremen 2,124and kindred workers (1.82%)

Operatives, includingtransport

Laborers, except farm992( .85%)

Farmers and farm 750managers ( .64%)

Farm laborers and 1,752

foremen (1,50%)

Service workers,except private households

Private household 4,504workers (3.85%)

111

18,544(15.86%)

40,152(3434%)

15,729(13.45%)

19,824= 1,000 persons

(16.96%)

113

MAJOR OCCUPATION GROUPS OF EMPLOYED MALESWITHIN JAPANESE AMERICAN POPULATION

(16 years old and over)

Major Occupation Groups

MALE IN THE UNITED STATES(16 years and up)

Professional, technicaland kindred workers

Managers, adminstrators(except farm)

Sales workers

Clerical and kindredworkers

Craftsmen, foremenand kindred workers

Operatives, includingtransport

Laborers, except farm

Farmers and farmmanagers

Farm laborers andforemen

Service workers,except private household

Private householdworkers

17,263(11.74 %)

8,856(6.02%)

13,291(9.04%)

15,131(10.29%)

J14,6169.94%)

4,576(3.11%)

3,125(2.12%)

9,334(6.35%)

303( .21%)

31,539(21.45%)

29,020(19.73%)

= 1,000 persons

EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF JAPANESE AMERICAN POPULATION

Total

Urban

RuralNon -farm

RuralFarm

FEMALE(16 years and up)

Total

Urban

RuralNon- farm

RuralFarm

11986 (7.75 %)4406 (10.91%)

3882 (2.51701176 (2.91%)

0 = 10,000 persons

0 in labor force

not in labor force

120604

109592 (90.87%) 10785 1 (87.42%),

9257 (7.68%)12352 (10.01%)

1755 (1.45%)3167 (2.57%)

112

1 14

INCOME OF JAPANESE AMERICAN PERSONS IN 1969 (IN THE U.S.)

S 1 S999or loss

$1000 S1999

$2000 S2999

S3000 S3999

$4000 S4999

$5000 $5999

56000 S6999

$7000 S7999

$8000 S8999

S9000 - $9999

$10000 $14999

S15000 or mon,

15,668(8.59%)

135,688(21.87%)

17,323(9.49%)

i11,395(6.25%)

17,019(10.43%)

9,954(5.46%)

24,782( 15.19%)

17,391( 10.66%)

16,046(9,83%)

14,081(8.63%)

11,261(6.17%)

12,534(7.68%)

13,415(7.35%)

8,405(5.15%)

6,112(3.75%)

3,380(2.07%)

13,990(7.67%)

11,637(6.38%)

p= 1,000 persons

Emale, 16 yearsand upfemale, 16 yearsand up

6,232(3.82%)

1,511(.92%)

113

20,198(11.08%)

39,669421

115

Gra

des

7-8

The

teac

her

will

be

able

to h

ave

stud

ents

dev

elop

an u

nder

stan

ding

and

app

reci

atio

n fo

r th

e ch

arac

teris

tics

ofJa

pane

se a

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ther

imm

igra

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roup

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the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

assi

st th

em in

acq

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bette

r un

ders

tand

ing

of h

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char

acte

ristic

s ha

vecr

eate

det

hnic

com

mun

ities

that

hav

e ex

perie

nced

cha

nge

as a

res

ult o

f eve

nts

and

attit

udes

in th

e U

.S.

Con

cept

Imm

igra

tion

Div

ersi

ty

.1-

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t com

mon

diff

eren

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wou

ld m

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igra

nts

shar

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they

arr

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inth

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tate

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to s

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ach

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ps s

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roup

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ight

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iffic

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s in

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ustin

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a fo

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n co

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The

se c

hara

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istic

s sh

ould

incl

ude

but

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e lim

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llow

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Die

tC

loth

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Lang

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Hou

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Cus

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amily

life

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nom

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tions

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ups

iden

tify

and

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lite

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re (

incl

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s,pe

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cals

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n by

imm

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nts.

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gest

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esou

rces

Lern

er E

thni

c H

erita

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brar

y. 2

1 te

sts

(S)

,Han

dlin

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ar. T

heU

proo

ted:

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Epi

c S

tory

of th

e G

reat

Mig

ratio

ns th

atM

ade

the

Am

eric

an P

eopl

e (T

)

Sm

ith, R

ober

t & R

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sley

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anes

e C

ultu

re:

Its D

evel

opm

ent a

ndC

hara

cter

istic

s (S

) (T

)

Eth

nic

new

spap

ers

How

do

you

thin

k th

at y

ou w

ould

hav

efe

lt as

a "

Pio

neer

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mig

rant

to th

e U

.S.

at th

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rn o

f the

20t

h ce

ntur

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e st

uden

ts r

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rch

and

writ

e an

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thei

r fe

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s a

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to th

e U

.S. o

r ha

ve s

tude

nts

writ

ea

lette

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fam

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iend

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follo

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you

take

to m

ake

ahy

ing,

find

a h

ome,

go

to s

choo

ls if

you

wer

e an

imm

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nt?

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wou

ld y

ou fe

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bout

diff

eren

ces

in a

ttitu

des

and

way

s of

livi

ng b

etw

een

the

"old

cou

ntry

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eric

a?

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ld y

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kee

p th

ech

arac

teris

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of th

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untr

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om w

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you

emig

rate

d? D

id s

ocia

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onom

ican

d po

litic

al in

stitu

tions

in th

e U

.S.

enco

urag

e im

mig

rant

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mai

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cultu

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radi

tions

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hy n

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sons

mig

ht h

are

enco

urag

edim

mig

rant

s to

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nic

com

mun

ities

or

encl

aves

?

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do

you

thin

k th

at m

embe

rs o

f the

Japa

nese

com

mun

ity w

ould

see

them

-se

lves

? H

ow d

o yo

u th

ink

they

wou

ldde

scrib

e th

eir

ethn

ic c

omm

unity

? W

hat

inte

ract

ion

was

ther

e be

twee

n et

hnic

com

mun

ities

?

Hav

e st

uden

t gro

ups

sele

ct a

n ec

onom

ic,

polit

ical

or

soci

al fa

ctor

that

influ

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mat

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thni

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evie

w w

ritin

gs b

yJa

pane

se im

mig

rant

s w

hich

des

crib

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Japa

nese

com

mun

ity. H

ave

stud

ents

writ

e an

ess

ay r

egar

ding

the

com

mon

ly-

held

val

ues

and

com

posi

tion

of th

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mm

unity

.

Mor

i, T

oshi

o. Y

okoh

ama,

Cal

iforn

ia (

S)

Con

cept

"Am

eric

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izat

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"Mel

ting

Pot

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flict

Wha

t kin

ds o

f con

flict

do

you

thin

k th

atyo

u m

ight

exp

erie

nce

if yo

u w

ere

a ch

ildof

an

imm

igra

nt fa

mily

?

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

Nis

ei D

augh

ter

and

exce

rpts

from

The

Sal

vage

whi

ch d

iscu

ssth

e co

nflic

t for

Nis

ei (

seco

nd g

ener

atio

n)gr

owin

g up

in th

e U

.S.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ole

play

the

diffe

ring

attit

udes

bet

wee

n pa

rent

s an

d ch

ildre

ntr

ying

to fo

cus

on th

e ad

vant

ages

of

havi

ng tw

o di

ffere

nt c

ultu

res

to le

arn

from

.

Son

e, M

onic

a K

. Nis

eiD

augh

ter

(S)

(T)

Tho

mas

, Dor

othy

S. T

heS

alva

ge (

1)

Key

Que

stio

ns

Soc

ial i

nstit

utio

ns h

ave

push

ed fo

r th

e"A

mer

ican

izat

ion"

of i

mm

igra

nt g

roup

sto

the

U.S

.

Wha

t do

we

mea

n by

the

proc

ess

of"A

mer

ican

izat

ion"

and

how

doe

s th

ispr

oces

s af

fect

the

lives

of p

eopl

e w

hoim

mig

rate

to a

new

cou

ntry

?

How

do

you

thin

k it

affe

cted

per

sons

of

of J

apan

ese

ance

stry

?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

evie

w in

thei

r m

inds

,ch

arac

teris

tics

of J

apan

ese

imm

igra

nts,

how

they

des

crib

ed th

e U

.S. a

nd th

eir

com

mun

ities

and

the

way

s in

whi

chJa

pane

se im

mig

rant

s re

spon

ded

todi

fficu

lties

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss a

nd o

rgan

ize

afo

rum

to d

ebat

e th

e is

sues

pro

and

con

for

"Am

eric

aniz

atio

n" p

rogr

ams.

Stu

dent

s ar

guin

g pr

o an

d co

n sh

ould

incl

ude

the

follo

win

g to

pics

:

Wha

t do

you

thin

k w

as th

e pu

rpos

e fo

rco

nduc

ting

and

enco

urag

ing

"Am

eric

an-

izat

ion"

cla

sses

/pro

gram

s?

Wha

t rea

sons

wou

ld b

e gi

ven

by th

ego

vern

men

t, sc

hool

s, s

ocia

l org

ani-

zatio

ns, c

hurc

hes

to e

ncou

rage

the

"Am

eric

aniz

atio

n" o

f im

mig

rant

gro

ups?

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Han

d lin

, The

Upr

oote

d (T

)

Sm

ith, J

apan

ese

Cul

ture

:Its

Dev

elop

men

t and

Cha

ract

eris

tics

(1)

Bod

dy, E

. Man

ches

ter.

Japa

nese

in A

mer

ica,

Cha

pter

s IV

, VIII

, IX

. X, X

II.

Sco

tt F

ores

man

, Pro

mis

eof

Am

eric

a se

ries

(S)

Wha

t wou

ld b

e th

e de

sire

d pr

oduc

t of

thes

e "A

mer

ican

izat

ion"

atte

mpt

s?

Wha

t spe

cific

qua

litie

s w

ould

indi

vidu

als

have

who

par

ticip

ated

in "

Am

eric

an-

izat

ion"

effo

rts?

How

wou

ld th

ese

part

icip

ants

ben

efit

from

"A

mer

ican

izat

ion"

effo

rts?

Wha

t kin

ds o

f cha

nges

in v

alue

s,at

titud

es, c

usto

ms,

and

life

styl

es w

ere

mad

e by

Jap

anes

e im

mig

rant

s w

ho w

ere

deep

ly a

ffect

ed b

y th

e "A

mer

ican

izat

ion"

proc

ess?

How

did

they

see

thes

e ch

ange

s in

thei

row

n co

mm

uniti

es, t

heir

own

child

ren?

Our

nat

ion

has

been

des

crib

ed a

s a

"mel

ting

pot."

Wha

t do

we

mea

n by

the

term

"m

eltin

g po

t?"

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

and

disc

uss

the

exce

rpts

take

n fr

om in

terv

iew

s in

The

Sal

vage

whi

ch r

efle

ct c

hang

es a

ndco

nflic

ts in

val

ues,

atti

tude

s, c

usto

ms

and

life

styl

es. (

See

his

toric

al n

arra

tive

sect

ion

for

quot

atio

ns.)

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss th

e ch

ange

s th

atth

e im

mig

rant

s an

d th

eir

child

ren

foun

d in

thei

r co

mm

uniti

es a

nd o

ther

soc

ial

inst

itutio

ns.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

"m

eltin

gpo

t" th

eory

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

iden

tify

key

prin

cipl

esan

d ch

arac

teris

tics.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

be

aske

d to

com

pare

thes

e pr

inci

ples

and

cha

ract

eris

tics

toth

ose

espo

used

in th

e pr

oces

s to

deve

lop

a se

nse

of n

atio

nalis

m a

ndpa

trio

tism

.

Tho

mas

, The

Sal

vage

(T

)

Son

e, N

isei

Dau

ghte

r (5

)

Moy

niha

n, B

eyon

d th

e M

eltin

gP

ot (

1)

In r

ecen

t yea

rs, i

ndiv

idua

ls a

nd g

roup

sin

the

U.S

. hav

e ch

alle

nged

the

fund

amen

tal p

rinci

ples

of t

he "

mel

ting

pot"

theo

ry. W

hy d

o yo

u th

ink

that

ther

eha

s be

en a

rej

ectio

n of

the

prin

cipl

es o

fth

e "m

eltin

g po

t" a

nd w

hat a

ltern

ativ

esar

e in

divi

dual

s/gr

oups

see

king

?

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

esea

rch

"mel

ting

Poe

'an

d "c

ultu

ral p

lura

lism

" as

con

cept

s.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

trac

e pa

ttern

s in

the

U.S

.hi

stor

y to

com

pare

and

con

tras

t the

use

of "

Am

eric

aniz

atio

n" p

rogr

ams,

pro

-m

ulga

tion

of th

e m

eltin

g po

t the

ory

asm

6ans

by

whi

ch n

atio

nalis

m a

ndpa

trio

tism

cou

ld b

e ac

hiev

ed fo

r ci

tizen

sof

the

U.S

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

ana

lyze

the

proc

ess

tode

term

ine

the

mer

its a

nd d

emer

its o

fth

ese

proc

esse

s by

whi

ch a

nat

iona

lun

ity is

ach

ieve

d.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

con

duct

a fo

rum

toar

gue

pro

and

con

as to

the

valid

ity a

ndth

e su

cces

s/fa

ilure

of t

hese

pro

cess

es to

deve

lop

a st

rong

sen

se o

f nat

iona

l uni

ty,

natio

nalis

m a

nd p

atrio

tism

.

Stu

dent

s co

uld

rese

arch

issu

es in

U.S

.hi

stor

y as

follo

ws:

Stu

dent

pro

test

mov

emen

tV

ietn

ames

e W

arW

ater

gate

Civ

il rig

hts

prot

est m

ovem

ents

Imm

igra

tion

legi

slat

ion

and

Nat

ural

izat

ion

Han

d lin

, The

Upr

oote

d:T

he E

pic

Sto

ry o

f the

Gre

at M

igra

tions

that

Mad

e th

e A

mer

ican

Peo

ple

Com

issi

on o

n S

tude

nt U

nres

tC

omm

issi

on o

n C

ivil

Dis

orde

rsU

.S. C

omm

issi

on o

n C

ivil

Rig

hts

U.S

. Com

mis

sion

on

Asi

anA

mer

ican

Civ

il R

ight

sH

earin

gs 1

975

(5)

(T)

U.S

. Sen

ate

Sub

com

mitt

eeH

earin

gs o

n E

qual

Edu

catio

nal

Opp

ortu

nitie

s 19

72

The

teac

her

will

be

able

to h

ave

stud

ents

dev

elop

the

abili

ty to

mak

e in

depe

nden

t dec

isio

ns a

bout

prin

cipl

es o

f the

U.S

. con

stitu

tion

base

d up

on h

isto

rical

, eco

nom

ic, l

egal

fact

s in

con

tras

t with

atti

tude

s th

at a

re b

ased

upo

n ra

cial

dis

crim

inat

ion.

Con

cept

Law

-Equ

al

Pro

tect

ion

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t hap

pene

d to

Jap

anes

e al

iens

and

Japa

nese

Am

eric

ans

durin

g W

WII

that

affe

cted

or

abrid

ged

cons

titut

iona

lpr

inci

ples

?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok a

t Exe

cutiv

e O

rder

9066

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts s

umm

ariz

e pr

ovis

ions

of

the

orde

r.

Hav

e st

uden

ts lo

ok a

t pic

ture

s in

Exe

cutiv

e O

rder

906

6

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

eact

to th

e or

der.

Ask

stud

ents

how

they

wou

ld r

eact

if th

eyw

ere

a pe

rson

of J

apan

ese

ance

stry

and

they

wer

e or

dere

d to

leav

e th

eir

hom

e,fr

iend

s, e

tc. b

ecau

se th

e U

.S.

gove

rnm

ent h

ad d

ecla

red

war

aga

inst

the

Japa

nese

gov

ernm

ent.

If yo

u ha

d 8

day

to g

athe

r up

the

thin

gslis

ted

on th

e ev

acua

tion

orde

r, w

hat

thin

gs w

ould

you

take

with

you

?

Wha

t arr

ange

men

ts c

ould

be

mad

e to

sell

the

hous

ehol

d go

ods

and

belo

ng;in

gsth

at y

ou w

ere

not a

ble

to ta

ke w

ithyo

u?

Thi

nk a

bout

the

step

s yo

u w

ould

hav

eto

go

thro

ugh

if yo

u ha

d to

mov

e an

dse

ll pr

oper

ty.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Cop

y of

EO

906

6A

nnou

ncem

ent

Con

rat,

Exe

cutiv

e O

rder

906

6 (S

)

Ishi

go, L

one

Hea

rt M

ount

ain

(5)

Oku

bo, C

itize

n 13

660

(S)

Uch

ida,

Jou

rney

to T

opaz

(S

)

Con

cept

Pow

er

Law

Wha

t arr

ange

men

ts c

ould

you

mak

e to

sell

prop

erty

and

set

the

true

val

ue in

a fe

w d

ays?

Hav

e st

uden

ts tr

y to

inte

rvie

w a

per

son

who

was

impr

ison

ed in

cam

p du

ring

WW

II.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

try

to fi

nd o

ut w

hat

hisl

her

feel

ings

wer

e in

cam

p an

d ho

whe

/she

feel

s no

w a

bout

the

expe

rienc

e.

If a

Japa

nese

Am

eric

an c

omm

unity

pers

on is

not

ava

ilabl

e to

inte

rvie

w.

s sh

ould

rea

d on

e of

the

book

sith

the

expe

rienc

e an

d w

rite

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

biog

raph

ical

ske

tche

sw

ritte

n by

indi

vidu

als

in c

amps

. (T

hese

can

be d

ittoe

d.)

Com

mun

ity in

divi

dual

or

reso

urce

per

son.

Han

sen,

et a

l. V

oice

s Lo

ngS

ilent

(T

)

Tho

mas

, The

Sal

vage

(1)

Key

Que

stio

ns

Who

has

the

pow

er(s

)/au

thor

ity to

pas

sla

ws

or is

sue

an o

rder

suc

h as

the

one

that

req

uire

d pe

rson

s of

Jap

anes

ean

cest

ry to

go

to "

War

Rel

ocat

ion

Cen

ters

?"

Wha

t is

mea

nt b

y a

"War

Rel

ocat

ion

Cen

ter?

"

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts u

nder

stan

d th

e te

rmE

xecu

tive

Ord

er a

s a

cons

titut

iona

l pow

erof

the

Pre

side

nt (

Chi

efE

xecu

tive)

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts u

nder

stan

d th

e te

rmle

gisl

ativ

e po

wer

as

a co

nstit

utio

nal

pow

er g

rant

ed to

Con

gres

s to

ena

ct la

ws.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Qui

gley

, et a

l. C

ivil

Gov

ernm

ent (

S)

(1)

A C

ivic

s C

aseb

ook,

Uni

t IV

Con

cept

Pow

er

Law

Rac

ial

Pre

judi

ce

Wha

t con

stitu

tiona

l prin

cipl

e m

ay h

ave

been

vio

late

d du

ring

the

evac

uatio

n?

t,

Wha

t pro

visi

ons

or s

afeg

uard

s ar

e se

tfo

rth

in th

e 14

th A

men

dmen

t?

Fou

rtee

nth

Am

endm

entE

qual

Pro

tect

ion

Und

er th

e La

w (

Sim

ilar

activ

ities

can

be

deve

lope

d fo

r F

iftee

nth

Am

endm

ent-

Due

Pro

cess

End

o v.

U.S

.)

"All

pers

ons

born

or

natu

raliz

ed in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes,

and

sub

ject

to th

e ju

risdi

c-tio

n th

ereo

f, ar

e ci

tizen

s of

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

of th

e S

tate

whe

rein

they

resi

de. N

o S

tate

sha

ll m

ake

or e

nfor

cean

y la

w w

hich

sha

ll ab

ridge

tfie

priv

ilege

sor

imm

uniti

es o

f citi

zens

of t

he U

nite

dS

tate

s; n

or s

hall

any

Sta

te d

epriv

e an

ype

rson

of l

ife, l

iber

ty, o

r pr

oper

ty,

with

out d

ue p

roce

ss o

f law

, nor

den

y to

any

pers

on w

ithin

its

juris

dict

ion

the

equa

l pro

tect

ion

of th

e la

ws.

"

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss w

hat t

hat m

eans

inte

rms

of th

eir

indi

vidu

al r

ight

s an

d th

erig

hts

of o

ther

s.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

und

erst

and

that

no

othe

ret

hnic

or

raci

al g

roup

s w

ere

affe

cted

inth

e sa

me

man

ner

alth

ough

war

had

bee

nde

clar

ed u

pon

Ger

man

y an

d Ita

ly a

s w

ell.

Qui

gley

, et a

l. G

vil

Gov

ernm

ent (

S)

(T)

A C

ivic

s C

aseb

ook,

Uni

t IV

(V

)

Key

Que

stio

ns

Who

wer

e th

e in

divi

dual

s in

pos

ition

s of

pow

er to

effe

ct th

e ev

acua

tion?

Gov

ernm

ent o

ffici

als

Oth

er in

stitu

tions

Oth

er o

rgan

izat

ions

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

esea

rch

and

iden

tify

indi

vidu

als

who

pla

yed

a si

gnifi

cant

rol

ein

dec

idin

g th

e fa

te o

f per

sons

of

Japa

nese

anc

estr

y.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Dan

iels

, Con

cent

ratio

nC

amps

US

A: J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

and

Wor

ld W

ar 1

1(T

)

Key

indi

vidu

als

mig

ht in

clud

e:P

resi

dent

Fra

nklin

Roo

seve

lt-

Sec

reta

ry o

f War

Hen

ry L

. Stim

son

Gen

eral

Joh

n D

e W

ittA

ttorn

ey G

ener

al E

arl W

arre

n (C

alifo

rnia

)

Org

aniz

atio

ns, i

nstit

utio

ns:

AF

L-C

IOS

ons

and

Dau

ghte

rs o

f the

Gol

den

Wes

tA

mer

ican

Leg

ion

Ne.

vspa

paer

s, e

.g.,

Hea

rst p

ublic

atio

ns

Bos

wor

th, A

mer

ica'

sC

once

ntra

tion

Cam

ps (

T)

0

Dan

iels

, The

Dec

isio

n to

Rel

ocat

e th

e Ja

pane

seA

mer

ican

s (T

)

1941

.42

new

spap

ers,i ...

_,pe

riodi

cals

Pac

ific

Citi

zen,

194

1-42

Wha

t ide

as, a

ttitu

des

and

feel

ings

did

thes

e in

divi

dual

s in

pow

er h

ave

abou

tpe

rson

s of

Jap

anes

e an

cest

ry?

Do

you

thin

k th

at th

ere

was

rac

ial d

is-

crim

inat

ion

in p

laci

ng p

erso

ns o

fJa

pane

se a

nces

try

in c

amps

? W

hy o

rw

hy n

ot?

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

res

earc

h an

d re

view

actio

ns a

nd s

tate

men

ts c

onta

ined

inne

wsp

aper

s, p

ictu

res

of th

e pe

riod,

etc

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

evel

op a

pro

file

listin

gfa

cts

and

ster

eoty

pes

of p

erso

ns o

fJa

pane

se a

nces

try.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ole

play

the

disc

ussi

ons

of k

ey in

divi

dual

s.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

evel

op a

rgum

ents

of

thos

e w

ho w

ante

d th

e ev

acua

tion.

Gui

lty B

y R

easo

n of

Rac

e (f

ilm)

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re (

T)

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(T

)

Gird

ner

& L

oftis

, The

Gre

at B

etra

yal (

T)

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

evel

op a

rgum

ents

for

indi

vidu

als

who

opp

osed

the

evac

uatio

ne.

g., N

orm

an T

hom

asW

ayne

Col

lins

(Am

eric

an C

ivil

Libe

rtie

ss-

Uni

on o

f Nor

ther

n C

alifo

rnia

)A

.L. W

inn

(Am

eric

an C

ivil

Libe

rtie

s U

nion

Pea

rl B

uck

Ree

d Le

wis

(C

omm

on C

ounc

il fo

rA

mer

ican

Uni

ty)

Am

eric

an F

riend

s S

ervi

ce C

omm

ittee

Ask

stu

dent

s to

mak

e a

deci

sion

as to

wha

t the

y w

ould

do

in a

sim

ilar

situ

atio

nan

d to

exp

lain

rea

sons

for

deci

sion

.

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t pre

viou

s le

gisl

atio

n ha

d be

enen

acte

d at

the

Fed

eral

, Sta

te, l

ocal

leve

lsth

at a

ffect

ed p

erso

ns o

f Jap

anes

ean

cest

ry?

Con

side

r fa

ctor

s su

ch a

s ec

onom

icga

in o

r lo

ss.

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

evie

w a

nd a

naly

ze:

1907

-190

8 G

entle

men

's A

gree

men

tP

urpo

se: t

o re

stric

t Jap

anes

e im

mig

ratio

n

1913

Alie

n La

nd L

aw (

Cal

iforn

ia)

Pur

pose

: to

proh

ibit

land

ow

ners

hip

byJa

pane

se a

liens

bec

ause

of a

bilit

y to

effe

ctiv

ely

farm

unw

ante

d la

nd.

Dis

cuss

how

the

lsse

i pur

chas

ed p

rope

rty

unde

r th

eir

child

ren'

s na

mes

, who

wer

eci

tizen

s of

the

U.S

. by

birt

h.

Dis

cuss

oth

er a

ltern

ativ

es th

at s

tude

nts

mig

ht p

ursu

e if

they

wer

e pr

ohib

ited

from

pur

chas

ing

land

.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Leat

hers

, The

Jap

anes

ein

Am

eric

a

New

spap

aers

, per

iodi

cals

of th

at p

erio

d

Zen

ger

Pro

duct

ions

, Rel

ocat

ion

of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans:

Rig

htor

Wro

ng?

Japa

nese

Am

eric

an C

urric

ulum

Pro

ject

, Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

s:A

n In

side

Loo

k

Dan

iels

, The

Pol

itics

of

Pre

judi

ce (

T)

1920

Alie

n La

nd L

ease

Law

(C

alifo

rnia

)P

urpo

se: t

o pr

ohib

it th

e pu

rcha

se o

rle

asin

g of

land

by

a Ja

pane

se a

lien

or b

ya

non-

adul

t age

citi

zen

Dis

cuss

alte

rnat

ives

that

stu

dent

s w

ould

purs

ue if

they

cou

ld n

ot b

uy o

r le

ase

land

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss w

hat e

ffect

s th

isla

w w

ould

hav

e up

on th

e ab

ility

tose

cure

bas

ic n

eeds

and

live

lihoo

d.

1924

Orie

ntal

Exc

lusi

on A

ctP

urpo

se: t

o pr

ohib

it im

mig

ratio

n fr

omA

sian

cou

ntrie

s

Wha

t priv

ate

form

s of

rac

ial d

iscr

imi-

natio

n w

ere

prac

ticed

by

indi

vidu

als

beca

use

of s

tere

otyp

ic a

ttitu

des

and

fear

of e

cono

mic

gai

n by

per

son

of J

apan

ese

ance

stry

?

Japa

nese

alie

ns c

ould

not

bec

ome

citiz

ens

and

ther

efor

e, d

id n

ot h

ave

the

right

to v

ote.

Per

son

of J

apan

ese

ance

stry

cou

ld n

otliv

e in

cer

tain

are

as.

Per

sons

of J

apan

ese

ance

stry

cou

ld n

otse

ek e

qual

em

ploy

men

t opp

ortu

nitie

sbe

caus

e of

em

ploy

er d

iscr

imin

atio

n.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss in

term

s of

cur

rent

situ

atio

n. H

ousi

ng d

iscr

imin

atio

n, e

qual

empl

oym

ent f

or m

inor

ities

and

wom

en,

etc.

Hou

sing

cov

enan

t(s

ampl

e at

end

of s

ectio

n)

Con

cept

Div

ersi

ty

Con

flict

Key

Que

stio

ns

Why

do

you

thin

k it

mig

ht b

e ne

cess

ary

for

pers

ons

of J

apan

ese

ance

stry

to fo

rmgr

oups

or

orga

niza

tions

to p

rote

ct th

eir

right

s?

Wha

t typ

es o

f ser

vice

s do

you

thin

k th

eyw

ould

pro

vide

?

Act

iviti

es

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

res

earc

h th

e ro

le o

fva

rious

gro

ups

and

orga

niza

tions

suc

h as

the

Japa

nese

Ass

ocia

tions

, Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

Citi

zens

Lea

gue,

new

spap

ers.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(S

) (1

)

Pac

ific

Citi

zen

Eth

nic

new

spap

ers

Ichi

hasi

, Jap

anes

e in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

(T)

Wha

t leg

al a

ctio

n di

d so

me

indi

vidu

als

take

to c

halle

nge

the

cons

titut

iona

lity

of th

e ev

acua

tion?

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

Sup

rem

eC

ourt

dec

isio

n: T

oyos

abur

o K

orem

atsu

v. U

.S.

Sim

ilar

activ

ities

can

be

deV

'elo

ped

for

Hira

baya

shi v

. U.S

. and

End

o v.

U.S

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

a su

mm

ary

of th

ede

cisi

on a

nd a

naly

ze th

e re

ason

s gi

ven

by th

e co

urt t

o up

hold

the

cons

titut

ion-

ality

of t

he r

efus

al to

leav

e a

rest

ricte

dar

ea.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

und

erst

and

the

vote

of

the

just

ices

. Thr

ee ju

stic

es d

isse

nted

inth

eir

opin

ion.

The

y w

ere

Just

ices

Ow

en R

ober

ts, F

rank

Mur

phy

and

Rob

ert J

acks

on.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

and

anal

yze

the

reas

ons

for

diss

entin

g op

inio

ns in

the

cour

t's d

ecis

ion

to c

onvi

ct K

orem

atsu

.

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(T

)

tenB

roek

, et a

l. P

reju

dice

,W

ar a

nd th

e C

onst

itutio

n (T

)

Sup

rem

e C

ourt

Rep

orte

r

(see

abr

idge

d su

mm

aies

of

cour

t dec

isio

ns a

t end

of

sect

ion

for:

Kor

emat

su v

. U.S

Hira

baya

shi v

. U.S

.E

ndo

v. U

.S. (

due

proc

ess)

Do

you

agre

e or

dis

agre

e w

ith th

eS

upre

me

Cou

rt d

ecis

ion

that

uph

eld

the

crim

inal

con

vict

ion

of K

orem

atsu

?

Hav

e st

uden

ts c

ondu

ct a

moc

k tr

ail.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

pre

pare

arg

umen

ts fo

rth

e C

ourt

, the

dis

sent

ing

Just

ices

, the

atto

rney

s fo

r th

e pl

aint

iff K

orem

atsu

and

atto

rney

for

the

Gov

ernm

ent.

The

se in

divi

dual

s ar

eJu

stic

e H

ugo

Bla

ckJu

stic

e F

elix

Fra

nkfu

rter

Atto

rney

Way

ne C

ollin

s an

d C

harle

sH

orsk

y fo

r pl

aint

iffU

.S. S

olic

itor

Gen

eral

Cha

rles

Fah

y

Wha

t effe

cts

do y

ou th

ink

that

the

Kor

emat

su d

ecis

ion

had

upon

per

sons

of

Japa

nese

anc

estr

y an

d ot

her

raci

aVet

hnic

grou

ps a

nd to

the

prin

cipl

es o

fde

moc

racy

as

set f

orth

in o

urco

nstit

utio

n?

Wha

t alte

rnat

ives

wer

e av

aila

ble

tope

rson

s of

Jap

anes

e an

cest

ry in

res

pons

eto

the

Exe

cutiv

e O

rder

and

to s

igni

nglo

yalty

oat

h qu

estio

nnai

res?

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss im

plic

atio

ns in

term

s of

indi

vidu

al r

ight

s an

d rig

hts

ofot

hers

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

biog

raph

ical

ske

tche

sor

com

men

ts o

f ind

ivid

uals

who

prot

este

d an

d di

sagr

eed.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

con

flict

betw

een

indi

vidu

als

who

thou

ght t

heor

der

shou

ld b

e ob

eyed

and

thos

e w

hopr

otes

ted.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ole

play

the

conf

lict t

hat

took

pla

ce in

the

vario

us c

amps

.

442n

d -

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t the

all N

isei

uni

ts th

at w

ere

form

ed a

ndal

low

ed to

join

U.S

. mili

tary

.

Qui

gley

, et a

l.

Tho

mas

and

Nis

him

oto,

The

Spo

ilage

(T

)

Tho

mas

, The

Sal

vage

(T

)

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(T

)

Mar

tin, B

oy fr

om N

ebra

ska

(S)

Inou

ye &

Elli

ott,

Jour

ney

to W

ashi

ngto

n (S

)Lo

yalty

que

stio

nnai

res

at e

nd o

f sec

tion)

._

Con

cept

Con

flict

Div

ersi

ty

Law

Con

cept

Con

flict

Div

ersi

ty

Com

mun

ity

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t oth

er le

gal a

ctio

n w

as ta

ken

topr

otec

t the

rig

hts

of p

erso

ns o

f Jap

anes

ean

cest

ry u

nder

the

14th

Am

endm

ent?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t and

iden

tify

issu

es a

nd fa

cts

for

the

follo

win

g co

urt

case

s an

d la

ws:

The

Peo

ple

v. O

yam

a

Sen

Fuj

i v. C

alifo

rnia

Mas

aoka

v. C

alifo

rnia

Tak

ahas

i v. F

ish

and

Gam

e C

omm

issi

on

1952

Wal

ter-

McC

arra

n Im

mig

ratio

nan

d N

atur

aliz

atio

n A

ct

1971

Rep

eal o

f Int

erna

l Sec

urity

Act

of 1

950

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Sup

rem

e C

ourt

Rec

orde

r

Bar

thol

omew

, Pau

l. S

umm

arie

sof

Lea

ding

Cas

es o

n th

eC

onsi

tutio

n (T

)

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(S

) (T

)

Cus

hman

, Rob

ert F

. lea

ding

Con

stitu

tiona

l Dec

isio

ns (

T)

Key

Que

stio

ns

Japa

nese

Am

eric

ans

have

bee

n ca

lled

the

"mod

el m

inor

ity."

Why

do

you

thin

kth

at th

is te

rm h

as b

een

appl

ied

toJa

pane

se A

mer

ican

s?

Do

you

thin

k th

at th

is is

a v

alid

, fac

tual

stat

emen

t? If

yes

, why

? or

why

not

?

Why

do

you

thin

k th

at J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

have

bee

n re

gard

ed to

hav

e"m

ade

it" in

the

U.S

.?H

ow d

o Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

s op

erat

e in

a pl

ural

istic

soc

iety

?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss c

once

pt o

f ste

reo-

typi

ng o

f eco

nom

ic c

lass

es, n

eigh

bor.

hood

s, p

hysi

cal c

hara

cter

istic

s.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

exa

min

e m

edia

, new

s-pa

pers

, adv

ertis

emen

ts, T

.V.

com

mer

ical

s an

d pr

ogra

ms.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

dis

cuss

the

Hor

atio

Alg

erm

yth.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Ant

i-Def

amat

ion

Leag

ue,

Dis

tort

ed Im

age

(slid

es)

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re

New

spap

ers

New

swee

k, J

anua

ry 1

971

"Out

whi

ting

the

Whi

tes"

r 130....

MATERIALS FOR TEACHER USE

I. Copy of Executive Order 9066

II. Sample of Restrictive Housing Covenant

III. Summaries of Supreme Court Decisions:A. Hirabayashi v. U.S.B. Korematsu v. U.S.

C. Endo v. U.S.

IV. Sample of Loyalty Questionnaire

4

128

WESTERN DEFENSE COMMAND AND FOURTH ARMYWARTIME CIVIL CONTROL ADMINISTRATION

residio of San 'Francisco, CaliforniaMay 3, 1942

INSTRUCTIONSTO ALL PERSONS OF

JAPANESEANCESTRY

Living in the Following Area:AO of that moll. of the ate of lam Saint... State of t Wesel*. ItIo 11.1 osiodaty begiamlaa YIW Fiat al .1.6 ffortl Plea.... 'trot awn IIse folloakog the milk of the I. A.A. Rim:thew, wethorly sad halo..r the mald lip 4 ram I cit Mewl. theare..4ely f ast Heat Stoutto Alarsaa Stn.: the.. natMely w AIa oil. Short I. 1 ..i 11.4 street. the.. ftstho.terly *aK M Med Wart I. Sala Shoot; am. . Maas al.eel to f or.' street: thee. .41.

Heal tint 4 neon. Stn.; thou. .rtheosterly Noe. Mr. to the plot of

P111.111t to the provisions of Civilian Eztlusion Order No. 33. this Ilcolquarti f II at .1 Ma 3. 1942, all per.seas of Jainism ancestry. both alien and nonaben. will be evacuated from the Mile area by 12 cielock soon,P. W. T.. Saturday. May 9, 1942.

No Japanese penes living in the above area will be permitted to change residence after 12 cirlock noon, P. W. T.,Sunday, May 3. 1942, without obtaining special permission from the repre,otatile of the Commanding Gm

Southern California Sector, at the Civil Control Station located acJapanese Union Church.120 North San Pedro Street.Los Angel.. California.

sari yeesaiu will only be greeted for the purpose of uniting members of a family. or in vases of grave emergency.The Civil Control Station is equipped to mist the Japanese population affected by this eiacuation in the fol.

Mies waysI. Give Mkt aad immetion on the evacuative.2. Provide servioss with respect to the maagemest, lesming, sale. storage or other deposition of most kinds

ef poperty. seek m real estate, Mims sad professional equipment. household goods. boats. automobiles andlimmark.

I Provide Mperary miaow showier. foe all Japanese is family groups.4. Timms puma and limited smust of clothing and equipment to their new residence.

ml Pellewbes bisinmeless Mss be Observe&I. A respamUrle awake of ads family. preferably the head of the family, or the person in whose name moat of

the praterty is kid. and airs individual living alone, will report to the Ciiil Control Station to receive furtherlasnetiona. This must be dose between POO A. M. and SAO P. 31. on Monday, May 4. 1942, or between1103 A. M. tail SAO P. M. on Tuesday, May S. 1942.

2. Enema must awry with them on departure for the Assembly Center. the following property:(a) %Ai* ad limns (se mem) far web member of the family;(b) Tdlsi arsislos for mak messier rof the family;(e) Intra nimbi for GM maw 0 the family;(II) Snlieisst harm Mita spoom plates, howls sad cur for each member of the family;(s) llanimialrinew "eau Nees& member of the family.All item atrial will be ammly packaged. tied and plainly marked with the name of the owner and numbered

in accordance with issirnetioss obtained at the Civil Control Station. The sue and number of packages is lies.heti to that which cm be carried by tbe individual or family group.

3. Ns pets a any kind will be permitted.4 No personal items sad no bou.ebold goods will be .hipped to the Assembly Center.S. The United States Goverment through its agencies will provide for the storage. at the sole nal of the owner.

of the Imo Martial Imeekald lima, slaw ss iceboxes. wmhing mehiaes. pianos sad other kart furniture.OM* and ether mall items will be accepted for storage if tested. packed and plainly marked with thesame ad Minim of tbe owner. Only one name and address will be used by a given family.

6. Eaeh family, and individual living alone, will be furnished transportation to the Assembly Center or will beautkoriasol to travel by private automobile in supervises-1 group. AU instructions pertaining to the movement willbe obtained at the Civil Control Station.

S. Os Ib. Chril Osetred WOW. beim.. e. 1...n a we. A. O. ess2 2400 I. IL,Meedsi, May 4, 1042. me Isehomas lb. been of wee A. M. end Isle P. AL,1000104 MeV S. WM Is maim fsm0sev lastreMems.

1. I. DeWITTLieutenant General. U. S. Army

eves. ~WPM MOW NO H. Commdiai

129 131

HeadquartersWestern Defense Command

and Fourth ArmyPresidio of San Francisco, California

April 1,1942

Civilian Exclusion Order No. 41. Pursuant to the provisions of Public Proclamations Nos. 1 and 2, this headquarters,

dated March 2, 1942, and March 16, 1942, respectively, it is hereby ordered that all

persons of-Japanese ancestry, including aliens and non-aliens, be excluded on or before

12 o clock noon, P.W.T., of Wednesday, April 8, 1942, from that portion of Military

Area No 1 in the State of California described as follows:

All of San Diego County, California, south of a line extending in an easterly direction

from the mouth of the San Dieguitu River (northwest of Del Mar), along the north side

of the San Dieguito River, Lake Hodges, and the San Pasqual River to the bridge over

the San Pasqua! River at or near San Pasqual, thence easterly along the southerly line

of California State Highway No. 78 through Ramona and Julian to the eastern boundary

line of San Diego County.

2. A responsible member of each family, and each individual living alone, in the above

described affected area will report between the hours of 8.00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m.,

Thursday. April 2, 1942, or during the same hours on Friday, April 3, 1942, to the

Civil Control Station located at:

1919 India Street

San Diego, California

3 Any person affected by this order who fails to comply with any of its provisions or

the provisions of published instructions pertaining hereto, or who is found in the above

restricted area after 12 o'clock noon, P.W.T, of Wednesday, Apnl 8, 1942, will be subject

to the criminal penalties provided by Public law No. 503, 77th Congress, approved

March 21, 1942, entitled An Act to Provide a Penalty for Violation of Restrictions or

Orders with Respect to Persons Entering. Remaining in, Leaving, or Committing Any Au

in military Areas or Zones, and alien Japanese will be subject to immediate apprehension

and internment.

132

130

J.L. DeWITTLieutenant General, U.S. Army

Commanding

RS #1121 Recorder 6/27/38 inBk. 788, Pg. 353 of OR.

I. We, and each uf us, the undersigned uy ners ut the real property hereinafter setout opposite our names, and being situate in the County ut San Diego, State of California,and being in Block Shermans Addition, according to the map therof NO. 478, filedin the office of the Recorder of the County of San Diego, State of California, on January4, 1888. do hereby agree to, and do bind ourselves and each and all of our heirs,executors, administrators, succssurs in interest and assigns, to the following restrictionsand/or conditions and/or covenants, to wit:

1 That we will not, nor will any of us, our heirs, executors, administrators, successorsin interest, and assigns, permit the said real property, or any part thereof, owned by usor any of us, our heirs, executors, administrators, successors in interest and assigns tobe used andor occupied by any person, or persons, not of the white or Caucasian race,whether as owner, tenant, or otherwise.

2 That said restrictions and ur conditions andur covenants shall run with the landfor the benefit of all the undersigned owners thereof, their heirs, executors, administrators,successors in interest and assigns, and fur the benefit of the real property owned by us,or any of us, in said Sherman's Addition.

3 That the breach of any uf the said restrictions arid ur conditions and or covenantsut this agreement, ur the continuance of any such breach may be enjoined, abated orotherwise remedied by any appropriate legal proceeding by all of us or any of us, ouror either of our, or any of uur heirs, executors, administrators, successors in interest andassigns.

4. That in all conveyance of any of said real property situate in Block 47, Sherman sAdd I, we and each uf us, uur heirs, executors, administrators, successors in interestand assigns, will incorporate in such conveyance of said real property the expresscovenant and'or restrictions andur conditions that the grantee ur second party to anysuch conveyance of said real-property, will nut permit said real property so conveyed,or any part thereof, to be used and, ur occupied by any person, or persons not of thewhite or Caucasian race.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we have hereunto set our hands this day of January,1937

NAME OF PROPERTY OWNER REAL PROPERTY OWNED BY US INBLOCK 47 SHERMAN'S ADDITION.P.

CORA E. BLACK ( Lot 2)GROVER CLEVELAND BLACK

GUY F. AUSTINMRS EMMA L. 110EGE

Ant S. HOLLINGTON

CHAS. R SELLORSIRMA E. MYERS

131

133

(Lot 1)

( Lots 4, 5, and 6 )

(Lot 7)

Kiyoshi Hirabayashi v. United States (Decided June 21. 1943, 320 U.S 81. 63 SupremeCourt)

An Executive Order has given a military cummander the right to designate a militaryarea and make restrictions to govern this area. The Act of Congress ot March 21,1942 makes it a misdemeanor to knumngly disregard these restrictions. CordonKiyoshi Hirabayashi was convicted in the Distrisct Court (California) of violating the Actof Congress. The decision was appealed and the judgment of conviction affirmed.

The particular restriction presently being discussed states that all persons of Japaneseancestry residing in the military area must be within their place of residence dailybetween the hours of 8.00 p.m. and 6.00 a.m. It has been contended that the curfeworder and other orders on which it rested were beyond the war powers of the Congress,the military authorities and of the President (as Commander in Chief of the Army).It is also being questioned whether the restrictiun violated the Fifth Amendment byunconstitutionally discriminating between citizens of Japanese ancestry and thoseof other ancestries.

Gordon Kiyoshi Hirabayashi (appellant) asserted that the indictment should be dismissedbecause he was an American citizen who had never been a subject of and had neverpledged allegiance to the Empire ot Japan In addition, the Act of March 21, 1942 wasthought to be an unconstitutional delegation of Congressional power.

The appellant was born in Seattle in 1918 of Japanese parents who had come fromJapan to the United States,and who had never afterward returned to Japan. He waseducated in the Washington public schools and at the time of his arrest was a seniorin the University of Washington. It was also maintained that Mr. Hirabayashi hadnever been in Japan or had any association with Japanese residing there.

Gordon Kiyoshi Hirabayashi felt that he uuld be giving up his rights as an Americancitizen in obeying the curfew imposed by the milit lry commander. For this reasonhe was away from his place of residence after 8.00 p.m. on May 9, 1942. The juryreturned a verdict of guilty on both counts. 1) failure to report to the Civil ControlStation on May 11 or May 12, 1942 to register for evacuation from the military area,and 2) failure to remain in his place of residence from 800 p.m. to 6.00 a.m. Hirabayashiwas sentenced to imprisonment for a term of three months on each, the sentences torun at the same time.

Certain social, economic and political conditions existed when the Japanese cameto the United States. These conditions are believed to have caused the Japaneseto stick together and prevented their assimilation as a part of the white population.In addition, large numbers of children of Japanese parentage are sent to Japaneselanguage schools after public school is over. Some of these schools are thought to besources of Japanese nationalistic propaganda, encouraging the children to pledgeallegiance to Japan. Considerable numbers, estimated to be approximately 10,000of American-burn children of Japanese parentage have been sent to Japan for all urpart of their education.

As a result of all these conditions affecting the life of the Japanese in the Pacific CoastArea, there has been little social intercourse between them and the white pupulatiun.Because persons of Japanese ancestry have been faced with many restrictions whileresiding in the United States, they may have become more isolated from the restof the population and more attached to Japan and Japanese institutions.

The Executive Order permitted establishment of military areas fur the purpose ofprotecting national defense resources from sabotage and espionage. The AU ofCongress ratified this Executive Order. Both were an exercise of constitutional power

134 132

to wage war Once the Executive and Congress have this power, they also have thefreedom to use their own judgment in determining whawhe threat-is and how it canbe resisted A court should not decide whether the Executive andor Congress did theright thing nor should a court substitute its own judgment for that of the Executiveor Congress.

Measures adopted by the Government may point out that a group of one nationalityis more dangerous to the country's safety than any other group. This is not entirelybeyond the limits of the Consititution and should not be condemned just becauseracial differences are usually irrelevant.

Appellant, however, insists that the exercise of the power is inappropriate andunconstitutional because it discriminates against citizens of Japanese ancestry, inviolation of the Fifth Amendment.

Distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are hateful to a freepeople whose institution are founded upon equality. For that reason, discriminationbased on race alone has often been considered u denial of equal protection. Theseconsiderations would be in effect here were it not for the fact that the danger ofespionage and sabotage makes it necessary for to military authorities to look into everyfact having to do with the loyalty of populations in the danger areas.

Mr. Justice Frank Murphy concurring statement

Distinctions based on color and ancestry are utterly inconsistent with our traditions andideals. They are at variance with the principles for which we are now waging war.We cannot close our eyes to the fact that for centuries the Old World has been tornby racial and religious conflicts and has suffered the worst kind of anguish becauseof inequality of treatment for different groups. There was one law for one and adifferent law for another. Nothing is written more firmly into our law than thecompact of the Plymouth voyagers to have just and equal laws. To say that any groupcannot be assimilated is to admit that the great American experience has failed, thatour way of life has failed when confronted with the normal attachment of certain groupsto the lands of their forefathers. As a nation we embrace many groups, some of themamong the oldest settlements in our midst, which have isolated themselves for religiousand cultural reasons.

Today is the first time, so far as I am aware, that we have sustained a substantial restnchonof the personal liberty of citizens of the United States based upon the accident of raceor ancestry. Under the curfew order here challenged no less than 70,000 Americancitizens have been placed under a special ban and deprived of their liberty becauseof their particular racial inheritance. In this sense it bears a melancholy resemblanceto the treatment accorded to members of the Jewish race in Germany and in otherparts of Europe. The result is the creation in this country of two classes of citizensfor purposes of a critical and perilous hour to sanction discrimination betweengroups of United States citizens on the basis of ancestry. In my opinion this goes tothe very brink of constittional power.

Except under condition of great emergency a regulation of this kind applicable solelyto citizens of a particular racial extraction would not be regarded as in accord withthe requirement of due process of lawtontained in the Fifth Amendment.

a denial of due process of law as that term is used in the Fifth Amendment. I thinkthat point is dangerously approached when we have one law for the majority of ourcitizens and another for those of a particular racial heritage.

133 135

Nur du I mean tu inmate that citizens of a particular racial group whose freedom maybe curtailed within an area threatened with attack should be generally preventedfrom leaving the area and going at large in uther areas that are nut in danger of attackand where special precautions are nut needed Their status as citizens. though subjectto requirements of national security and military necessity, should at all times beaccorded the fullest consideration and respect. When the danger is past, the restnctionsimposed on them should be promptly removed and their freedom of action fully restored

Toyosaburo Korematsu v. United Statei (Decided December 18, 1944, 323 U.S. 214,65 Supreme Court 193; 89 L Ed, 194)

Hardships are part of war and war is a collection of hardships All citizens, whether theybe in or out of uniform, feel the impact of war. Citizenship ha' its responsibilities aswell as its privileges, and in time of war, the burden is always heavier.

It is said that Korematsu ha, been imprisoned in a concentration camp solely becauseof his ancestry, without any evidence to show his loyalty or disloyalty towards theUnited States. Our task would be simple, our duty clear, were this a case involvingthe imprisonment of a loyal citizen in a concentration camp because of racial prejudice.First of all, we do not think it justifiable to call them concentration camps, with allthe ugly pictures that term brings to mind. Secondly, regardless of the true nature ofthe assembly and relocation centers, we are dealing specifically with nothing but anexclusion order. To b.ing in the issue of racial prejudice, without reference to thereal military dangers which existed, merely confuses the issue.

Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him orhis race. He was excluded because we are at war with the Japanese Empire. Militaryauthorities feared an invasion of our West Coast and felt it necessary to take propersecurity measures. The military urgency of the situation required that all citizens ofJapanese ancestry be segregated from the West Coast temporarily. Congress puttheir confidence in our military leaders and decided that they should have the powerto carry out the necessary measures. There was evidence of disloyalty on the part ofsome so the military authorities felt that the need for action was great. The fact that wecan look back and see things more calmly does not allow us to say that at that timethese actions were unjustified.

Mr. Justice Owens Robert:

1 dissent. because I think the facts exhibit a dear violation of Constitutional rights.

This is not a case of keeping people off the street at night as was Kiyoshi Hirabayashiv. United States, nor a case of temporary exclusion of a citizen from an area for safetyreasons Korematsu was not offered an opportunity to go temporarily uut ut an areaIn which his presence might cause danger to himself or tu his fellows. On the contrary,it is the case of convicting a citizen as a punishment tu nut giving ui to imprisonment in aconcentration camp.

In addition, if a citizen were forced tu obey two laws and obedience tu chie of themwould violate the other, tu punish Ilan fur violation ut either law would be unfair. Itwould be to deny him due process of law."

The Court also dealt with a technical complication which arose. On May 30. the dateon which Kurematsu was charged with remaining unlawfully in the prohibited area,there were two conflicting military orders, one forbidding him tu iemain in the area,the other forbidding him to leave but ordering him tu rcdurt tu an assembly tenter.The Court held the orders not to be contradictory. since the requirement to report to theassembly center was merely a step in a program of compulsory evacuation from the area.

136 134

Mr. Justice Frank Murphy, dissenting:

"This exclusion of all persons of Japanese ancestry, both alien and non-alien, from thePacific Coast area because of military necessity ought not to be approved. Such exclusiongoes over the very brink of constitutional power and falls into the ugly abyss of racism.

At the same time, it is essential that there be definite limits to military discretion.Individuals should not be denied their constitutional rights because of a 'militarynecessity that has neither substance nor suppport.

The exclusion order is reasonable only if one assumes that all persons of Japaneseancestry may have a dangerous tendency to commit sabotage and espionage and toaid our Japanese enemy in other ways. It is difficult to believe that such an assumptioncould ever be supported.

All individuals of Japanese descent have been referred to as subversive, as belongingto an enemy race whose racial strains are undiluted, and as constituting over 112,000potential enemies . . . at large today' along the Pacific Coast. There is no reliableevidence to show that these individuals were generally disloyal, or had behaved ina manner dangerous to war industries and defense installations.

No adequate reason is given for the failure to treat these Japanese Americans on anindividual basis by holding investigations and hearings to separate the loyal from thedisloyal, as was done in the case of persons of German and Italian ancestry.

Moreover, there was no adequate proof that the FBI and the military and navalintelligence services did not have the espionage and sabotage situation under controlduring this long period. Nor is there any denial of the fact that not one person ofJapanese ancestry was accused or convicted of sabotage after Pearl Harbor while theywere still free, a fact which indicated the loyalty of the vast majority of these individuals.

I dissent, therefore from this legalization of racism. Racial discrimination in any formand in any degree has no justifiable part whatever in our democratic way of life. Itis unattractive in any setting but it is utterly revolting among a free people who haveembraced the principles set forth in the Constitution of the United States. All residentsof this nation are kin in some way by blood or culture to a foreign land. Yet they areprimarily and necessarily a part of the new and distinct civilization of the United States.They must accordingly be treated at all times as the heirs of the American experimentand as entitled to all the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution.'

Mr. Justice Robert Jackson, dissenting:

'Korematsu was born on our sod, of parents born in Japan. The constitution makeshim a citizen of the United States by nativity and a citizen of California by residence.No claim is made that he is not loyal to this country. There is no suggestion thatapart from the matter involved herd he is not lawabiding.

Korematsu, however, has been convicted of an act not commonly a crime. It consistsmerely of being present in the state whereof he is a citizen, near the place where he,was born, and where all his life he has lived.

The Army program is said to be a danger to liberty. If the Judiciary were to sustain theorder, however, it would be more of a blow to liberty than the declaration of theorder itself. A military ordci, however unconstitutional, is not apt to last longer thanthe military emergency tven during that period a succeeding commander may revokeit. One a judicial opinion rationalizes such an order to show that it conforms to theConstitution, or rather rationalizes the Constitution to show that the order is sanctioned,

135 137

the Court has validated the prinuple of racial discrimination in criminal procedureand of transplanting American citizensThe principle then lies about like a loadedweapon ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claimof an urgent need Every repetition imbeds that principle inure deeply in our lawand thinking and expands it to purposes."

Mitsuye Endo v. United States (Decided December 18, 1944, 323 U S. 238, 65 SupremeCourt 193) r

Mitsuye Endo is an American citizen of Japanese ancestry. She was evacuated fromSacramento, California by the military in 1942. At that time, she was olaced in the TuleLake War Relocation Center located in Newell, Modoc County, California. In July of 1942,however, she filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus, asking that she be releasedfrom the Center and restored to liberty.

Her petition for a writ of habeas corpus states that she is a loyal and law abidingcitizen of the United States. Moreover, it states that she is being unlawfully detainedand confined in the Relocation Center under armed guard and against her will.

The Department of Justice and the War Relocation Authority agree that the appellant(Mitsuye Endo) is a loyal and law-abiding citizen. However, they maintain that althoughshe has been granted permission to leave, it is necessary for her to remain in the Centerfor an additional period of time.

Persons for the appellant argue that whatever power the War Relocation Authoritymay have to detain other cla,,ses of citizens, it has no authority to force a loyal citizento go through clearance before leaving.

In this case, the military has the pow er tc detain persons Qnly d they present a threatof espionage or sabotage against the war effort. However, a citizen who acknowledgesthat he'she is loyal presents no problem of espionage or sabotage. Loyalty is a matterof the heart and mind not of race, creed, or color. If a person is loyal, heishe is bydefinition not a spy or saboteur Therefore, the military has no power to detain loyalcitizens.

In addition, the Act of March 21, 1942 makes no mention of detention. This may be dueto the fact that detention in Relocation Centers was not part of the original program ofevacuation. Instead, the detention developed later in order that the evacuees not besubjected to increasing hostility from various communities.

We do no mean to say that detention in the evacuation program would not be lawfulat all. The fact that the Act and the orders do not mention detention does not meanthat the power to detain is not permitted. Some such power may indeed be necessaryto the successful operation of the evacuation program At least we may so assume.Moreover, we may assume for the purposes of this case that initial detention in RelocationCenters was authorized.

Mr. Justice Frank Murphy:

"I join in the opinion of the Court, but I am of the view that detention in RelocationCenters of persons of Japanese ancestry regardless of loyalty is not only unauthorizedby Congress or the Exe'...utive but is another example of the unconstitutional resort toracism inherent in the entire evacuation program.As stated mum fully in my dissentingopinion in Fred Toyusaburo Korematsu v. United States, racial discrimination of thisnature bears no reasonable relation to military necessity and is utterly foreign to theideals and traditions of the American people.

138 136

Moreover, the Court holds that Mitsuye Endo is entitled to an unconditional releaseby the War Relocation Authonty. It appears that Miss Endo desires to return to Sacramento,California, from which Public Proclamations Nos. 7 and 11, as well as Civlian ExclusionOrder No 52, still exclude her.

as I believe, the military orders excluding her from Californiawere invalid at the timethey were issued, they are increasingly objectionable at this late date, when the threatof invasion of the Pacific Coast and the fears of sabotage and espionage have greatlydiminished. For the Government to suggest under these circumstances that thepresence of Japanese blood in a loyal American citizen might be enough to warrant herexclusion from a place where she would otherwise have a right to go is a position Icannot sanction,"

Mr. Justice Owens Roberts:

'I think it inadmissible to suggest that some inferior public servant exceeded theauthority granted by executive order in this case. Such a basis of decision will rendereasy the evasion of law and the violation of constitutional rights, for when conduct iscalled in question the obvious response will be that, however much the superiorexecutive officials knew, understood, and approved the conduct of their subordinates,those subordinates in fact lacked a definite mandate so to act. It is to hide one s headin the sand to assert that the detention of relator resulted from an excess of authorityby subordinate officials.

I conclude, therefore, that the court is squarely faced with a serious constitutionalquestion, whether the relator's detention violated the guarantees of the Bill ofRights of the federal Constitution and especially the guarantee of due process of law.(here can be but one answer to that question. An admittedly loyal citizen has beendeprived of her liberty for a period of years. Under theConstitution she should be freeto come and go as she pleases Instead, her liberty of motion and other innocentactivities have been prohibited and conditioned. She should bedischarged."

139137

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tics

and

iden

tify

sour

ces

of in

form

atio

n fo

rth

ese

char

acte

ristic

s.

Indi

vidu

al s

tude

nt

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

eact

and

com

men

t abo

utth

eir

feel

ings

and

to c

ite e

xam

ples

from

thei

r ow

n ex

perie

nces

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

ivid

e in

to th

e fo

llow

ing

grou

ps fo

r ea

ch c

ateg

ory

of th

e m

edia

,e.

g.,

Gro

up A

: T.V

. pro

gram

, inc

ludi

ng n

ews

Ant

iDef

amat

ion

Leag

ue o

fB

'nai

B'ri

th, D

isto

rted

Imag

e

Cur

rent

tele

visi

on lo

g

Brid

ge m

agaz

ine,

new

spap

ers,

T.V

.

Gro

up B

: Car

toon

s on

T.V

., in

com

icbo

oks,

new

spap

ers

Gro

up C

: Mov

ies

Gro

up D

: Com

mer

cial

s, A

dver

tisem

ents

Gro

up E

: Rad

io a

nd p

opul

ar s

ong

lyric

s

Roo

ts

Gro

up F

: Eth

nic

med

ia

Gro

up G

: New

spap

ers

(non

ethn

ic)

New

spap

ers

(eth

nic)

Gro

up H

: Mag

azin

es

Jade

Brid

ge

Pac

ific

Citi

zen

To

wha

t ext

ent h

ave

our

imag

es a

bout

Japa

nese

Am

eric

ans

and

othe

r gr

oups

been

sha

ped

by th

e va

rious

med

ia?

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

dev

elop

ow

n cr

iteria

for

ster

eoty

ping

for

each

cat

egor

y of

med

ia.

Hav

e st

uden

ts s

yste

mat

ical

ly r

evie

w th

etr

ends

in th

e de

velo

pmen

t of e

ach

med

iaca

tego

ry a

nd p

rovi

de a

n ov

ervi

ew o

ftr

eatm

ent a

nd p

ortr

ayal

of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

and

othe

r gr

oups

.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

use

ow

n cr

iteria

inas

sess

ing

med

ia p

ortr

ayal

for

each

gro

upas

sign

men

t.

Wha

t eco

nom

ic, p

oliti

cal o

r so

cial

deve

lopm

ents

in U

S. h

isto

ry p

reci

pita

ted

mas

s st

ereo

typi

ng o

f Jap

anes

eA

mer

ican

s?

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

rev

iew

pre

viou

s is

sues

of

new

spap

ers,

mag

azin

es, e

tc. a

nd b

een

cour

aged

to d

evel

op a

spe

cial

pro

ject

such

as

a sl

ide

or p

hoto

grap

h pr

esen

-ta

tion

usin

g ex

ampl

es ta

ken

from

the

med

ia c

ater

gorie

s.

For

exa

mpl

e, s

tude

nts

coul

d ch

roni

cle

the

port

raya

l of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

for

each

dec

ade

from

190

0-pr

esen

t stu

dent

ssh

ould

incl

ude

an a

naly

sis

that

incl

udes

econ

omic

, pol

itica

l and

soc

ial f

acto

rs in

US

. his

tory

that

influ

ence

d st

ereo

typi

ngof

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

s.

Old

issu

es o

f:Li

fe, L

ook,

Sat

urda

y E

veni

ngP

ost;

Rea

ders

Dig

est,

Tim

e, N

ewsw

eek,

U.S

. New

san

d W

orld

Rep

ort,

etc.

How

doe

s st

ereo

typi

ng a

ffect

the

co. l

mun

ities

in w

hich

we

live?

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ole

play

a te

levi

sion

prog

ram

, doc

umen

tary

(as

a r

esul

t of

prev

ious

act

ivity

in s

lide

pres

enta

tion

prep

arat

ion)

or

tele

visi

on ta

lk s

how

deal

ing

with

the

issu

es o

f how

ste

reo-

typi

ng a

ffect

s co

mm

uniti

es.

How

can

we,

as c

onsu

mer

s, a

dvoc

ate

for

fair

med

ia p

ortr

ayal

of a

ll gr

oups

?H

ave

stud

ents

pla

n a

scrip

t (w

ith p

re-'

pare

d qu

estio

ns)

that

the

host

(mod

erat

or)

will

use

in d

evel

opin

g a

serie

s of

talk

sho

ws

or a

doc

umen

tary

,et

c. Q

uest

ions

sho

uld

revo

lve

arou

ndco

nsum

er a

dvoc

acy

and

cons

umer

prot

ectio

n.

Wha

t act

ion

can

a co

nsum

er ta

ke a

ndw

hat l

egal

or

regu

lato

ry p

rovi

sion

s ar

ese

t for

th b

y th

e F

eder

al C

omm

unic

atio

nsC

omm

issi

on?

Stu

dent

s co

uld

role

pla

y a

deba

te o

rop

en fo

rum

allo

win

g th

e st

uden

ts to

argu

e po

ints

from

the

pers

pect

ive

of th

eF

CC

, tel

evis

ion

man

agem

ent o

r ot

her

med

ia m

anag

emen

t and

con

sum

ers

rega

rdin

g th

e fa

irnes

s or

unfa

irnes

s of

regu

latio

ns g

over

ning

tele

visi

onpr

ogra

mm

ing.

The

teac

her

will

be

able

to h

elp

stud

ents

to u

nder

stan

d ho

w id

eas

and

inst

itutio

ns d

efin

ing

Am

eric

anis

m h

ave

chan

ged

over

the

past

cent

ury,

how

thes

e ch

ange

s af

fect

ed J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

and

how

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

s ha

ve r

espo

nded

to th

ese

chan

ges.

Con

cept

Val

ues

Div

ersi

ty

Key

Que

stio

ns

In li

ght o

f pre

viou

s st

udy

abou

the

Am

eri-

can

char

acte

r, h

ow d

o yo

u th

ink

that

cultu

ral v

alue

s an

d at

titud

es a

nd li

fest

yles

chan

ged

or r

emai

ned

the

sam

e ov

er th

epa

st 1

00 y

ears

?

Act

iviti

es

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

evie

w a

nd d

iscu

ss th

epe

rspe

ctiv

es o

f the

Am

eric

an c

hara

cter

.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Will

iam

s, R

obin

.A

mer

ican

Soc

iety

: AS

ocio

logi

cal I

nter

pret

atio

n (T

)

Con

flict

Iden

tity

For

ced

accu

ltura

tion

For

ced

assi

mila

tion

Sub

cultu

re

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss th

e si

mila

ritie

s an

ddi

ffere

nces

in p

revi

ous

and

pres

ent

cultu

ral v

alue

s, a

ttitu

des

and

lifes

tyle

s in

term

s of

thei

r ow

n im

med

iate

envi

rom

ent a

nd e

xper

ienc

e.

Hav

e st

uden

ts o

rgan

ize

a de

bate

alo

ngth

e lin

es o

f tho

se w

ho a

dvoc

ate

for

stro

ng tr

aditi

onal

val

ues

and

thos

e w

hofa

vor

refo

rm.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

evie

w a

nd d

efin

e th

eel

emen

ts o

f the

Pro

test

ant e

thic

to d

eter

min

e to

wha

t deg

ree

it in

fluen

ces

U.S

. val

ues,

atit

udes

and

life

styl

es.

Hav

e st

uden

ts a

naly

ze th

e im

pact

of t

heP

rote

stan

t eth

ic u

pon

the

crite

ria fo

rso

cio-

econ

omic

suc

cess

and

sta

tus.

To

wha

t ext

ent d

o yo

u th

ink

that

ther

ear

e di

ffere

nces

in c

ultu

ral c

hara

cter

istic

s,va

lues

, atti

tude

s an

d lif

esty

les

amon

gin

divi

dual

s an

d gr

oups

in th

e U

.S. t

hat

coul

d ca

use

conf

lict s

ituat

ions

?

Hav

e st

uden

ts c

ite e

xam

ples

of

diffe

renc

es in

thei

r ow

n lif

esty

les

that

may

have

cre

ated

con

flict

for

them

; ask

stud

ents

to e

xpla

in h

ow th

ey h

ave

reso

lved

the

conf

lict.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t dev

elop

men

tsin

U.S

. his

loiy

, ask

ing

them

to e

mph

asiz

eth

e so

cial

, pol

itica

Ule

gal a

nd e

cono

mic

tren

ds a

nd in

stitu

tions

that

wer

epr

eval

ent.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

iden

tify

situ

atio

ns in

whi

ch d

iffer

ence

s in

val

ues,

atit

udes

and

lifes

tyle

s le

d to

ser

ious

con

flict

.

Hig

ham

, Joh

n. S

tran

gers

in th

e La

nd (

S)

(T)

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

ass

ess

the

diffe

rent

valu

es, a

ttitu

des

and

lifes

tyle

s an

d tr

y to

deve

lop

a re

solu

tion

that

wou

ld b

esa

tisfa

ctor

y to

the

diffe

ring

indi

vidu

als/

grou

ps.

Wha

t cul

tura

l cha

ract

eris

tics

and/

orlif

esty

les

wer

e pr

eval

ent i

n th

e U

.S. i

n18

60-1

900?

190

0-19

30?

Wha

t cul

tura

l val

ues

wer

e pr

eval

ent i

nth

e U

.S. i

n 18

60-1

900?

190

0-19

30?

Wha

t typ

es o

f eco

nom

ic s

yste

ms

wer

epr

eval

ent a

nd w

hat w

ere

econ

omic

cond

ition

s lik

e in

the

U.S

. for

thes

epe

riods

?

Wha

t was

the

stan

dard

and

qua

lity

ofliv

ing

in th

e U

S. d

urin

g ttt

ese

perio

ds?

Wha

t soc

ial m

ovem

ents

and

/or

polit

ical

lega

l act

iviti

es w

ere

taki

ng p

lace

dur

ing

thes

e pe

riods

and

to w

hat e

xten

t do

we

find

an in

tera

ctio

n in

the

econ

omic

,so

cial

, pol

itica

l/leg

al fa

ctor

s du

ring

thes

epe

riods

?

Wha

t cul

tura

l cha

ract

eris

tics

do y

ou th

ink

that

Jap

anes

e im

mig

rant

s br

ough

t with

them

to th

e U

S. f

rom

Jap

an d

urin

g th

ese

perio

ds?

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

evel

op c

ompa

rativ

e an

dde

scrip

tive

prof

iles

of th

e U

.S. c

hara

cter

-is

tics

and

cultu

ral v

alue

s an

d th

at o

fJa

pane

se im

mig

rant

s..

Han

d lin

, Osc

ar. T

he U

proo

ted

Mul

ti-et

hnic

chr

onol

ogy

(see

end

of s

ectio

n)

Ichi

hasi

, Jap

anes

e in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

(S)

(T)

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re (

S)

(T)

Sm

ith, R

ober

t and

Ric

hard

Bea

rdsl

ey. J

apan

ese

Cul

ture

:Its

Dev

elop

men

t and

Cha

ract

eris

tics

(S)

Pet

erse

n, W

illia

m.

Japa

nese

Am

eric

ans

(S)

(T)

How

do

you

thin

k th

at th

ese

cultu

ral

char

acte

ristic

s ch

ange

d an

d fo

r w

hat

econ

omic

, pol

itica

l and

soc

ial

reas

ons

durin

g th

ese

perio

ds?

Wha

t cul

tura

l val

ues

doyo

u th

ink

that

Japa

nese

imm

igra

nts

brou

ght w

ith th

emto

the

U.S

. fro

m J

apan

dur

ing

thes

epe

riods

?

In w

hat w

ays

mig

ht d

iffer

ence

s in

cul

tura

lch

arac

teris

tics

and

valu

es p

ose

prob

lem

sfo

r Ja

pane

se im

mig

rant

s?

In w

hat w

ays

do y

ou th

ink

ther

e ex

iste

da

com

pata

bilit

y be

twee

n va

lues

in th

eU

.S. a

nd b

roug

ht b

y th

e im

mig

rant

s?

i"C

ultu

ral c

hara

cter

istic

sF

ood

U.S

.Ja

pane

se im

mig

rant

sC

ompa

tibili

ty/In

com

patib

ility

14La

ngua

geC

OC

loth

ing

Hai

rsty

les

Soc

ial/r

ecre

atio

nal a

ctiv

ities

Cel

ebra

tions

, hol

iday

s

Cul

tura

l val

ues

Indi

vidu

al w

orth

Har

d w

ork,

res

pons

ibili

tyG

od-f

earin

gT

hrift

Com

petit

ion

Sel

f-re

lianc

eC

oope

ratio

n

Act

ions

/Con

sequ

ence

s

Eco

nom

ic F

acto

rsO

ccup

atio

nsR

ural

/Agr

icul

tura

lU

rban

/Indu

stria

lE

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

Pro

pert

y ow

ners

hip

Hou

sing

Pol

itica

l/Leg

alC

itize

nshi

p re

quire

men

tsP

oliti

cal p

arty

pla

tform

s

Soc

ial i

ssue

sC

ivil

right

sH

ealth

and

soc

ial w

elfa

reE

duca

tion

Con

cept

Key

Que

stio

ns

Wha

t wer

e th

e ec

onom

ic, p

oliti

caU

lega

lan

d so

cial

con

sequ

ence

s fo

r Ja

pane

seA

mer

ican

s be

caus

e of

diff

er6n

ces?

Wha

t wer

e ec

onom

ic a

nd la

bor

colla

tions

like

for

Japa

nese

imm

igra

nts?

Wha

t was

thei

r st

anda

rd o

f liv

ing?

Wha

t leg

al a

nd/o

r po

litic

al r

ight

s di

dJa

pane

se im

mig

rant

s ha

ve

Act

iviti

es

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

com

pare

the

impa

ct o

fth

e ty

pes

of e

cono

my,

eco

nom

ic a

ndso

cial

con

ditio

ns o

f Jap

anes

e im

mig

rant

san

d ot

hers

livi

ng in

the

U.S

.

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

Dan

iels

, Rog

er. T

heP

oliti

cs o

f Pre

judi

ce,

Cha

pter

1 (

5) (

T)

Wha

t typ

es o

f eco

nom

ic s

yste

ms

wer

epr

eval

ent a

nd w

hat k

inds

of l

abor

rec

ruit-

men

t tec

hniq

ues

wer

e us

ed to

mee

t the

dem

ands

of t

he v

ario

us e

cono

mic

syst

ems?

(

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

iscu

ss a

nd d

efin

e th

efo

llow

ing

type

s of

eco

nom

ic s

yste

ms

and

diffe

ring

labo

r re

quire

men

ts:

Pla

ntat

ion

econ

omy

Agr

icul

tura

l eco

nom

yIn

dust

rial e

cono

my

Man

y Ja

pane

se e

mig

rate

d to

the

U.S

.w

ith th

e id

ea o

f wor

king

for

a sh

ort

perio

d of

tim

e to

acq

uire

wea

lth a

ndre

turn

to li

ve in

Jap

an. M

ost I

ssei

, how

-ev

er, w

ere

unab

le to

ret

urn

to J

apan

and

and

settl

ed in

the

U.S

.

How

do

you

thin

k th

at th

is a

ttitu

de m

ight

have

affe

cted

the

rete

ntio

n of

Jap

anes

ecu

ltura

l cha

ract

eris

tics

and

valu

es?

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

abou

t and

dis

cuss

the

patte

rn o

f em

igra

tion

to th

e U

.S.

beca

use

of la

bor

dem

ands

and

mig

ratio

nw

ithin

the

U.S

. fro

m o

ne r

egio

n to

anot

her

regi

on a

nd d

iffer

ing

econ

omic

syst

ems.

Ito, K

azuo

. Iss

ei (

5) (

T)

In w

hat r

espe

ct d

o yo

u th

ink

that

Japa

nese

imm

igra

nts

mai

ntai

ned

cultu

ral

valu

es a

nd c

hara

cter

istic

s?

Ir, w

hat r

espe

cts

do y

ou th

ink

that

they

adop

ted

or a

dapt

ed p

reva

lent

val

ues,

attit

udes

that

they

foun

d in

the

U.S

.?

Wha

t mig

ht h

ave

been

eco

nom

ic,

polit

ical

/lega

l and

soc

ial r

easo

ns th

atpr

ompt

ed c

hang

es?

Hav

e st

uden

ts d

evel

op a

hyp

othe

tical

situ

atio

n in

whi

ch th

ey a

re im

mig

rant

sto

the

U.S

. and

pos

sess

a c

erta

in s

et o

fcu

ltura

l val

ues

and

attit

udes

.

Hav

e th

em w

rite

an e

ssay

on

reas

ons

why

they

wou

ld w

ish

to r

etai

n th

eir

own

valu

es a

nd li

fest

yles

.

Ask

stu

dent

s to

ana

lyze

the

econ

omic

forc

es th

at w

ould

nec

essi

tate

acc

omo-

datin

g or

ado

ptin

g ce

rtai

n va

lues

in o

rder

to li

ve a

nd s

urvi

ve.

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re (

S)

(T)

Yet

man

, Nor

man

and

C.

Hoy

stee

le. M

ajor

ity a

ndM

inor

ity (

T)

Wha

t do

we

mea

n by

the

proc

ess

ofac

cultu

ratio

n an

d th

e pr

oces

s of

assi

mila

tion?

In te

rms

of J

apan

ese

imm

igra

nts

and

thei

rch

ildre

n, w

hat c

hang

es h

ave

take

n pl

ace

in c

ultu

ral c

hara

cter

istic

s an

d cu

ltura

lva

lues

bec

ause

of t

he p

roce

sses

of

accu

ltura

tion

and

assi

mila

tion?

Gor

don,

Milt

on. A

ssim

ilatio

nin

Am

eric

an L

ife: T

he R

ole

of R

ace,

Rel

igio

n an

dN

atio

nal O

rigin

s (S

) (T

)

Wha

t wer

e th

e si

mila

ritie

s or

diff

eren

ces

in th

e ex

perie

nces

of o

ther

imm

igra

ntgr

oups

?

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

con

side

r th

e ec

onom

ic,

soci

al a

nd p

oliti

cal/l

egal

fact

ors

that

wou

ld p

reci

pita

te a

ccul

tura

tion

oras

sim

ilatio

n.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

dev

elop

a c

ompa

rativ

epr

ofile

of o

ther

imm

igra

nt g

roup

s to

com

pare

the

diffe

renc

es b

etw

een

Japa

nese

imm

igra

nt e

xper

ienc

es a

nd th

ede

gree

to w

hich

acc

ultu

ratio

n an

das

sim

ilatio

n ha

ve ta

ken

plac

e.

The

chi

ldre

n of

Isse

i, th

e N

isei

and

Mei

,w

ere

the

seco

nd g

ener

atio

n in

the

U.S

.T

o w

hat d

egre

e w

ere

they

enc

oura

ged

or a

ble

to r

etai

n th

eir

pare

nt's

cul

tura

lch

arac

teris

tics

and

valu

es?

Wha

t pro

cess

es w

ould

they

hav

ego

neth

roug

h an

d ho

w d

o yo

u th

ink

they

mig

ht h

ave

solv

ed th

e di

lem

ma

of li

ving

in tw

o so

ciet

ies?

Hav

e st

uden

ts im

agin

e th

at th

ey a

reim

mig

rant

par

ents

. Hav

e st

uden

ts w

eigh

how

they

wou

ld r

aise

thei

r ch

ildre

n.

Hav

e th

em c

onsi

der

the

follo

win

g fa

ctor

s:

Ret

urn

to J

apan

or

stay

in th

e U

.S.

Cul

tura

l cha

ract

eris

tics

Cul

tura

l val

ues

Eco

nom

ic c

onsi

dera

tions

suc

h as

em

ploy

-m

ent,

com

mun

icat

ion,

edu

catio

nP

oliti

cal c

onsi

dera

tions

suc

h as

par

ticip

a-tio

n in

civ

ic r

espo

nsib

ilitie

s

Son

e, N

isei

Dau

ghte

r (S

)

Oki

mot

o, D

anie

l. A

mer

ican

in D

isgu

ise

(S)

(T)

Wha

t sig

nific

ant e

vent

s af

fect

ed th

ede

gree

of a

ssim

ilatio

n/ac

cultu

ratio

n of

the

Nis

ei in

par

ticul

ar?

Wha

t situ

atio

ns o

f con

flict

exi

sted

in th

eU

.S. a

t thi

s tim

e fo

r ot

her

imm

igra

ntgr

oups

?

How

wer

e th

e N

isei

abl

e to

find

alte

rna-

tives

and

wha

t rea

sons

do

you

thin

kth

at th

ey m

ight

hav

e ha

d fo

r m

akin

g th

ech

oice

s th

at th

ey d

id m

ake?

Wha

t diff

eren

ces

in a

ttitu

des

mig

ht th

eS

anse

i (th

ird g

ener

atio

n) h

ave

abou

tm

aint

aini

ng th

eir

cultu

ral c

hara

cter

istic

san

d va

lues

from

thei

r pa

rent

s/gr

and-

pare

nts?

Wha

t eco

nom

ic, p

oliti

cal/l

egal

and

soc

ial

fact

ors

wou

ld in

fluen

ce th

e di

ffere

nces

inat

titud

es a

nd fe

elin

gs a

nd th

e ch

oice

sth

at e

ach

gene

ratio

n w

as e

ither

forc

ed o

rab

le to

mak

e?

Eac

h ge

nera

tion

expe

rienc

ed a

n "id

entit

ycr

isis

." W

hat d

o w

e m

ean

by a

n Id

entit

ycr

isis

"?

Wha

t fac

tors

wou

ld m

ake

the

issu

esdi

ffere

nt o

r th

e re

spon

se in

beh

avio

r th

esa

me

or d

iffer

ent?

t..-

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

biog

raph

ies

abou

tth

e N

isei

exp

erie

nces

and

the

conf

licts

they

exp

erie

nced

.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

ead

acco

unts

of t

he N

isei

reac

tions

to th

eir

expe

rienc

es g

row

ing

upin

cam

ps.

Hav

e st

uden

ts r

esea

rch

the

impa

ct o

f the

proc

esse

s of

acc

ultu

ratio

n an

d as

sim

i-la

tion

in te

rms

of th

e fo

llow

ing

varia

bles

:

Cre

ativ

e ef

fort

s: w

riter

s, a

rtis

tE

duca

tion:

mul

ticul

tura

lJa

pane

se A

mer

ican

org

aniz

atio

nsJa

pane

se A

mer

ican

com

mun

ity g

roup

sA

liena

tion:

dru

g ab

use,

alc

ohol

ism

,dr

op-o

uts

Soc

ial p

rote

st m

ovem

ents

: U.S

. thi

rdw

orld

, civ

il rig

hts,

pea

ceA

ged-

Soc

ial s

ervi

ces

for

Isse

i, N

isei

Affi

rmat

ive

Act

ion

Inte

rmar

riage

Rec

ent i

mm

igra

nts

Rel

igio

us b

elie

fsR

edev

elop

men

t

Tho

mas

, The

Sal

vage

(S

) (T

)

Kita

no, E

volu

tion

of a

Sub

cultu

re (

S)

Mat

suok

a, J

ack.

Cam

p II,

Blo

ck 2

11 (

S)

Hos

okaw

a, N

isei

(S

)

Tac

hiki

, Won

g, O

da R

oots

:A

n A

sian

Am

eric

an R

eade

r (5

)

UC

Ber

kele

y, A

sian

Wom

en (

S)

Kai

ya T

su, e

d.,

Hou

ghto

n-M

ifflin

,M

ulti-

Eth

nic

Lite

ratu

re:

Asi

an A

mer

ican

(S

)

Pac

ific

Citi

zen

You

ng B

uddh

ist A

ssoc

iatio

npu

blic

atio

ns

Wha

t, fo

r ex

ampl

e, w

ould

the

term

and

proc

ess

of "

assi

mila

tion"

mea

n to

eac

hge

nera

tion.

Tra

ce th

e at

titud

es fo

r ea

ch g

ener

atio

n.T

ry to

det

erm

ine

wha

t the

term

mea

ns to

each

gen

erat

ion.

Is a

ssim

ilatio

n po

ssib

le fo

r Ja

pane

seA

mer

ican

s? W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

If po

ssib

le, i

s as

sim

ilatio

n a

desi

rabl

epr

oduc

t? W

hy o

r w

hy n

ot?

How

hav

e Ja

pane

se A

mer

ican

com

-m

uniti

es b

een

affe

cted

by

havi

ng to

go

thro

ugh

the

proc

esse

s of

acc

ultu

ratio

Was

sim

ilatio

n?

Wha

t is

mea

nt b

y th

e te

rm "

ethn

ic p

ride"

?

How

wou

ld th

e di

ffere

nt g

ener

atio

nsin

terp

ret e

thni

c pr

ide?

Wha

t exp

erie

nces

mig

ht h

ave

affe

cted

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n an

d fe

elin

gs th

at e

ach

gene

ratio

n ha

s ab

out e

thrii

c pr

ide?

Wha

t rel

atio

nshi

p is

ther

e in

the

deve

lop-

men

t of e

thni

c pr

ide

and

the

deve

lop-

men

t of t

he "

third

wor

ld m

ovem

ent"

inth

e U

.S.?

Wha

t are

the

reas

ons

for

the

deve

lop-

men

t of e

thni

c pr

ide,

sea

rch

for

ethn

icid

entit

y an

d th

e th

ird w

orld

phi

loso

phy?

Tra

ce in

U.S

. his

tory

the

vario

us s

ocia

lpr

otes

t mov

emen

ts.

Hav

e st

uden

ts s

elec

t fou

r so

cial

pro

test

mov

emen

ts to

eva

luat

e an

d re

sear

ch.

Iden

tify

key

issu

es th

at c

ause

d th

eir

deve

lopm

ent.

Brid

ge m

agaz

ines

Con

cept

Pow

er

Con

flict

To

wha

t deg

ree

and

for

wha

tre

ason

sm

ight

ther

e be

diff

eren

ces

in a

ttitu

des

and/

or p

artic

ipat

ion

in th

ese

activ

ities

?

Geo

grap

hic

loca

tion

Eco

nom

ic s

tatu

sN

eigh

borh

ood

Frie

nds

Pro

cess

of p

erso

nal d

evel

opm

ent

Con

cent

ratio

n of

eth

nic

grou

psD

iscr

imin

atio

n an

d pr

ejud

ice-

excl

usio

n/al

iena

tion

It ha

s of

ten

been

sai

d th

at J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

"out

whi

te th

e w

hite

s."

Wha

tis

mea

nt b

y th

is s

tate

men

t and

how

do

diffe

rent

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

com

-m

uniti

es r

eact

to a

sta

tem

ent o

f thi

sna

ture

?

Wha

t hav

e so

me

of th

e Ja

pane

seA

mer

ican

writ

ers

had

to s

ay a

bout

this

?

I-Iv

e st

uden

ts r

ead

and

anal

yze

artic

les

writ

ten

by J

apan

ese

Am

eric

an w

riter

s.

Hav

e st

uden

ts c

ondu

ct a

deb

ate

for

thos

e w

ho a

dvoc

ate

the

"mel

ting

pot"

theo

ry o

f the

U.S

. and

thos

e w

ho d

o no

tfe

el th

at th

e "m

eltin

g po

t" th

eory

isac

cura

te o

r de

sira

ble.

Tac

hiki

, et a

l. R

oots

(S

)

Key

Que

stio

ns

In w

hat W

ays

are

Japa

nese

Am

eric

ans

affe

cted

by

fore

ign

polic

y, p

ublic

opi

nion

in th

e fo

rmul

atio

n an

d im

plem

enta

tion

of U

,S. J

apan

rel

atio

ns?

Act

iviti

es

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

sel

ect a

topi

c an

dpe

riod

(his

toric

al o

r co

ntem

pora

ry)

tore

sear

ch U

.S. -

Jap

an r

elat

ions

. e.g

.T

he R

usso

-Jap

anes

e W

arT

he G

entle

men

's A

gree

men

tW

orld

War

IW

orld

War

IIE

cono

mic

Dev

elop

men

t and

Inve

stm

ents

Em

ploy

men

t/Une

mpl

oym

ent

Wha

ling

Indu

stry

Boy

cott

Sug

gest

ed M

ater

ials

, Res

ourc

es

See

Chr

onol

ogy

of e

vent

s(U

.S. J

apan

) at

end

of

hist

oric

al n

arra

tive

ET

HN

IC G

RO

UP

S IN

AM

ER

ICA

N H

IST

OR

Y: A

CH

RO

NO

LOG

Y O

F K

EY

EV

EN

TS

1513

Juan

Pon

ce d

e Le

on la

nded

on

the

Flo

rida

peni

nsul

a w

hile

en

rout

e fr

om P

uert

o R

ico.

The

rel

atio

nshi

p be

twee

nE

urop

eans

and

Indi

ans

nort

h of

Mex

ico

bega

n.

1519

Her

nan

Cor

tez,

the

Spa

nish

con

quis

tado

re, a

nd a

gro

up o

f Spa

niar

ds a

rriv

edin

the

regi

on th

at is

now

Mex

ico.

1565

The

Spa

niar

ds e

stab

lishe

d th

e S

t. A

ugus

tine

colo

ny in

Flo

rida.

the

first

set

tlem

ent o

rgan

ized

by

Eur

opea

ns in

pre

sent

-day

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

1619

The

firs

t Bla

cks

arriv

ed in

the

Eng

lish

Nor

th A

mer

ican

col

onie

s.

1620

The

PtIg

nms

cam

e to

Am

eric

a fr

om E

ngla

nd o

n th

e M

ayflo

wer

and

est

ablis

hed

a se

ttlem

ent a

t Ply

mou

th, M

assa

chus

etts

.

1637

Mor

e th

an 5

00 N

ativ

e A

mer

ican

s w

ere

kille

d by

the

colo

nist

s in

a m

assa

cre

know

n as

the

Peq

uot W

ar,

1654

The

firs

t Jew

ish

imm

igra

nts

to N

orth

Am

eric

a se

ttled

in N

ew A

mst

erda

m to

esc

ape

pers

ecut

ion

in B

razi

l....

1Li

,.t.

1683

Ger

man

imm

igra

nts

settl

ed in

Pen

nsyl

vani

a.

1718

The

Sco

tchI

rish

bega

n im

mig

ratin

g to

Nor

th A

mer

ica

in la

rge

num

bers

.

1754

.63

The

Fre

nch

and

Indi

an W

ar to

ok p

lace

.I-

4C

R17

98A

Fed

eral

istd

omin

ated

Con

gres

s en

acte

d th

e A

lien

and

Sed

ition

Act

s to

cru

sh th

e R

epub

lican

par

ty a

ndto

har

ass

alie

ns.

Q")

1812

The

War

of 1

812,

a w

ar b

etw

een

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

Brit

ain.

cau

sed

deep

fact

ions

amon

g th

e In

dian

trib

es b

ecau

se o

fth

eir

diffe

rent

alle

gian

ces.

1815

The

firs

t mas

s im

mig

ratio

ns fr

om E

urop

e to

Nor

th A

mer

ica

bega

n.

1830

Con

gres

s pa

ssed

a R

emov

al A

ct, w

hich

aut

horiz

ed th

e re

mov

al o

f Ind

ians

from

the

east

to th

e w

est o

f the

Mis

siss

ippi

.

1831

Nat

Tur

ner

led

a sl

ave

revo

lt in

whi

ch n

early

six

ty W

hite

s w

ere

kille

d.

1836

Mex

ico'

s P

resi

dent

San

ta A

nna

and

his

troo

ps d

efea

ted

the

Tex

ans

at th

e A

lam

o. S

ix w

eeks

late

rS

anta

Ann

a w

as d

efea

ted

by S

am H

oust

on a

nd h

is T

exan

troo

ps a

t San

Jac

into

.

1845

The

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

anne

xed

Tex

as, w

hich

had

dec

lare

d its

elf i

ndep

ende

nt fr

omM

exic

o in

183

6. T

his

was

one

of t

he k

eyev

ents

whi

ch le

d to

the

Mex

ican

-Am

eric

an W

ar.

1846

-48

A s

erie

s of

pot

ato

blig

hts

in Ir

elan

d ca

used

thou

sand

s of

its

citiz

ens

to im

mig

rate

to th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s.

1846

On

May

13,

184

6. th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s de

clar

edw

ar o

n M

exic

o an

d th

e M

exic

an-A

mer

ican

War

beg

an.

1848

The

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

Mex

ico

sign

ed th

e T

reat

y of

Gua

dalu

pe H

idal

goth

at e

nded

the

Mex

ican

-Am

eric

an W

ar, M

exic

olo

st n

early

hal

f of h

er te

rrito

ry, a

nd th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s ac

quire

dm

ost o

f the

terr

itory

that

mak

es u

p its

sou

thw

este

rn s

tate

s.

1850

The

Cal

iforn

ia le

gisl

atur

e pa

ssed

a d

iscr

imin

ator

y F

orei

gner

Min

er's

Tax

that

forc

ed C

hine

se im

mig

rant

s to

pay

a h

ighl

ydi

spro

port

iona

te s

hare

of t

he s

tate

taxe

s.

1855

Cas

tle G

arde

n, a

n im

mig

ratio

n st

atio

n, o

pene

d in

New

Yor

k C

ity.

The

ant

ifore

ign

Kno

w-N

othi

ng M

ovem

ent r

each

ed it

s ze

nith

and

had

a nu

mbe

r of

pol

itica

l suc

cess

es in

the

1855

ele

ctio

ns.

The

mov

emen

t rap

idly

dec

lined

afte

r 18

55.

_.,

1859

Juan

N. C

ortin

a. w

ho b

ecam

e a

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

citiz

en u

nder

the

prov

isio

ns o

f the

Tre

aty

of G

uada

lupe

Hid

algo

, led

a s

erie

sA

.nof

reb

ellio

ns a

gain

st A

nglo

-Am

eric

ans

in th

e S

outh

wes

t.

1863

On

Janu

ary

1. 1

863,

Pre

side

nt A

brah

am L

inco

ln is

sued

the

Em

anci

patio

nP

rocl

amat

ion,

whi

ch fr

eed

slav

es in

thos

e st

ates

i"st

ill fi

ghtin

g th

e U

nion

.

Cin "./

1864

Nea

rly 3

00 C

heye

nnes

wer

e ki

lled

in a

sur

pris

e at

tack

at S

and

Cre

ek, C

olor

ado.

Thi

s ev

ent i

s kn

own

as th

e S

and

Cre

ekM

assa

cre

1869

The

Tra

nsco

ntin

enta

l Rai

lroad

, lin

king

the

Wes

t to

the

Eas

t,w

as c

ompl

eted

. Chi

nese

labo

rers

did

mos

t of t

he w

ork

onth

e P

acifi

c po

rtio

n of

the

railr

oad.

The

uns

ucce

ssfu

l Wak

.imat

su C

olon

y, m

ade

up o

f Jap

anes

eim

mig

rant

s, w

as e

stab

lishe

d in

Cal

iforn

ia.

1871

A W

hite

mob

in L

os A

ngel

es a

ttack

ed a

Chi

nese

com

mun

ity. W

hen

the

conf

lict e

nded

, nin

etee

n C

hine

se w

ere

kille

dan

d th

eir

com

mun

ity w

as in

sha

mbl

es.

1876

In th

e di

sput

ed H

ayes

-Tild

en e

lect

ion,

the

Dem

ocra

ts a

nd R

epub

lican

sm

ade

a po

litic

al b

arga

in w

hich

sym

boliz

ed th

eex

tent

to w

hich

Nor

ther

n W

hite

s ha

d ab

ando

ned

Sou

ther

n B

lack

s.

1882

Hk

CJ1

1885

GO

1886

Sio

ux tr

ibes

, und

er th

e le

ader

ship

of S

ittin

g B

ull,

wip

ed o

ut C

uste

r's S

even

th C

aval

ry a

t Litt

le B

ig H

orn.

Thi

s w

ason

e of

the

last

vic

torie

s fo

r N

ativ

e A

mer

ican

trib

es.

The

Chi

nese

Exc

lusi

on A

ct w

as e

nact

ed b

y C

ongr

ess.

Ano

ther

con

gres

sion

al im

mig

ratio

n ac

t est

ablis

hed

a he

adta

x of

fifty

cen

ts a

nd e

xclu

ded

luna

tics,

con

vict

s, id

iots

, and

thos

e lik

ely

to b

ecom

e pu

blic

cha

rges

.

A s

erio

us a

ntiC

hine

se r

iot t

ook

plac

e in

Roc

k S

prin

gs, W

yom

ing.

Tw

enty

-eig

ht C

hine

se w

ere

kille

d, a

nd m

any

othe

rs w

ere

wou

nded

and

driv

en fr

om th

eir

hom

es.

The

Apa

che

war

rior,

Ger

onim

o, s

urre

nder

ed to

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

forc

es in

Sep

tem

ber

1886

. His

sur

rend

er m

arke

d th

e de

feat

of th

e S

outh

wes

t trib

es.

The

Hay

mar

ket A

ffair

in C

hica

go g

reat

ly in

crea

sed

the

fear

of f

orei

gn "

radi

cals

" an

d st

imul

ated

the

grow

th o

f nat

ivis

ticse

ntim

ents

in th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s.

The

Sta

tue

of L

iber

ty w

as d

edic

ated

as

nativ

ism

soa

red

in th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s.

Con

gres

s pa

ssed

the

Daw

es S

ever

alty

Act

whi

ch w

as d

esig

ned

to p

artia

lly te

rmin

ate

the

Indi

an's

spe

cial

rel

atio

nshi

p w

ithth

e U

nite

d S

tate

s go

vern

men

t.

The

Sco

tt A

ct p

rohi

bite

d th

e im

mig

ratio

n of

Chi

nese

labo

rers

and

per

mitt

ed o

nly

offic

ials

, tea

cher

s, s

tude

nts,

mer

chan

ts,

and

trav

eler

s fr

om C

hina

to e

nter

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

4.--

"

1890

Thr

ee h

undr

ed S

ioux

wer

e ki

lled

in a

mas

sacr

e at

Wou

nded

Kne

e C

reek

in S

outh

Dak

ota.

1891

Ele

ven

Italia

n A

mer

ican

s w

ere

lync

hed

in N

ew O

rlean

s du

ring

the

heig

ht o

f Am

eric

an n

ativ

ism

, afte

r be

ing

accu

sed

ofm

urde

ring

a po

lice

supe

rinte

nden

t.

1892

Elli

s Is

land

ope

ned

and

repl

aced

Cas

tle G

arde

n as

the

mai

n po

rt o

f ent

ry fo

r E

urop

ean

imm

igra

nts.

1893

Que

en L

iliuo

kala

ni o

f Haw

aii w

as o

vert

hrow

n in

a b

lood

less

rev

olut

ion

led

by A

mer

ican

pla

nter

s.

The

Rep

ublic

of H

awai

i was

est

ablis

hed.

with

Sta

nfor

d B

. Dol

e as

pre

side

nt.

1896

In a

his

toric

dec

isio

n, P

less

y vs

. Fer

guso

n, th

e S

upre

me

Cou

rt r

uled

that

"se

para

te b

ut e

qual

" fa

cilit

ies

wer

e co

nstit

utio

nal.

1898

Haw

aii w

as a

nnex

ed to

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

Und

er th

e te

rms

of th

e T

reat

y of

Par

is, t

he tr

eaty

whi

ch e

nded

the

Spa

nish

-Am

eric

an W

ar, t

he U

nite

dS

tate

s ac

quire

dP

uert

o R

ico,

Gua

m, a

nd th

e P

hilip

pine

s. C

uba

beca

me

inde

pend

ent o

f Spa

in b

utw

as p

lace

d un

der

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

tute

lage

.

1900

With

the

For

aker

Act

, the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

esta

blis

hed

a go

vern

men

t in

Pur

eto

Ric

o in

whi

ch th

epr

esid

ent o

f the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

appo

inte

d th

e go

vern

or a

nd th

e E

xecu

tive

Cou

ncil.

1901

-10

Alm

ost 9

mill

ion

imm

igra

nts

ente

red

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes,

mos

t of w

hom

cam

e fr

om S

outh

ern

and

Eas

tern

Eur

ope.

1908

The

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

Japa

n m

ade

a G

entle

men

's A

gree

men

t, w

hich

was

des

igne

d to

red

uce

the

num

ber

of J

apan

ese

imm

igra

nts

ente

ring

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

1910

The

Nat

iona

l Ass

ocia

tion

for

the

Adv

ance

men

t of C

olor

ed P

eopl

e (N

AA

CP

)w

as o

rgan

ized

.

A M

exic

an r

evol

utio

n ca

used

man

y M

exic

an p

easa

nts

to im

mig

rate

to th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s lo

okin

g fo

r jo

bs. O

ther

imm

igra

nts

cam

e to

esc

ape

polit

ical

turm

oil a

nd p

erse

cutio

n.1 c.

n -.,

1913

The

Cal

iforn

ia le

gisl

atur

e pa

ssed

a la

nd b

ill w

hich

mad

e it

very

diff

icul

t for

Jap

anes

e im

mig

rant

s to

leas

e la

nd.

1917

Thi

rty-

nine

Afr

o-A

mer

ican

s w

ere

kille

d in

a b

lood

y rio

t in

Eas

t St.

Loui

s,M

isso

uri.

A c

ompr

ehen

sive

imm

igra

tion

bill

was

ena

cted

that

est

ablis

hed

a lit

erac

y te

st fo

r en

terin

g im

mig

rant

s.

The

Jon

es A

ct w

as p

asse

d by

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

Con

gres

s. It

mad

e P

uert

oR

ican

s U

nite

d S

tate

s ci

tizen

s an

d su

bjec

t to

the

CJ1

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

draf

t.(I

D19

20T

he H

awai

ian

Hom

es C

omm

issi

on w

as s

tart

ed to

ben

efit

the

nativ

e H

awai

ian.

Ver

y lit

tle o

f the

land

invo

lved

was

use

dfo

r its

sta

ted

purp

ose.

The

num

ber

of p

erso

n bo

rn in

Pue

rto

Ric

o an

d liv

ing

in th

e U

nite

dS

tate

s w

as 1

1,81

1. T

hat n

umbe

r in

crea

sed

to 5

8,20

0in

193

5.

1924

The

Joh

nson

-Ree

d A

ct e

stab

lishe

d ex

trem

e qu

otas

on im

mig

ratio

n an

d bl

atan

tly d

iscr

imin

ated

aga

inst

Sou

ther

n an

dE

aste

rn E

urop

ean

and

non-

Whi

te n

atio

ns.

r

1925

A la

rge

num

ber

of F

ilipi

nos

bega

n to

imm

igra

te to

Haw

aii a

nd th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s m

ainl

and

to w

ork

as fi

eld

labo

rers

.

1927

The

Fili

pino

Fed

erat

ion

of L

abor

was

org

aniz

ed in

Los

Ang

eles

.

1928

The

Lea

gue

of U

nite

d La

tin A

mer

ican

Citi

zens

was

form

ed in

Har

linge

n, T

exas

.

1929

An

anttF

ilipi

no r

iot o

ccur

red

in E

xete

r, C

alifo

rnia

, in

whi

chov

er 2

00 F

ilipi

nos

wer

e as

saul

ted.

1930

The

Jap

anes

e A

mer

ican

Citi

zens

hip

Leag

ue w

as o

rgan

ized

.

1934

Con

gres

s pa

ssed

the

Tyd

ings

-McD

uffie

Act

. Thi

s ac

t pro

mis

ed th

e P

hilip

pine

s in

depe

nden

cean

d lim

ited

Fili

pino

imm

igra

tion

to th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s to

fifty

per

yea

r.

1935

Pre

side

nt F

rank

lin D

. Roo

seve

lt si

gned

the

Rep

atria

tion

Act

. The

act

offe

red

free

tran

spor

tatio

nto

Fili

pino

s w

ho w

ould

retu

rn to

the

Phi

lippi

nes.

Tho

se w

ho le

ft w

ere

unab

le to

ret

urn

to th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s ex

cept

und

era

seve

re q

uota

sys

tem

.

1942

On

Feb

ruar

y 19

, 194

2, P

resi

dent

Fra

nklin

D. R

oose

velt

issu

ed E

xecu

tive

Ord

er 9

066,

whi

ch a

utho

rized

the

inte

rnm

ent

..I t.ri

of J

apan

ese

Am

eric

ans

who

live

d on

the

Wes

t Coa

st.

co

The

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

Mex

ico

mad

e an

agr

eem

ent t

hat a

utho

rized

Mex

ican

imm

igra

nts

to w

ork

tem

pora

rily

in th

et

IU

nite

d S

tate

s. T

his

proj

ect i

s kn

own

as th

e br

acer

o pr

ogra

m.

i"19

43W

hite

vio

lenc

e di

rect

ed a

t Afr

o-A

mer

ican

s le

d to

a s

erio

us r

iot i

n D

etro

it, in

whi

ch th

irty-

four

peop

le w

ere

kille

d.C

IC

IT

he a

ntiM

exic

an "

zoot

sui

t" r

iots

took

pla

ce in

Los

Ang

eles

dur

ing

the

sum

mer

.

1946

On

July

4, 1

946,

the

Phi

lippi

nes

beca

me

inde

pend

ent.

1954

The

Ref

ugee

Rel

ief A

ct p

erm

itted

5,0

00 H

unga

rian

refu

gees

to e

nter

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

In a

land

mar

k de

cisi

on, B

row

n vs

. Boa

rd o

f Edu

catio

n, th

e S

upre

me

Cou

rt r

uled

that

scho

ol s

egre

gatio

n w

as in

here

ntly

uneq

ual.

The

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

Imm

igra

tion

and

Nat

ural

izat

ion

Ser

vice

beg

an O

pera

tion

Wet

back

, a m

assi

ve p

rogr

am to

dep

ort i

llega

lM

exic

an im

mig

rant

s.

1959

Fid

el C

astr

o to

ok o

ver

the

reig

ns o

fpo

wer

in C

uba

from

the

gove

rnm

ent o

f Ful

genc

io B

atis

ta. A

fter

this

,m

any

Cub

anre

fuge

es e

nter

ed th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s.

Haw

aii b

ecom

es th

e fif

tieth

sta

te o

f the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes.

1960

The

Nat

iona

l Ind

ian

You

th C

ounc

ilw

as o

rgan

ized

.

1962

Com

mer

cial

air

fligh

ts b

etw

een

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

and

Cub

aen

ded.

Imm

igra

tion

from

Cub

a to

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

beca

me

stric

tly c

land

estin

e.

1963

Ove

r 2,

000

peop

le p

artic

ipat

ed in

a "

Mar

chon

Was

hing

ton

for

Fre

edom

and

Job

s."

1964

The

Civ

il R

ight

s A

ct o

f 196

4, th

e m

ost

com

preh

ensi

ve c

ivil

right

s bi

ll in

Am

eric

an h

isto

ry, w

as e

nact

edby

Con

gres

s an

dsi

gned

by

Pre

side

nt L

yndo

n B

. Joh

nson

.

1965

With

the

pass

age

of th

e C

ivil

Rig

hts

Act

of 1

965,

Pue

rto

Ric

anA

mer

ican

s w

ere

no lo

nger

req

uire

d to

pass

an

Eng

lish

liter

acy

test

to v

ote

in N

ew Y

ork

stat

e.U

i.o

A n

ew im

mig

ratio

n ac

t, w

hich

bec

ame

effe

ctiv

ein

196

8, a

bolis

hed

the

natio

nal o

rigin

s qu

ota

syst

em a

ndgr

eatly

libe

raliz

edA

mer

ican

imm

igra

tion

polic

y. Im

mig

ratio

n fr

omno

nEur

opea

n na

tions

gre

atly

incr

ease

d af

ter

this

act

was

ena

cted

.

A g

rape

str

ike

led

by C

esar

Cha

vez

and

the

Nat

iona

l Far

mW

orke

rs A

ssoc

iatio

n be

gan

in D

elan

o. C

alifo

rnia

,a

tow

n in

the

San

Joa

quin

Val

ley.

Cr)

Rod

olfo

"C

orke

y' G

onza

les

form

ed th

e C

rusa

de fo

r Jus

tice

in D

enve

r. T

his

impo

rtan

t civ

il rig

hts

orga

niza

tion

epito

miz

edth

e C

hica

no m

ovem

ent t

hat e

mer

ged

in th

e 19

60's

.

The

Cub

an R

efug

ee A

irlift

prog

ram

beg

an. F

light

s fr

om C

uba

to M

iam

i. F

lorid

a w

ere

spon

sore

d by

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

gove

rnm

ent.

The

pro

gram

was

term

inat

ed in

197

3.

1965

.68

A s

erie

s of

reb

ellio

ns to

ok p

lace

in A

mer

ican

citi

es in

whi

chA

fro-

Am

eric

ans

expr

esse

d th

eir

frus

trat

ions

and

dis

cont

ent.

1966

Sto

kely

Car

mic

hael

issu

ed a

cal

l for

"B

lack

Pow

er"

durin

g a

civi

l rig

hts

dem

onst

ratio

n in

Gre

enw

ood,

Mis

siss

ippi

.

1970

Her

man

Bad

illo

was

ele

cted

to th

e U

.S. H

ouse

of R

epre

sent

ativ

es. H

e w

as ti

le fi

rst P

uert

o R

ican

Am

eric

an e

lect

ed to

Con

gres

s.

1972

Mor

e th

an 8

,000

del

egat

es a

ttend

ed th

e fir

st N

atio

nal B

lack

Pol

itica

l Con

vent

ion

in G

ary,

Indi

ana.

1973

Afr

o -

Am

eric

ans

wer

e el

ecte

d m

ayor

s in

Det

roit,

Atla

nta,

Los

Ang

eles

and

oth

er c

ities

.

this annotated bibliography is reprinted with permission of the author from thetollowing sources

1 twmuto, :sou Multiyo Yamaguchi swat and Rosalie Zucker, Asians in America: ASelected Annotated Bibliography. Asian American Research Project, Asian Americanstudies Division. University of California at Davis, June 1971.

Asian American Cultural Heritage Prugiam and Asian American Education Assuciatiunof the Seattle Public Schools A Bibliography of Asian and Asian American Booksfor Elementary School Youngsters. Seattle, Washington, January 1975. (FOR DIS-CUSSION ONLY.)

JAPANESE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE IN THE U.S.

I. GENERAL WORKSTeacher Resource and High School LevelBoddy, Manchester E Japanese in America. Los Angeles. Published by the author,1921. 198pp.Tu help ameliorate the Japanese problem in California, the author criticizes the

standard anti Japanese allegation and myths, dealing with such topics as theJapanese associations in America, Japanese population, standard of Irving, workconditions, religious and social education, Japanese language schools, and the broadsubiect of assimilation of the Japanese. The last section is comprised of 19 briefbiographies of typical Japanese immigrants.

Conroy, Hilary. and T. Scott Miyakawa (eds ) East Across the Pacific. Santa Barbara.Cho Press, 1972. 340pp.

A collection of historical and sociological essays un the Japanese immigrationand assimilation into American life. Divided into four general sections. HistoricalEssays Hawaii and the Pacific Islands, Historical Essays Mainland North America,From History to Sociology: and Sociological Essays.

Herman. Masako (compiler and editor). The Japanese in America, 1843.1943: AChronology and Fact Book. Dobbs Ferry, New York. Oceana Press, 1974.

Hosokawa, BM, The Quiet Americans. New York. William Morrow and Company,Inc ,1969. 522pp.

Popular history of the Japanese in America, their first contacts with the UnitedStates, their problems as immigrants, their lifestyle and the growth of political andsocial awareness among the Nisei, the development of the Japanese AmericanCitizens League and its rule, and the Nisei search for identity. Deals with eventsthat led to the evacuation during WWII and chronicles the efforts of the Nisei442nd Regimental Combat Team. Covers period from immigration through early1960's

hhihasc amato. Japanese in the United States. New York. Arno Press and theNew York limes, 1969 (c1932). 426pp

The main burly of the 1)m...covering the late 1800's to the 1930s, is divided intofour parts 1) discussion ut the coining of the Japanese, 2)analysis of salient facts relatingto alien Japanese residents. 3) historical examination of anti Japanese agitation,and .1) discussion of second generation problems. Includes information un thesteppnig stuiue ungiotiun ut Japanese from Hawaii to the United States mainland,

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Ito, Kazuo. Issei (English Edition) Seattle, Washington Japanese AmericanCommunity Services, Tokyo, Japan Japan Publications, 1973 987pp

Biographical account of Japanese immigration to the U.S Canada and MexicoContains personal accounts tit Issel pioneer experiences and encounters Includespoetry written by Issec Excellent chronology of U.S Japan events

Wino, Harry H.L. Japanese Americans: The Evolution of a Subculture. EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.; PrentgeHall, Inc., 1969 186pp,

A social-psychological interpretation of the Japanese Anent ans, treating brieflythe early emigration, the period up to World War II, the wartime evacuation. andthe Postwar era. Emphasis is placed on an analysis of the relationship of ethnicinstitutions, cultural norms and values, to current social psychological issues suchas mental health and deviant behavior.

Lyman. Stanford, The Asian in the West, Reno. University of Nevada. 1970 168ppA collection of articles by the author on the Chinese and Japanese in the 19th

century in North America.

Nitobe, Inazo. Bushido: The Soul of Japan. Tokyo, Japan, 1935

Ogawa, Dennis. From Japs to Japanese: The Evolution of Japanese American Stereo-types. Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing Co,. 1971 67pp.

Through the use of secondary materials, the author describes the decelopmenttit the negative lap stereotype to the more acceptable Japanese idea The imagechange of the Japanese American in the public s eyes is outlined

Okimoto. Daniel. American in Disguise. New York. Walker Weatherhal, 1971206ppThe autobiography tit a young Nisei and his attempts to find his identity ina pluralistic America which views Asian Americans as being different from the norm.

Petersen, Main Japanese Americans: Oppression and Success. New York RandomHouse, 1971.268pp

A general view of the Japanese American as seen by a professor of socialdemography,

Smith. Robert and Richard Beardsley (eds ). Japanese Culture: Its Developmentand Characteristics. Chicago; Aldine Publishing Co.

Series of papers dealing with origins of people, culture and language in Japansocial structure in Japan (with emphasis on family. village organization andstructure): and the role of culture in personality

Tacluki, Amy. et al (eds.). Roots: An Asian American Reader. Los AngelesUniversity of California at Los Angeles, 1971 WIpp

A reader &sided into three sections History. Community and Identity. Coodfor plating the Japanese American III tuntext with other Asian Americans 1 he readeralso reflects the ethic of many of the contemporary Sansei.

A American setting

1. PRIMARY LEVEL

Student Materials

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Copeland, Helen Meet Miki Takino. lothrop, 1963.Japanese American Miki, a first grads. boy in a New York City school, wanted to

bring his grandparents to the school partyhut he had no grandparents How hemanages to adopt three grandmothers and two grandfathers makes a satisfyingstory

Hawkinson, Lucy Dance, Dance Amy.Chan. Albert Whitman and Co., 1964.Two young Japanese American girls take part in a folk festival and learn more

about their heritage.

Jaynes, Ruth Friends, Friends, Friends. Bowmar Publishing Co., 1967,Focuses on a young Asian American girl in a school setting. Pictures depict her

multiethnic personal contacts Goud for discussion of pluralistic society at an earlylevel.

an Mateo City School Distnct Japanese American Curnculum Project. The JapaneseAmericans The Bay Leaf. (February 1970).

This Issue of the Bay Leaf is a Japanese American Curriculum Project sponsored bythe San Mateo City School District Brief articles are written on a Japanese AmericanFestival in which such terms as judo. ikebana, odor are explained. . .about thebenefits of Japanese American and other ethnic group relationships. Helpful leafletfor lower grades to give a micro nuns course of Japanese American contributions toAmerica.

Yasluma,Mitsu Momo's Kitten. Viking Press.Story of a Japanese American girl who finds a little kitten that eventually becomes

the mother of five kittens. Beautiful drawings.

Yashima, Taro. Umbrella. Viking Press, 1958.Momoy little girl who lives in New York, becomes quite unhappy waiting for the

rain to come so she can use her new umbrella and red boots. Bold color illustrationsand a poetic style of writing tell the story of the first time Memo goes to nurseryschool by herself The simplicity of the story. the Japanese seasonal symbols, andthe naturalness of the situation will interest small children.

A. American setting2, INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

Cavanna. Betty. Jenny Kimura. Wm. Morrow & Co. 1964.The story of a half Japanese, half Caucasian teenager from Japan who visits her

grandmother in Kansas City The story focuses un fenny s acceptance and non-acceptance in America, boy girl relationships, dating, etc. Would be interesting toyoung girls The author sensitively relates cultural and personal adjustments Jennymust make in hernew setting

Uchida. Yoslnko, The Birthday Visitor. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975,Delightful story about Emi Watanabe, a 7 year old Japanese American living in

California during the 30's, who has a special visitor from Japan to help celebrateher birthday,

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Uchida, Yoshiko, Mik and the Prowler. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc , 1960.Story of a ten year old, Mik VVatanabe, his family and his guest, Tainiku, who conies

from Japan for a visit.

Uchida, Yoshiko New Friends for Susan. Charles Scribner s Sons, 1951Warm story of a Japanese American Family who lived in Berkeley,Cakfurnia, Susan

Sasaki must part with her best friend, Margie, beca% se their school builduig is notsafe and they will be attending different schools. However, many happy eventsfollow a faendship made at the new school,

Uchida, Yoshiko, The Promised Year. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc, 1959.Ten year old Koko comes to California from Japan to spend a year with her aunt

and uncle, She has to make many adjustments. Story treats Asian Americans as"ordinary folks,"

A. American setting

3. JUNIOR HIGH

Mori, 1 °slim, Yokohama, California. Caldwell, Idaho. The Caxton Printers Ltd.,1949. 166pp.

Acollection of short stories by the author illustrating the life of many Japaneseand Japanese Americans before World War II Told un a very human and appealinglevel.Sone, Monica. Nisei Daughter. Little Brown, & Co, 1953.

Story of the life of a Japanese Amencan gul who grew up in Seattles Pioneer Squaredistrict. Sensitive approach to the growing racial awareness of the young girl. Oldbook, but still appropriate today.

B. Old country (Japan) setting

1, PRIMARY LEVEL

Edmonds, IC Ooka the Wise. Bobbsemll Co., 1961.Ooka, the shrewd old Japanese judge, solves with wisdom and humor the problems

that beset his fellow townsmen, Possible discussion comparing wisdom versusintelligence, humor versus wit.

Fujita, Tamao. The Boy and the Bird. The John Day Co 1971.The awesome beauty of the forest compels a young buy to release his pet bird

from its cage. The walk back is sad when the bird duesn t respond to the master'scall. Happily the bird had returned to its cage before its master. The beauty of natureis captured in the text and illustrations.

Ishii, Momuko, The Dolls Day for Yoshiko. Follett Publishing Co., 1966,Yoshiko and her mother contrive a way to acquire a fine set of dulls in time for

the Doll Festival.

Kisshida, Eriko, Hippopotamus. Prenticeliall, 1963.Taro and his pet turtle visit their friends, the hippopotamus, in the Tokyo Zoo,

A quiet time story that young children will enjoy.

Stamm, Claus. Three Strong Women. Viking Press.The story of a Japanese wrestler and his meetings with three strung women

As the wrestler walks through the countryside, he shows the reader much of countrylife in Japan. Easy reading for younger children with many pictures

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Uchida. Yoshiko Sumi and the Goat and the Tokyo Express. Charles Scribner sSons

A little girl (rum a small town outside Tokyo is thrilled when her elderly neighboracquires a goat She hopes the goat will du something special which she can bragabout to her classmates. However, the news of the day is the building of the TokyoExpress train which will never stop in this small uneventful village.

Uchida. Yoshiko Sumi's Special Happening. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1966.Seven year old Sumi wondered about a birthday gift for her grandfather who will

be 99 years old. A spiritual gift was deemed more important than a material one.Throughout the story there is a peacock that never fanned its tad until the birthday.The book is humorous while conveying eastern philosophy in a manner childrenwill easily grasp. Enjoyable book!

B. Old country (Japan) setting

2 INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

Buck, Pearl S. The Big Wave. The John Day Co.

Well written, gorgeously illustrated book. Deals with the Japanese culture, social-ization process and social situation. Beautiful examples of ancient Japanese art.

Uchida, Yosluko. The Forever Christmas Tree. Charles Scribnee's Sons.

This is a beautiful, sensitive story of the discovery of Christmas and a warm friendship between a young Japanese boy and an old man. Enjoyable reading. Depictshuman warmth in a Japanese setting.

Uchida. Yoshiko. Hisako's Mysteries. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1967.

Story written with love and warmth of an orphan girl raised by her grandparentsin a small village in Japan The' mysteries' are raised when she accidentally findsout that her father had not really died when she was a baby. Hisako s relationshipswith her grandparents, friends, aunts, uncles and cousins areso warm and real thatit brings home the fact that Japanese are like people the world over,

Uchida, Yoshiko. InBetween Miya. Charles Scribner: Sons.A very well-written book that shows how ethnic minorities have similarities as

well as differences which make life more interesting. The children reading thiscould easily identify with Miya, the central character, put themselves in her positionand live a few days in Tokyo, etc. Very realistic and interesting reading.

Uchida, Yoshiko Takao and Grandfathers Sword. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.Story of a boy who sells his highly cherished grandfathers sword to help his father

overcome the heavy financial loss when his potter s shed is burned with a big orderin the kiln The setting is in Kyoto and is very old country, but the story of a boy whosacrifices and overcomes fears to help his parents is uplifting.

C. Folk and Fairy Tales Japan1, PRIMARY LEVEL

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Futamauta, Eigoro. How Not To Catch a Mouse. John Weatherhill, Inc. 1972.

Excellent picture book with a cute story of a mouse who frightens most of thelarger animals in the community by parading as a ghost and bow the larger animalsretaliate.

Kakunoto, Kozo, The Little Mouse who Tarried. Parents Magazine Press, 1972.

Delightful story of a chain of events. Interactions between grandmother mouse,crow, cat, mouse, dog, broom, sickle, stone, and fire . . . High interest story,humorous illustrations.

Kijima, Hajime. link White Hen. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. 1969.This is a story of a little white hen who lived by herself in a house in the forest.

The clever fox who lived nearby saw her and thought she would make a temptingmeal, but the little hen was also clever and eventually outwitted him. This hen andfox fairy tale could have been adopted by any country.

Maiyagawa, Yasue. The Hare and the Bear and Other Stories. Parents MagazinePress, 1971.

Three really humorous stories about the hare and other animals. Appealing,illustrations and clever stories make this a good oral reading book

Matsutani, Miyoko. The Crane Maiden. Parents Magazine Press, 1968.An old Japanese tale about a crane who takes a human female form when freed

from a trap by a poor woodcutter. She repays the kindness of the woodcutter andhis wife by filling their home with joy and laughter. However, because of a brokenpromise, she must become a crane once more. Appealing story.

Sakade, Florence. Japanese Children's Favorite Stories. Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1958

A collection of twenty folk tales traditionally told to Japanese children.

Titus, Eve.The Two Stonecutters. Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1967.long ago there lived two brothers who were stonecutters, The Younger brother

was content with his simple life and humble work, but Elder Brother longed to berich, mighty and powerful. The brothers were granted seven wishes by the Goddessof the Forest. This tale tells the story of how each of the seven wishes were spent.Many nice stylistic illustrations. Classic fairy tale with a moral.

C. Folk and Fairy Tales (Folksongs) Japan

2. INERMEDIATE LEVEL

Burger, Donald P. Folk Songs of Japanese Children. Charles E Tuttle Co., 1968.Fifteen folk songs; includes music. translations and explanations.

Haviland, Virginia. Favorite Fairy Tales Told in Japan. Little, Brown & Co., 1967Five of the most familiar Japanese tales are retold here in a direct and simple style.

Hodges, Margaret. The Wave. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964,This story tells of an old man who set fire to hip own rice fields to warn his village

of an approaching tidal wave.

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Uchida, Yoshiko The Dancing Kettle. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.A collection of 14 tales told to the author during her own childhood. Delightful

reading,

Uchida, Yoshiko The Magic Listenting Cap: More Folk Tales from Japan. Harcourt,Brace & World, Inc.

Uchida shows great style in this collection of stories. Stories have substance.

Uchida, Yoshiko The Sea of Gold and Other Tales from Japan. Charles Scribner'sSons, 1965,

Ctassic fapanese fairly tales retold by Yoshiko Uchida, Like fairly tales of all lands,the good prevails and evil receives its just rewards. Easy reading, short stories.

II. Discrimination and Prejudice: Racial ClimateTeacher Resource and High School LevelA Law and Policy Immigration Acts, Treaties, Land Laws, Naturalization

Laws and Related Court Cases and Legal Commentary

Bartholomew, Paul C Summaries of Leading Cases on the Constitution. Totowa, NewJersey Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1967. 370pp,

Cushman, Robert F Leading Constitutional Decisions (14th Edition). New York.AppletonCentury-Crofts, 1971.

Concise summaries of landmark decisions of U.S. Supreme Court, cases treatedaccording to constitutional principles.

Olin, Spencer C Jr European Immigrant and Oriental Alien. Acceptance andRejection by the California Legislation of 1913,' Pacific Historical Review.35 (1966), pp. 303-315.Contrasts the concern for the plight of the European immigrant expressed

in the creation uf a Currunissiun of Immigration and Housing in the 1913 legislativesession with the simultaneous disregard for the rights of the Oriental immigrantexpressed in the passage of the alien land law also in the 1913 session. TheCalifornia progressives were deeply concerned fur immigrants of European stock,but they lacked an understanding of the aspirations of non-white aliens.

Rostow, Eugene V The Sovereign Prerogative: The Supreme Court and the Quest forLaw, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962. 318pp.

One chapter reports in detail the constitutionality of the order to evacuateAmericans of Japanese ancestry during World War II (Executive Order 9066) and itsimplication for future generations.

United States Congress I louse House Document 600, 613th Congress. 2nd Session.Japanese Exclusion. By John B 1revur, Washington, D.C. United States GovernmentPrinting Orrice, 1925. 04pp

A study of the policy and the laws with regard to Japanese exclusion. Discussesassruilahihty uf Japanese, the question uf Japanese encroachment upon thesovereignty of the state, the problem of dual allegiance, the doctrine of raceequality and the Immigration Act of 1924. Includes texts of notes exchangedbetween governments of japan and the United States, the 1924 Nationality Law ofJapan, and court cases regarding Japanese ineligible for citizenship. Concludesthat the United States treatment uf Japanese exclusion is consistent with the overallpolicy of the United States toward immigrants in general,

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United States Congress. Senate Immigration Committee, Japanese. ImmigrationLegislation: Hearings before the Committee on Immigration. United States Senate,68th Congress on 5.2576. Washington, D.C.. United States Government PrintingOffice, 1924. 170pp.

Hearings before the Congress on 5.2'376. a bill to limit the immigration ut aliensinto the United States Includes statements by Gilbert Bowles, Sidney L. Gulick,Rev Charles 5 Macfarland. N., S McClatchy. James G. McDonald, Honorable JamesD. Phelan, David B, Schneder, Honorable Samuel M Shortridge, Francis R. Taylor.Fennell R. Turner, and Honorable U.S. Webb.

III. Anti-Japanese Agitation: Reception to Host CountryTeacher Resource and High School Level

Daniels. Roger. The Politics of Prejudice. Gloucester, Mass. peter Smith. 1966. 165pp.An excellent account of California s anti Japanese movement hum its beginning

in the late 19th century, the California election of the 1920s, the passage of the AlienLand Law of 1913 and 1920, and to its major triumph of the Japanese exclusionprovisions of the Immigration Act of 1924. Shows that racism was not confined tothe Far West or the South, but was national in scope. This book was developed tromthe author's Ph, D. dissertation.

McWilliams Carey Prejudice: Japanese-Americans: Symbol of Racial Intolerance.Boston little, Brown, and Company. 1944 117pp

A historical and economic analysis from 1900 to 1944 of anti-Japanese tensionson the Pacific Coast which 41,111111liated in the v%aktlillIt/11 ut tilltdIlest. dwing ltiinddWar II the author pod its out that prejudice is nut ail I II IStIllt U e expiessuni ut deepseated aversion but is manufactured out ut °Mkt ts. the real nature offrequently insundel stood This them), IS explored Uinruglinut dn. book aimto Japanese Americans as well as its impin dtIUIIS in general term..

IV. Japanese Evacuation and ResettlementTeacher Resource and High School LevelA, General Works

Bosworth, Allan R America's Concentration Camps. New York W W. Norton. 1967.283pp.

Describes the internment of Japanese Americans during World War IL detailingsuch things as the racial climate before the win, the panic caused by the war and tirepress, evacuation. internment, and the impact of the experience un internees,

ConratMaisie and Ridlaid Executive Order 9066. San Francisco Caldorma HistoncalSociety, 1972. 120pp.

Photo essay of authentic scenes ut the American wow drawn camp experience.Brief compelling text is appropriate, Excellent selecuun ut viaul pictures to bringabout good discussions large photo prints are available,

Daniels. Roger Concentration Camps US.A.: Japanese Americans and World War II.New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1972. 188pp.

A detailed study of the personalities and conditions that led up to the internment of Japanese and Japanese Americans. Daniels follows the Japanese into thecamps, and describes their return to the West Coast after the war.

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Daniels, Roger The Decision to Relocate the Japanese Americans. New York. J.B.Lippincott Co 1975

Through the use ut official government documents and letters written by keyindividuals like General John L. DeWitt, Provost Marshal General Allen W. Gu lhanand Colonel Karl R Bendentsen, the author states that the decisions to relocatethe Japanese Americans was not a military necessity, Demonstrates decision-niakingprocess and gives insight into the personalities of individuals making decisions.

Girdner. Audne and Ann Loftis The Great Betrayal: The Evacuation of the Japanese-Americans during World War II. London. Macmillan Company, 1%9, 562pp.

A thorough study uf the wartime evacuation of the Japanese frum the West Coast,Deals with personal recullectioi is of events leading up tu evacuation, the evacuationprocess, camp life, the loyalty question, and ielut anon On the implications of theevacuation tu democracy in the United States, the authors comment. As a departureh 0111 Amman principles, (the evacuation) will star id as an aberration and a warning,'

Myer, pillion 5, Uprooted Americans. Tucson University of Arizona Press, 1971.360pp,

The story of the internment frum the wartime head of the War Relocation Authonty.

Teacher Resource and High School Level13 Government Documents on Evacuation and Resettlement

United States Department of the Interior War Relocation Authority. CommunityAnalysis. Reports 1-19. (October 1942June 1946).

A collection uf nineteen reports by War Relocation Authority staff members ofthe Community Analysis Section during the period between October, 1942, andJune 1946 Topics included are general cultural background, causes of unrest atrelocation centers, Japanese associations in America, Japanese holidays, Buddhismin America, assimilation of kibei and Nisei, evacuees resistance tu relocation, analysisof segregation program, labur relations in the centers, California s attitudes towardthe return of Japanese, and prejudice in Huud River %, alley a case study in racerelations Includes a bibliography of Community Analysis newsletters on therelocation program.

Teacher Resource and High School LevelC Forces Leading Up to Evacuation and Legal Commentary un Evacuation

Grodzins. Morton Americans Betrayed: Politics and the Japanese Evacuation.Chicago' University of Chicago Press, 1949. 445pp.

Deals mainly with the situation immediately prior tu the evacuation decision.Introduction gives background from about .1900, duld the rest of the book deals withthe political climate: that led tu the deusion the influence of pressure groups, andthe administrative, legislative and judiciary rules ui the decision. Author takes theposition that the decision was wrung and endangers the democratic process.

Rostov, Eugene The Japanese American CasesA Disaster. 'Yale Law Journal.54, No 3 (June 1945), pp 489-533.

Presents a legal and constitutional point uf view uf the evacuation of JapaneseAmericans from the Pacific Coast during World War II with focus on the judgmentmade by the Supreme Cuurt. Also gives a general account of the evacuation, howthe alien Japanese were treated in Hawaii, England, and frame arid some courtcases concerning the actions taken against them

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tenBroek, Jacobus, Edward N Barnhart and Floyd :Matson Prejudice, War, andthe Constitution. Berkeley University of Ca liforma Press, 1934 4U8pp. (Vol i ofDorothy S Thomas, ed , Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement.)

In an extensively well documented volume, the authors probe the reasons behindthe internment of Japanese America' is during VVoild V ,ir 11, addressing themselvesto problems tit prejudice in the United states and to the fundamental guarantees01 the United States Constitution. The emphasis is Oft the turves which producedand allow ed the internment, not on the internment itself

Teacher Resource and High School level0 Camp life

Eaton Allen 11 Beauty Behind Barbed Wire: The Arts of the Japanese in Our WarRelocation Camps. New York, Harper, 1952. 208pp.

Eighty eight blac k and white and foul color photographs constitute the main partof the book, accompanied by captions and legends revealing the arts which werecreated by the Japanese internees in all ten of the War Relocation Centers, flowerarrangements, wood carvings, and miniature landscapes are a less examples ut thetype of work shown in this book

Matsuoka, lack Camp 11, Block 211. Tokyo Japan Publications, Inc , 1974.Autobiographical account of a Nisei experience in Poston. Arizona Illustrated

with cartoons by the author.

Thomas, Dorothy S and Richard Nishimuto The Spoilage. Berkeley, University ofCalifornia Press, 1946 188pp (Vol 1 of Dorothy S Thomas, ed JapaneseAmericanEvacuation and Resettlement.)

An extensive analysis of the internment ut Japanese Americans during World WarII focusing un the detention itself, and not on the forces which led to the dementionof Japanese Americans The internment 11 analyzed sociologically, emphasizingthe conflicts among the internees and bens een alterileeS aid guards Accomudation,revolt, and suppression are analysed in depth

Teacher Resource and High School levelE. Individual Experiences. Biographical Accounts

Kikuchi, Charles edged by John Modell The Kikuchi Diary. Chicago Universityof Illinois Press, 1973.Diary of a young Nisei graduate student in social welfare, reveals thoughtsand actions of the evacuation experience.

Okada, John. No-No Boy. Rutland, Vermont Charles E Tuttle, 1957. 308pp,A novel written by a veteran of the Pacific. War about a Nisei who had been a

Japanese nationalist and who refused to be drafted Back al Seattle Ate' release fromprison, the hero struggles to be accepted by America, which he had rejec ted andwhich rejected him.

Thomas, Dorothy S The Salvage. Berkeley University of Califon ita Press, P152 617pp.(Vol 2 of Dorothy S Thomas, ed , Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement.)

Part I, 'Patterns of Social arid Demographic Changes, gees background informationto provide a historical frame of reference fur placing the evacuation-detention crisisin perspective Part 11, The Course of Individual Experience, presents IS personalaccounts of those Japanese Americans who left the relucdtwn la11111)5 to resettle ni

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the fast and Middle West during 194 3 and 1944. Detailed life histories of those 15resettlers are presented

Yoshida, Jim and Bill Hosokawa The Two Worlds of Jim Yoshidl. New York. WilliamMorrow Co , 1972

Autobiographical account of a Nisei from Seattle and his conflict during WWII.

Student Materials

1. ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Uchida, Yoshiko, Journey to Topaz. Charles Scribner's Sons.The sun) shows the hardships of one family while going through the experience

sit being evacuated into a tuncentr au°, camp. Illustrations enhance the story.

Uchida l'oshiku Samurai of Gold Hill. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972,

Kochi Matsuzaka is the sun of a Samurai, the ancient Japanese warrior - nobilityclass He and his father and other villagers leave then home ur Japan at the end utJapan's feudal time, 1869, and try to establish a colony at Cold I till, California, Thebarest taus of the story are true I he struggles, defeats, unwarranted opposition,appreciation or empathy are all expressed. An interesting story of one culturetrying to coexist in a foreign and hostile country.

2, JUNIOR HIGH LEVEL

Bonham, f rank. The Burma Rifles. Thomas Y. Crowell, 1960.Jerry Harada is a Japanese American of draft age at the time of Pearl Harbor. He

suffers from the hatred of his neighbors and is interned to a concentration camp withhis family ferry later enlists in the U.S. Navy and becomes part of Merrill s Marauders.

Ishigo. Estelle. Lone Heart Mountain. Los Angeles Estelle bingo, 1972. 104pp.A personal account of the evacuation and internment as seen through the eyes

of a Caucasian married to a Japanese American. The authoress has illustrated thebook with many of her own works made while at the Heart Mountain relocationcamp

Okubo Mine Citizen 13660. New York. Columbia University Press, 1946. 209pp.A personal narrative and picture book, written by a Nisei who was on an art

fellowship at the University of California, Berkeley, when \NorIcl War II started.(users the period from September, 1939. to January of 1944. The black-and-whitedrawings and brief comments give a general feeling of Ide in an internment camp,partisularly Tanfuran Assembly Center in San Bruno and Central Utah RelocationCenter at topar.

I Nisei Combat Team 442nd Regiment

Student/Teacher Resource

Inouye Daniel and Lawrence Elliott. journey to Washington. Englewood Cliffs.New jersey Noun e Hall. 1967

Autobiographical a count of the Inouye family immigration to Haw au, includes

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childhood experiences and reactions and feelings about World War II and the per-sonal participation as a member of the 442nd and subsequent involvement in politics.(Can be used at intermediatehigh school level.)

Martin. Ralph G Boy From Nebraska. New York. Harper and Row Brothers. 1946.208pp.

A biography of Ben Kuroki, a Nisei who fought in the United Sidles Army duringWorld War II Includes his experiences of prejudice in Europe and the Pacific as amember of the armed forces and at home.

G. Resettlement Process

Teacher Resource/Secondary

Kitagawa, Daisuke Issei and Nisei: The Internment Years. New York. The SeaburyPress. 1967. 174pp.

Personal narrative by an Issei clergyman on the differences in the feelings, back-ground, and outlook, as well as the similarities between the Issei and Nisei during theperiod of "re-entry" of the Japanese Americans into American society.

H. Economic Losses from Evacuation and Resettlement

Teacher Resource/Secondary

Bloom, Leonard and Ruth Riemer. Removal and Return. Berkeley. University ofCalifornia Press, 1949, 240pp.

A compilation of statistics, with commentary, on the economic changes sufferedfrom 1941-1949 by the Japanese Americans because of the wartime internment.Includes changes in occupation, losses due td loss of clientele, and the role ofevacuee claims in recouping the losses.

"Epilogue to a Sorry Drama." Life. 62, No. 17 (April 23,1967).In an eight to zero vote, the Supreme Court decided that the United States

Government owed S10 million to 4100 Japanese Americans whose savings wereconfiscated as enemy property 25 years ago. Author feels we should recall thisissue when we "grow too complacent about rights we like to think are already wellestablished."

United States. Congress, House. Hearings Before Subcommitee No. 5 of theCommittee of the judiciary, 83rd Congress, 2nd Session on HR 7435 to Amendthe Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act of 1948. Washington, D.C. UnitedStates Government Printing Office, 1954. 373pp.

Representative Hillings of California introduced HR 7435 which if passed was toamend the Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act of 1948 to 'provide additionalmethods by which the final determination of those claims can be expedited."Testimony was given in San Francisco and Los Angeles by Congressmen, lawyers andvarious Japanese The testimonies of Representative Johnson of California and Mr,Masaoka of the Japanese American Citizens League represent very well the testi-mony in support of the bill.

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MULTI-ETHNIC MATERIALS

Teacher Resource and Secondary Level

Banks, James A. Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studes. Boston, Massachusetts.Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1975. 502pp,

Useful suggestions for the development of a multi-ethnic approach to instructiun fur grades K 12. Suggested topics and activities are provided for the variousethnic groups. Excellent multi-ethnic chronology provided in appendix.

Bibliography on Racism. Washington D.0 NIMH 1972, Document H(HSM) 73-9012.An annotated bibliography of recent research and reports un the characteristics

and consequences of discrimination and prejudice un American minority groups.

Blauner. Robert. Racial Oppression in America. New York. Harper & Row. 1972.Examines the situation of colored" minority groups (blacks, Chicanos, Asians,

Native Americans) as internal colonies and the consequences of this for race re-lawns. The paradigm is contrasted with the more standard immigrant groupassimilation perspective. Presents case studies of institutional racism.

Bngham, John and Theodore Weissbach, eds. Racial Attitudes in America. New York.Harper & Row, 1972.A reader that covers much of the psychological research un the development.

maintenance. behavioral consequences correlates. and changes in racial attitudesand stereotypes,

California Advisory Committee to the United States Commission un Civil Rights.Asian Americans and Pacific Peoples: A Case of Mistaken Identity. 1975.

Summary statements based upon hearings held In Northern and Southern Californiafrom the various representatives of Asian American and Pacific Peoples.

Daniels, Roger and Harry L Kitano. American Racism: txploration of the Nature ofPrejudice. New York: Prentice Hall, 1970.155pp.

Specific discussion of the nature and makeup of American racism. Discussesanti Japanese mov ement within the total context of the history and sut ial originsof American prejudice.

Glazer. Nathan and Daniel P. Moynihan Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes,Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City (2nd Edition). Cambridge.The M.I.T. Press. 1970. 290pp.

first and last chapters deal with ethnicity as an integral part of American life.Some insensitive comments about ethnic groups are included in text and usersshould exercise caution.

Cordon. Milton. Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion andNational Origins. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.

Explication of the concept of ethnicity in America and sets forth a seminaltheory of assimilation and acculturation in American society.

Handlin, Oscar, The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migration that Madethe American People (Revised Edition). New York. Grosset and Dunlap, 1973.

Chronicles European immigration to the United States. Treats peasant life inEurope arid nativistic movements in the hale nineteenth and early twentieth centuriesin the L.: S Well written book that provides compassionate perspective u: immigrantsincluding pioneering efforts. frustrations and triumphs in North America.

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Sue, Stanley. Stereotypes as a Measure of Success, Journal of Social Issues. 30,pp. 83-98. (1973).

An interesting examination of the development and changes in stereotypes asan indicator of a minority groups perceived position in American Society. Examinesthe history of Chinese and Japanese stereotypes from the early negative yellowperil" attitudes toward the more recent model minority perspective.

an den Berghe Pierre. Race and Racism. New York: Wiley, 1%7.Develops a t pology fur examining race relations historically. Also presents

an outstanding cPscussion c the often confused concepts of social and culturalpluralism. Present; case studps of race relations in the United States, Brad. Mexico,and South Africa and argues Jul the need to examine race relations in a comparative.historical, and general manner

Watson, Peter (ed.) Psychology and Race. Chicago. Aldine, 1973.A reader that summarries much of the recent psychological research on race

relations. Examines areas suli a, prejudice, the development of racial owareriess,identity, interracial interaction, ir telligence, and language.

Williams, Robin American. Society: A Sociological Interpretation (3rd Edition).New York: Knopf, 1970.

An excellent earnination of tk social and cultural pattii is in American society(i.e., good fur di:A.ussiun un Americanism and characteristics of America). Focuseson American instal 'nu, such as education. family, rehton, politics and un culturalye les.

Wilson, William. Power, Privilege and Racism. New York. Macmillan. 1973.Attempts to develop a theoretical frarnewolk 1.h.ough an examination of racial

stratification, the emergence and maintenance ca institutional racism, and theproce.ses of raual contact and accumudation. Focuses un power differences heteen groups Includes Lase studies of race relations in do United States andsouth Africa.

Yetman, Norman and C.. Hoy Steele, eds. Majority and Minority (2nd Edition). NewYork: Allyn & Bacon, Inc 1975.

A reader that .examine: race relations theory. method.) of intergroup contactand adjustment. Patterns of discrimination, and recent black activism

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Intermediate and Junior High School Level

Cuban, Larry and Philip Roden. Promise of America (Social Science series) 2ndEdition. Glenview, Illinois: Scott Foresman & Co., 1975.

General social science series based upon an interdisciplinary approach. Studenttext and teacher guides available for grader 7-8.

Kai-yu Hsu, editor. Multi-Ethnic Literature: Asian American Authors. Palo Alto,California: Houghton-Mifflin & Co. , 1970.

Teacher guide provided with student text which includes abridged works writtenby Asian American authors.

Leathers, Noel L. The Japanese in America, The In America Series: Lerner EthnicStudies Library. Minneapolis, Minnesota. Lerner Publications, 1974.

One of 20 plus student texts dealing with the various immigrant group experiences in the United States Some factual inaccuracy is contained in the Leathersbook; teacher should make note to check.

Quigley, Charles N. Civil Government: Your Rights and Responsibilities as anAmerican Citizen: A Civics Casebook. Lexington, Massachusetts. Ginn & Co., 1972.

Excellent student text and teacher guide for classroom use in developing anunderstanding of the Constitution and citizenship.

Quigley, Charles N. and Richard P. Longaker. Conflict, Politics and Freedom.Lexington, Massachusetts; Ginn & Co.. 1972.

To accompany Civics Casebook,

Quigley, Charles and Richard P. Longaker. Voice for Justice: Role Playing inDemocratic Procedures. Lexington, Massachusetts. Ginn & Co. 1975.

To accompany activities for Civics Casebook.

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MULTI-MEDIA MATERIALS

A. Films:Fence at Minidoka (16 mm., 30 minutes)

The World War H camp at Minidoka. Idaho is vistvd by a Sansei televismiireporter. This film was produced by KOMO-1 V in Seattle.

Public Affairs ManagerKOMO.1 V100 Fourth Avenue N.Seattle, Washington 98109(206) MA4.6000Rental lee: Postage cost only.

Guilty by Reason of Race (16mm., 51 minutes)A 1972 television documentary w filch features many members of theJapanese American community. The film received a blue ribbon at theAmencanfilm Festival in New York in the Citizen category.

NBC Educational Enterprises30 Rockefeller PlazaNew York, New York 10020(212) CL7-8100Rental tee: $40.00 plus postagePurchase price: 5550.00

Rental from University film librariesUniversity of AlaskaArizona State UniversityUniversity of ArizonaUniversity of ColoradoUniversity of South CarolinaSouth Dakota State UniversityFlorida State UniversityUniversity of South FloridaUniversity of GeorgiaIdaho State UniversityUniversity of IowaUniversity of Illinois

Indiana UniversityKent State UniversityUniversity of MichiganUniversity of MinnesotaUniversity of NebraskaUniversity of New liampshireUniversity of North ( arolinaOregon state UniversityPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity of UtahCentral Washington state CollegeUniversity of Wisconsin

I Told You So (black and white. 16 minutes)Portrait of Asian American puet, Lawson Inada, which travels I, an his pastas a child in Fresno, California to his present as a pnaessor of Lnglishat South Oregon University.

Visual Communications1601 Griffith Park Boulevardlos Angeles, California 90(326(211) 626-5179Rental leer $20.0()Purchase price. 5210,00 1'78

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Issei, Nisei, Sansei (16 mm., 30 minutes)A documentary made for public television cuuccriung the JapaneseAmerican community of Seabrook, New Jersey.

Doug Leonard, Director of ProgrammingNew Jersey Public Broadcasting1573 Parkside Avenue1 renton, New Jersey 08638Rental fee: S 30.00Purchase pncer5250.00

Issei: The First Fifty Years (black and white, 16 mm., 17 minutes)Chronicles the experiences of the Issei inungrai its, teacher nionual availablefor use at secondary level.

UCLA Asian American Studies Center900 Hilgard AvenueLos Angeles, California 90024Film rental lee: $30.00 plus S 3.00 postaget dm purchase price; S13 3.00Teacher's Manual purchase price: $1.50

Just Like Me (color, 8 minutes)For grades K 6. Simple animated film which suinolates thougi it and discussionabout individual differences and value of being individual.

Oakland Unified School District1025 Second AvenueOakland, California 94606

Manzanar (16 mm.. '15 minutes)A man's recollection of his lite at Ntanzanar when he war a small buy.

Visual Communications1601 Griffith Park BoulevardLos Angeles, California 90026Rental fee: $25.00 plus postagePurchase price: $200.(X)

Nisei: Pride and the Shame (16 mm., 26 minutes)Originally part of the CBS T1.1, etitteth Century series. Narrated by WalterCronkite, the film presents an overview ul the evacuation experience.

JAG National and Regional OfficesRental fee: $10.00 plus postage

Pieces of a Dream (color, 30 minutes)Ovenrew of the struggles ut Asian American farm laborers in the SacramentoRiver Delta. Provides the net.essary background to the understanding of thecontemporary problems of Asians in Calfornia agriculture,

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Visual Communications1601 Griffith Park BoulevardLos Angeles, California 9(X)26Rental fee: $25.(X)

.,Purchase price: $400.00

Subversion (16 nun., 26 minutes)Narrated personal expeneru es and Dorothea Lange s photographs (manyappearing in Exective Order 9066) give an intimate view of the evacuationexperience. The film was produced by 1.QED, public broadcasting stationin San Francisco, and views the effects of fear am! racism on three generationsof Japanese Americans.

Film WrightDiamondlleightsSan Francisco, California 941 31(415) 863.61(X)Rental fee: S 32.50 plus $2.00 postagePurchase price: S 325.00

Wataridori: Birds of Passage (color, 30 minutes)Lends understanding to the history of Japanese immigration through theaccounts of three surviving Issei, first generation Japanese Americans.

Visual Communications1601 Griffith Park BoulevardLos Angeles, California 90026Rental fee: $25.00Purchase price: 5400,00

B. Filmstrips/Slides:

Cynthia, The Japanese American Children of the Inner City (filmstrip, record,and booklet part of one set)

Presents one facet of Japanese American life.

Society for Visual Education, Inc.Chicago, Illinois

Distorted ImageSlide workshop with written narrative.

Anti-Defamation League of B'nai truth3'15 Lexington AvenueNew York, New York 10016

590 N. Vermont AvenueLos Angeles, California 90024

Purchase price: $ 35.00

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The Japanese American Experience (12 minutes)A slide presentation with appropriate commentary and t untemporarymusic. Photographs Crum the National Archives and the Months of Waitingexhibit of paintings arid drawings by Japanese Amen( all l'vall uces duringWorld War II.

Manzanar Committee1566 Curran StreetI os Angeles, Calitornta 9()026(213) 825.5043Rental tee: Inquire abovePurchase price: Inquire National Archives

The Japanese American Experience (15 minutes with music)Slide presentation on evacuation and internment during IA orld War II.Guest classroom speaker available to provide personal account of hte uirelocation center.

Ms. Amy lino Ishu1801 North Dilhon StreetJos Angeles, California 90026(213)664-4144Rental tee. Inquire above

The Japanese Americans: An Inside LookA program for grades 4 8 which includes two filmstrips, a t assette o r s ecordand a teacher's guide Views uUtenship and prepack,. through the eyes 01Japanese Americans.

Japanese American Curriculum Proiec tP.O. Box 367San Mateo, California 94401Purchase Price, with two records. $17 95

with two cassettes: $19.95

JACL Workshop I: The Japanese in AmericaWorkshop kit complete with research guide, history outline. slide presentation. and annotated bibliography. The slide show is available separately.Kit produced by Don Estes, San Diego JACI, JACI Headquarters andVisual Communications.

JACL National and Regional OfficesFree to JACI. chapters and membersRental price: S10,00

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JACL Workshop II: The Camp Experiencethe kit is complete vith an I ac crawl] thronology, research guide, slidepresentation. bibliography, and maps to some o: the cau p sites. The slideshoe may be burrowed separately, kits produced by Don Estes, San DiegoJACI, JACI I leadquarters and Visual Communications.

JACI National and Regional OfficesFree to JAG chapters and membersRental price: $ 10,00

Prejudice in America: The Japanese AmericansFour filmstrips for high school students cowling the Issei, Nisei wartimeand contemporary experiences set HR ludes a teacher s manual and readinglist.

Japanese American Cum( ilium ProjectP.O. Box 367San Mateo, California 94401Purchase price, with two records, 529,90

with two cassettes. 513.90

Relocation of Japanese Americans: Right or Wrong?Iwo filmstrips on the relocation written by Dr, Harry kitano of UCLA.Complete with 10 documentary photos ( I 1x I4) and a comprehensiveteacher's guide.

JACL Headquarters and Regional Ofiiws

Zenger Productions, IncP.O. Box 802Culver City, California 90210Purchase price, with two records: $34.95

with two cassettes: $11.95

C. Photo exhibits:

Concentration CampsUnusual photo exhibit now on display at National JACI Headquarters.Produced by Bob Nakamura, Visual Communications, it depicts %%All photosand quotations the evacuation and relocation experience, Due to the siteof the exhibit, it cannot be shipped. It is available on loan 101 O1'110(1Sto two weeks free of charge, but must be picked up and returned.

Executive Order 9066Photographic exhibit ii 116 panels of the cvacuatiori and relocation years.hese photos also appear in the book. Executive Order 9066.

California thstorir al society2090 Jackson Streetsan Francisco, California 94109Rental lee. $500.00 for six week period.

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D. Records:

A Grain of SandMusic for the struggle by Asians in America.

Paredoil RecordsBox 889Brooklyn, New York 11202

E. Supplementary activities:

East/West Activities Kit (Ethnic Understanding Series)Twelve Asian American activities for grades 3-6.

Visual CommunicationsAsian American Studies Central, Inc.1601 Griffith Park BoulevardLos Angeles. California 90026

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RESOURCE MATERIALS

DENVER PUBLIC SCHOOLSOFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT

DENVER, COLORADO 80202(303) 266-2255

The Heritage and Contributions of the Chinese and JapaneseAmericans. (1973)A brief guide to the history of the Chinese and Japanese Americans, with afocus on the immigration of Asians in the Colorado area. Bibliography included.

LOS ANGELES CITY UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT100 NORTH GRAND AVENUELOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90054

The Asian American Experience. (Lloyd Inur and FranklinOdo, 1974)Three-part teacher resourse Manual for use in grades 9-12. Provides histori-cal outline, cultural characteristics and suggested activities and resources ;for teachers. Includes treatment of Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Phi lipinocommunities in Southern California.

OAKLAND UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT,MULTIETHNIC CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTER314 EAST 10TH STREET

OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA 94606

The Japanese Americans.A brief introduction to the Japanese American experience for teachers. thematerial is somewhat dated, but offers adequate materials and suggestedapproaches for use in instruction of Japanese American studies.

PASADENA UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT351 SOUTH HUDSON AVENUEPASADENA, CALIFORNIA 91109

Asian American History. (Miyagawa, Miyakawa and Ogawa, 1974)A basic-curriculum guide to Asian American history for use in grades 9-12.A collection of articles is included for student use as well as a usefulbibliography which pes information as to avadabddy of teachenstudentresources for the Pasadena, California area.

Asian Americans in Our Community. (May Higa, '197 I)Course outline for a 20-hour wit (grades K-6) and suggested lesson plansthat can be adapted to different classroom needs. The Ethnic UnderstandingSeries by Visual Communications serves as a basic text.

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RICHMOND UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT1100 BISSELL AVENUERICHMOND, CALIFORNIA 94804

Asian American Studies Project.The Chinese American Experience and the Japanese American Experience. (19;3)I sc 0-volume guide tor use in dons- wars, and sect,' klary level unituilion (aidesinclude L on iprehei isivc ti cannel it ut Limiest! Auieucau autl Japanese Ana-nomexperience and is tailored to compleniel it the units al social ,k1tAlc e instrut minfor the district.

SAN FRANCISCO UNIFIED SCHOOLD DISTRICT135 VAN NESS AVENUESAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 94102

A Directory of Japanese American Resources. (1974)Developed as a tool fui the classroom teacher to teach Japanese Americanhistory, culture and contemporary issues. Base ut kulary terms andattitudes are explained in the guide. Imitates a laid) comprehensiveresourc e guide for the San franc isco area.

Office ut District hi Surc it e Education Instructional Dev elopit mit aid ServicesGuides for Intermediate ( 6). the Japanese Experience in Amerit a.

Secondary (9-12). "Reading 'selections for Civics and U.S, History"Immigration and Relocation.""Eva( nation and Relocation."

Special tot us on Salt Ir,uKisco 1,111,1111.'st. AlllefILMI community for contemporaryperiod General treatment ut JapaileSe Alllerkdlt history. Intermediate sectionprovides for instructional at tic ales. Experimental for information only.

THE BAY AREA LEARNING CENTERTEACHER LEARNING CENTER (TLC)in cooperation with theJAPANESE AMERICAN COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION (JACE)1400-16TH STREETSAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 94103

Japanese and Japanese American Activities. (1975)A curriculm guide divided into tcco sections, I) Japanese cultural characteristits with suggested actic Ries and task (aids to' student use (1. 6) did 2) JapaneseAmerican contributions. historical experience, current kola elliS, etc., usingtask cards (.6 and 7-8).

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SAN DIEGO CITY UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT4100 NORMAL STREETSAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA 92103

A Guide for Teaching and Understanding the History and Culture of JapaneseAmericans. (K. Fukuda, T. Kashima, 1972)A tombined historical and cult Ural teaching guide. Includes a glossary utterms and bibliography as %%till as population and occupational charts.

SANTA ANA UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT1405 FRENCH STREETSANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA 92701

Some Asian American Festivals and Activities. (k. Shigemura, 1975)leak her manual fur encouraging greater awareness about various aspects otAsian American Lultural festivals and aLtivities. Major tutus i> on the routcultures rather than contemporary social situation of Asian Americans insot wry today. (K.6)

SEATTLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS557 ROY STREETSEATTLE, WASHINGTON 98109

The Ethnic Cultural 'Heritage Program Rainbow Program. (M Nakagawa, 1974 75)Suggested learning ac mines for students. ,Maps tutus oil diversity and alteLtivedevelopment for all students. (K-6)

The Ethnic Cultural Heritage Program Asian American Bibliography. (197)Annotated bibliography of tit inn I au Id 11011 fiction history, literature resuur«aorganizatiutiS, Illdhiduals, audio visual materials per tauur to teachers al idindividuals. (1S-11)

ILLINOIS OFFICE OF EDUCATION100 NORTH FIRST STREETSPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS 62777

InterEthnic Dimensions in Education (Inle IX, esea grant. 1979.Four voutume lxublicanun wish nu ltietlubc ii ki IS. I) Nutlike ..iii Id 0 10( CI itnstu,II) Inter Ethnic Music. III) Inter Ethnic C elebrations acid IV) Survey ut 42 UlmHeritage Grant protects for 197 -75.

THE SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIAOFFICE OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONPHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 19103(215) 299.7000

Joint System Social Studies Program.Multiethnic cum( Lilian guide (12 groups) dealing vitli history and cultureot various groups Separate companiini set nix 6 iiklucle I) lessons at id activities(Iv 12) and 2) resource guide (K- 12).

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