Drugs Pharma Cog Nosy 1

8/3/2019 Drugs Pharma Cog Nosy 1

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Classification of Drugs

Chemical classification of drugsChemical constituents Drugs

1. Carbohydrates

a) Monosaccharidaseb) Disaccharide

c) Polysaccharide

Gum

Mucilages

Cellulose

- Dextrose, fructose, galactose- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

- Starch

- Acacia, Tragacanth

- Plantago seed

- Cotton

2. Glycosides

a) Cardiac

b) Anthraquinone

c) Saponins

d) Cyanophore

- Digitalis, strophanthus

- Aloe, Cascara, senna

- Arjuna

- Wild cherry bark

3. Tanins Amla, Bohera, Ashoka bark

4. Volatile oil Clove oil, rose oil, peppermint oil, tulsi etc

5. Lipids

a) Fixed oils & fats

b) Waxes

- Olive oil, castor oil, coconut oil etc

- Bees wax


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Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of

higher polyhydric alcohol.

It is a neutral compound made up of Carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen (C, H, O) in which H and O

are in generally the same ratio as in water (H2O)

General formula of carbohydrate is (CH2O)

n.

The Chlorophil of the plants can easily synthesize

carbohydrates from air, CO2 and H2O in the presenceof light. The reaction is as follows

CO2+ H

2O Carbohydrate + O

2

Carbohydrates


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Carbohydrates


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Nutrient good source of energy

Sweetening agent Tablet, syrup, suspension

Masking bad test tablet, liquid (iron syrup)

Diluent, binder, disintegrating agent, suspendingagent, demulcent.

Antibacterial agent (at 66.6%) and preservative

Antioxidant (it is a reducing sugar)

Uses of Carbohydrates


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By considering sweet taste-imparting property CHO are classified as-

1. Sugar: Monosaccharidesglucose, fructose, galactose.

Disaccharides - Sucrose, lactose, maltose.

2. Nonsugar: Polysaccharides starch, inulin, gums and mucilage,

cellulose.

Carbohydrates - Classification

Carbohydrates

Sugar Nonsugar (Polysaccharide)

Monosaccharides Disaccharides

Glucose Fructose Galactose

Sucrose Lactose Maltose

Starch Cellulose Inulin Gums &

mucilage


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Monosaccharides, the simplest CHO, arealdehydes or ketones that have multiple hydroxyl

groups. The general formula of many is (CH2O)

n.

It is obtained from hydrolysis of starch.

In nature it is found in grapes and fruits.

Glucose (Monosaccharides)

StructureCH=O

|

HC-OH

|

HO-CH

|

HC-OH

|HC-OH


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Ring Structure of Glucose


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Nutrient oral or intravenous injections.

It is also used in anticoagulant solution to preserve whole

blood.

For manufacture of beverage, ice-cream, bakery products and

in the caning industry.

Glucose - Use

Liquid glucose

It is obtained from incomplete hydrolysis of starch. It is

serupy liquid consist chiefly of dextrose, with maltose and

water. It is used as a sweetening agent as a substitute of

sucrose in syrup and as a tablet binder and coating agents.


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Fructose is a ketone sugar occurs naturally in most sweet fruitsand honey.

Use:

1. Nutrient food for diabetics and may be of particular benefit of

diabetic acidosis.

2. Infant formula.

3. When given parenterally it produces less urinary secretion thanglucose.

Fructose


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Structure of Fructose

Ring structure of fructose


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Glucose & fructoseGlucose & fructose

6-membered ring structure

5-membered ring structure


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Disaccharide consists of 2 monosaccharides (glucose & fructose)

joined by an glycosidic bond.

Sucrose is the only disaccharide abundant in the free state in plants.

It occurs in fruit juice , sugar cane, sugar beet and in many other

plants.

Commercially it is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beet.

Sugar (Sucrose, disaccharides)

Structure

glucose Fructose


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Sugar (Sucrose, disaccharides)

glycosidic bond

OH H

H

OHH

OH

CH2OH

H

OH H

H

OHH

OH

CH2OH

H1

3

14

223

4

6

5

6

5

14-linkageO OO

n


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Nutrient good source of energy

Sweetening agent Tablet, syrup,suspension

Masking bad test tablet, liquid (ironsyrup)

Antibacterial agent (at 66.6%) and

preservative Antioxidant (it is a reducing sugar)

Uses of Sugar


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The saccharides which reduce Fehlings reagent and Tollens reagent are called reducing sugar.

For example: all monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, lactose).

Reducing sugar

The saccharides which do not reduce Fehlings

reagent and Tollens reagent are called non-reducing

sugar.

For example: disaccharide (sucrose) and

polysaccharide.

Non-reducing sugar


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It is a reducing sugar. Upon hydrolysis lactose yields d-

glucose and d-galactose. It is obtained from fresh,

unpasturized or pasturized cows milk. It is also known

as milk sugar. The sugar is crystallized from the whey

obtained in cheese manufacture. The manufacturing

scheme is shown below

Lactose

Milk Keep stand for few hour Separation

of cream (Skimmed milk) Treated with rennin

Cheese Separation of liquid (Whey)

Crystallization of Lactose Redissolved in water

Decolorized with Charcoal Recrystallized


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Lactose

Uses:

Diluent Tablet

Nutrient Infant food

Caramel or Burn Sugar:

It is a concentrated solution of the product obtained by

heating sugar or glucose until the sweet taste is destroyed and

a uniform dark brown mass result. A small amount of alkali,

added during heating of the sugar.

Uses:

Coloring agent Food and Pharmaceuticals


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It is originally obtained from the ripe berries, Sorbus sp.(Fam Rosaceae).

It also occurs in many fruits but is generally prepared

from glucose by hydrogenation or by electric reduction.

Uses:

Humectants: (act as moisturizers by attracting water.

They are often used to prevent creams from drying out).

Sweetner

Diluent/Vehicle

Food Diabetic food (substitute of glucose)

Diuretic

D-Sorbitol:D-Sorbitol:


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Polysaccharide

The complex CHOs are generally called polysaccharide as they are formed by the linkage of a large number ofmonsaccharide units.

The polysaccharides yield the component monosaccharide units on enzymetic or acid hydrolysis.

Starch

starch is most widely distributed organic compound in plants.

It is produced in large quantities in green leaves as the temporary storage form of potosynthetic products.

It stored in seed, stems and roots. It is lacking in animal.

Commercially it is obtained from corn, cereal (rice, wheat, maize), potato tubers etc.

Polysaccharide - Starch


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Starch generally is a mixture of two structurally different polysaccharides which are

Amylose ( -amylose):It is a linear molecule composed of250 300 d-glucose units uniformly linked by -1,4 glucosidic bond.

Starch - Chemistry

Amylopectin (a-amylose):It consists of 1000 or more d-glucose

units of which most are connected with

-1,4 linkage but there are also anumber of -1,6 linkage occurring(4%) at branch points.

Structure of Amylopectin

Structure of amylose:


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Amylose vs Amylopectin

Property Amylose Amylopectin

Water solubility More soluble Less soluble

Reaction with I2 Blue color complex purple color

Composition 25% of total starch 75% of total starch

Unit composition D-glucose D-glucose

Type of linkage -1,4 glucosidic bond -1,4 & -1,6glucosidic bond

Shape of the molecule Linear Branched

Enzymetic hydrolysis -amylase, Split -1,4 -amylase, Split -1,4& -1,6

Acid hydrolysis (HCl orH2SO4)

D-glucose D-glucose


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Diluent

Binder

Disintegrating agent

Uses of Starch


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Cellulose is the main structural material of trees and other

plants.

Wood is 50% cellulose, while cotton wood is almost pure

cellulose.

The general formula of cellulose is: (C6H10 O5)n.

Cellulose


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Chemical structure:

Cellulose is made of about 5,000 glucose units joined

to each other by -1,4-glycosidic bonds.

Properties:

It decomposes on strong heating.

It is insoluble in water and most organic solvent.

It is hydrolysed by heating with dilute HCl or H2SO

4,

give d-glucose.

Cellulose


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Methyl cellulose

Ethyl cellulose

Hydroxyethyl cellulose

Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose

Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC)

Derivatives of Cellulose


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Methyl celluloseMethyl cellulose

It is a methyl ether of cellulose containing not less than 26% and not more than 33% ofmethoxy (-OCH

3) groups.

Preparation:

It is obtained by reaction of cellulose with caustic soda (NaOH) and an organic solvent(CH3Cl).

Properties:

It swells in water to produce a clear viscous solution.

Use:

Suspending agent suspension dosage form.

Binder- tablet dosage form


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Ethyl cellulose

It is an ethyl ether of cellulose containing not less than

45% and not more than 50% of ethoxy (-OC2H5)

groups.

Use:




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Hydroxyethyl cellulose

It is modified cellulose in which the H of OH groups is substituted

by hydroxyethyl(-OC2H5) groups.

It is soluble in water.

Use:



Thickener


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Sodium Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)

It is the sodium salt of polycarboxymethyl cellulose in

which the H of OH groups is substituted by

carboxymethyl(-OCH2COOH) groups.

Use:



Thickener


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Gums & Mucilages Both gums and mucilages are generally considered as

decomposition products of cellulose.They are translucent,

amorphous substances usually produced by plants as aprotective after injury.

Gums when hydrolysed, yield large proportion of sugarsand also contain a complex organic acid nucleus, by means

of which they form salt with calcium, magnesium, etc. Gums are precipitated from solution by alcohol and leadacetate solution.

Gums readily dissolve in water.

Mucilages are generally sulfuric acid esters, the estergroup being a complex polysaccharide.

Mucilages do not dissolve in water but form slimy masses.


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Sources of Natural Gum and Mucilage

1. Acacia:

2. Tragacanth

3. Agar:


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Acacia

It is the dried gummy exudate from the stems and

branches ofAcacia senegal(Fam. Leguminosae). It

is commonly known as gum Arabic.

Uses:

Suspending agent

Demulcent Granulating agent

Binder


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Tragacanth

Source: It is gummy exudate fromAstragalus gummifer(Fam

Leguminosae). It is commonly known as Gum Trgacanth.

Uses:

Suspending agent Emollient

Binder


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Agar

Source:

It is the dried, hydrophilic polysaccharide complex

extracted from the algae known as Gelidium cartilagineum

(Fam Gelidiaceae); Gracilaria cofervoides and other

species.

Uses:

Suspending agentThickening agentLaxativeBacterial media


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Tests for Carbohydrates

1. Fehlings test

2. Molischs test

3. Osazone formation

4. Resorcinol test

5. Test of pentoses


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10% solution of a-naphthol in alcohol isknown as Molischs reagent


1. Molisch test:

A solution of CHO is prepared with -napthol and taken intest tube.

Concentrated sulphuric acid is added along the side of test

tube

This test is standard test for identification of CHO.

A purple ring is formed on the junction below the aqueous

layer which indicates the presence of CHO. [With insolubleCHO eg. Cellulose, the color will produce on shaking the

reaction mixture].


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1. Molisch test:

a negative test (left) and a positive test (right)



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Fehlings solution is an alkaline solution ofcupric ion complexwith tartrate ion.


1. Fehlings solution test:

To a heated solution of the CHO containing substance add

drop by drop a Fehlings solution (equal parts of Fehlings

solution 1 & 2).

Red precipitate of cuprous oxide is produced

This test is used for reducing sugar such as all monsaccharides and many

disaccharides like lactose, maltose. For nonreducing sugar like disaccharide

(sucrose) and polysaccharides boils with acid for hydrolysis before testingwith Fehlings solution, or cuprous oxide will fail to precipitate.

The cupric ion (complexed with tartrate ion) is reduced to cuprous ion by the aldehyde

(which is oxidized) and precipitates as cuprous oxide (Cu2O); for this reason, sugars that

react with Fehling's solution are called reducing sugars.

Fehlings solution test:


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Fehling s solution test:

Fehling I consists of 7 g of hydrated copper(II) sulfate dissolved in 100 mL of dist.

water.

Fehling II is made by dissolving 35 g of potassium sodium tartrate and 10 g of

sodium hydroxide in 100 mL of dist. waterFehling's reagent: Equal volumes of Fehling I and Fehling II are mixed to form a deep blue

solution.

conical measure 1 glucose solution brick red precipitate

conical measure 2 fructose solution brick red precipitate

Drugs Pharma Cog Nosy 1

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