Drugs Acting On Hypothalamic - Pituitary Axis
Transcript of Drugs Acting On Hypothalamic - Pituitary Axis
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Drugs Acting On Hypothalamic - Pituitary Axis
Dr. SAMAH E. KHALIFA
M.Sc. Pharmacokinetics
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• The Neuroendocrine system, which is controlled by the
pituitary and hypothalamus, coordinates body functions
by transmitting messages between individual cells and
tissue.
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• The nervous system communicates locally by
electrical impulses and neurotransmitters directed
through neurons to other neurons or to specific target
organs, such as muscle or glands. Nerve impulses
generally act within milliseconds.
• In contrast, the endocrine system releases hormones
into the bloodstream, which carries these chemical
messengers to target cells throughout the body.
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• Hormones have a much broader range of response
times than do nerve impulses, requiring from seconds
to days or longer to cause a response that may last for
weeks or months.
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• The two regulatory systems are closely interrelated.
For example in several instances, the release of
hormones is stimulated or inhibited by the nervous
system, and some hormones can stimulate or inhibit
nerve impulses.
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• In this lecture, the central role of the hypothalamic
and pituitary hormones in regulating body functions
is briefly presented.
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HYPOTHALAMIC AND ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
• The hormones secreted by the hypothalamus and the
pituitary are all peptides or low molecular weight
proteins that act by binding to specific receptor sites
on their target tissues.
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• The hormones of the anterior pituitary are regulated
by neuropeptides, called either releasing or inhibiting
factors or hormones, which are produced in cell
bodies in the hypothalamus and reach the cells of the
pituitary by the hypophysial portal system.
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• The interaction of the releasing hormones with their
receptors results in synthesis and release of the
hormones by the pituitary into the circulation.
• Each hypothalamic regulatory hormone controls the
release of a specific hormone from the anterior
pituitary.
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• The hypothalamic releasing hormones are primarily
used for diagnostic purposes (that is, to determine
pituitary insufficiency).
• Although a number of pituitary hormone preparations
are currently used therapeutically for specific
hormonal deficiencies , most of these agents have
limited therapeutic applications..
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• Hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary are
administered either intramuscularly (IM),
subcutaneously (SC) or Intranasal but not orally,
because their peptide nature makes them susceptible
to destruction by the proteolytic enzymes of the
digestive tract.
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A. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH or corticotropin)
ACTH is a product of the post translational processing of
the larger precursor polypeptide, pro-opiomelanocortin.
Its target organ is the adrenal cortex where corticotropin
binds to specific receptors on the cell surfaces.
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• The occupied receptors activate G protein-coupled
processes to increase cAMP, which in turn stimulates
the rate-limiting step in the adrenocorticosteroid
synthetic pathway (cholesterol + pregnenolone),
concluding with the synthesis and release of the
adrenocorticosteroids, and the adrenal androgens.
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• The availability of synthetic adrenocorticosteroids
with specific properties has limited the use of
corticotropin to serving as a diagnostic tool for
differentiating between primary adrenal insufficiency
(Addison's disease, associated with adrenal atrophy)
and secondary adrenal insufficiency (caused by
inadequate secretion of ACTH by the pituitary).
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• Therapeutic corticotropin preparations are extracts
from the anterior pituitaries of domestic animals, or
synthetic human ACTH.
• The latter, corticotropin ,is preferred for diagnosis of
adrenal insufficiency.(Antibodies can be formed for
ACTH derived from animal sources).
• Toxicities are similar to those of glucocorticoids.
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B. Growth hormone
(Somatotropin)
• Somatotropin is a large polypeptide, released by the
anterior pituitary in response to growth hormone
releasing hormone (GHRH-Somatocrinin) produced by
the hypothalamus. It is produced synthetically by
recombinant DNA technology.
• Growth hormone (GH) from animal sources is
ineffective in humans.
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• Somatotropin influences a wide variety of
biochemical processes, for example, through
stimulation of protein synthetic processes, cell
proliferation and bone growth are promoted.
• lncreased formation of hydroxyproline from proline
also boosts cartilage synthesis, Therefore,
somatotropin is used in the treatment of growth-
hormone (GH) deficiency in children.
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• A therapeutically equivalent drug, Somatrem contains
an extra terminal methionyl group not found in
somatotropin.
• Though the half-lives of these drugs are short, about
25minutes, they induce the release of somatomedin
from the liver , the insulin like growth factor-l (IGF-I)
that is responsible for subsequent growth hormone-like
actions.
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Somatotropin and somatrem should not be used in
individuals with closed epiphyses or with an enlarging
intracranial mass.
[Note: Infusion of GHRH, known as Sermorelin, can be
used to assess the status of GH deficiency.]
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C. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
(Somatostatin)
Originally isolated from the hypothalamus, somatostatin is
a small polypeptide that is also found in neurons
throughout the body, as well as in the intestine and
pancreas.
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• Somatostatin therefore predictably has a number of
actions.
• Octreotide is a synthetic analogue of somatostatin.
• It has a much longer half-life than the natural compound
and has been used in the treatment of Acromegaly caused
by hormone-secreting tumors, and secretory diarrhea
associated with tumors producing the vasoactive intestinal
peptide (VIP).
• Adverse effects of octreotide treatment are flatulence,
nausea, and diarrhea.
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D. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone - GnRH
{luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone-LHRH}
• GnRH, a decapeptide obtained from the
hypothalamus, controls the release of follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH) from the pituitary.
• GnRH is employed to stimulate gonadal hormone
production in gonads.
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• A number of synthetic analogues, such as Leuprolide,
Goserelin, Nafarelin and Histrelin , act as inhibitors
of GnRH.
• These are effective in suppressing production of the
gonadal hormones, and thus are effective in the
treatment of prostatic cancer, endometriosis, and
precocious puberty.
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E. Gonadotropins:
Human menopausal gonadotropin (hMG - Meotropin)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH - Urofolitropin)
Human chorionic gonadoptropin (hCG)
• The gonadotropins are used in the treatment of
infertility in men and women.
• Meotropin (hMG) is partially broken down to FSH
and LH and is obtained from the urine of menopausal
women.
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• The chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a placental
hormone and an LH agonist.
• It is also excreted in the urine. Both these hormones
are injected intramuscularly.
• lnjection of hMG or FSH over a period of 5-12 days
causes ovarian follicular growth and maturation, and
with subsequent injection of hCG, ovulation occurs.
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• In men who are lacking gonadoptropins, treatment
with hCG causes external sexual maturation, and with
the subsequent injection hMG spermatogenisis occurs.
• Adverse effects include ovarian enlargement and
possible hypovolemia. Multiple births are common.
• Men may develop gynecomastia
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HORMONES OF THE
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• In contrast to the hormones of the anterior lobe of the
pituitary, those of the posterior lobe, vasopressin and
oxytocin, are not regulated by releasing hormones.
• Instead, they are synthesized in the hypothalamus,
transported to the posterior pituitary and released in
response to specific physiologic signals, such as high
plasma osmolarity or parturition, respectively.
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• Both are nonapeptides with a circular structure due to
a disulfide bridge.
• Reduction of the disulfide inactivates the hormones.
• They are susceptible to proteolytic cleavage and thus
are given parenterally.
• Both have very short half-lives.
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A. Oxytocin
• Oxytocin, originally extracted from animal posterior
pituitaries, is now chemically synthesized.
• Its only use is in obstetrics, where it is employed to
stimulate uterine contraction to induce or reinforce
labor or to promote breast milk ejection.
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• The sensitivity of the uterus to oxytocin increases with
the duration of pregnancy when it is under estrogenic
dominance.
• To induce labor, the drug is administered
intravenously. However, when used to induce "milk
let-down“, it is given as a nasal spray.
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• Oxytocin causes milk ejection by contracting the
myoepithelial cells around the mammary alveoli.
• Although toxicities are uncommon when the drug is
used properly, hypertensive crises, uterine rupture,
water retention and fetal death have been reported.
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• Its antidiuretic and pressor activities are very much
lower than those of vasopressin.
• Oxytocin is contraindicated in abnormal fetal
presentation, fetal distress and premature births.
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B. Vasopressin
• Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH), is
structurally related to oxytocin. The chemically-
synthesized nonapeptide has replaced that extracted
from animal posterior pituitaries.
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Vasopressin has two types of receptors:
1- V1 receptors: found on vascular smooth muscle cells ,
mediate vasoconstriction.
2- V2 receptors: found on renal tubule cells and reduce
diuresis through increased water permeability and
water reabsorption in the distal part of the DCTs and
collecting ducts
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• Vasopressin has both antidiuretic and vasopressor effects.
• In the kidney it binds to the V2 receptor to increase water
permeability and resorption in the collecting tubules.
• Thus the major use of vasopressin is to treat Diabetes
Insipidus.
• It is also used in controlling bleeding due to esophageal
varices or colonic diverticula.
• Other effects of vasopressin are mediated by the V1 receptor,
found in vascular smooth muscle, liver and other tissues.
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• As might be expected the major toxicity is water
intoxication and hyponatremia.
• Headache, bronchoconstriction and tremor also can
occur.
• Caution must be taken in treating patients with
coronary artery disease, epilepsy and asthma.
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Factors affecting ADH release:
ADH release is stimulated by:
1- Hyperosmolarity:
Detected by osmoreceptors.
Osmoreceptors contains isotonic fluids, when the
osmolarity of the ECFs is increased, the
osmoreceptors shrink and this cause stimulation of
ADH release.
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2- Hypovolemia:
The volume of the ECFs is detected by volume
receptors (at the great veins near the heart) which
sends tonic vagal inhibitory discharges to inhibit
ADH release.
hypovolemia results in less stretching of volume
receptors and less inhibition of ADH release.
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3- Hypotension:
Baroceptors at the aortic arch and carotid sinuses
detect the BP and respond to elevated BP by sending
inhibitory discharges to the cardiac center and
hypothalamus (inhibit ADH release).
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4- Angiotensin II:
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Abnormalities of ADH:
1- ADH deficiency (Diabetes Insipidus):
There are two types of DI:
1.1- Neurogenic DI (central DI):
Results from any problem affecting the hypothalamus(trauma, tumors or diseases).
1.2- Nephrogenic DI:
Results from problems in the kidney, usually inherited defective V2 receptors or can be iatrogenic.
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C. Desmopressin
• Because of the pressor properties of vasopressin, this
compound has been modified to Desmopressin
(1-desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin).
• This analog is now preferred for diabetes insipidus and
nocturnal enuresis because it is largely free of pressor
effects and is longer-acting than vasopressin.
• Desmopressin is conveniently administered intranasally,
however, local irritation may occur.
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• ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone
• CRH: Corticotropin-releasing hormone
• FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone
• GHBP: Growth hormone-binding protein
• GHRH: Growth hormone-releasing hormone
• GnRH: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
• GRH: Growth hormone-releasing hormone
• IGF-I, -II: Insulin-like growth factor -I, -II
• LH: Luteinizing hormone
• LHRH: Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
• -LPH: -Lipotropin
• PRL: Prolactin
• rbGH: Recombinant bovine growth hormone
• rhGH: Recombinant human growth hormone
• rhTSH: Recombinant human thyroid-stimulating hormone
• SRIH: Somatotropin release-inhibiting hormone (somatostatin)
• TRH: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
• TSH: Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)