Drexel University

P.H.A.M.E.

Planitia-Hellas Human Advanced Martian Environment

Institution: Drexel University

Faculty Advisor: Dr. Ajmal Yousuff

RASC-AL Team:

Senior: Tirthak Saha

Junior/Pre-Junior: Amanda Ireland, Rishiraj Mathur, Nidhi Kumar

Sophomore: Ronnie Joshi, Matthew Meisberger, Dipika Sharma, Chaitali Vyas, Frederick Wachter, Matthew Wiese

Freshman: Kat Johnston

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Logistics

2.1. Mission Timeline

2.2. Mars-Earth Transfer Spacecraft

2.2.1. Crew Rotations/ Initial Missions

2.2.2. ISRU

2.2.3. Martian Surface Logistics

2.3. Location

2.4. Communication

3. Living Spaces

3.1. The Habitat

3.2. Quality of Life

3.2.1. Crew Physical Health and Exercise Regime

3.2.2. Crew Mental Health

3.2.3. Animals and Plant Species

3.3. Medical Arrangements

3.3.1. Decompression Sickness

3.3.2. Muscular Atrophy and Bone Loss

3.3.3. Deep Space Surgery

4. Energy

4.1. Energy Generation

4.1.1. Assessment of Energy Needs

4.1.2. Planning

4.1.3. Solar Energy Utilization

4.1.4. Wind Energy Utilization

4.2. Energy Storage

4.2.1. Compressed Air Energy Storage

4.2.2. Electrochemical Flow Capacitor

4.2.3. Flywheel

5. Resources and Tools

5.1. Automation in Space

5.1.1. MAPIN

5.1.2. Human Assisting Technology

5.2. In-Situ Resource Utilization

5.2.1. Martian Regolith Acquisition

5.2.2. Water Extraction

5.2.3. Iron Ore Extraction

5.2.4. Metal Processing

5.2.5. METS Fuel Production

5.2.6. Presence of Perchlorate

5.3. Plant Growth

5.3.1. Botanical Chamber

5.3.2. Hydroponics

6. Emergency Situations

7. Budget

8. Appendix

9. References

1. INTRODUCTION

Motivation to explore and research a new location depends on how much has been recognized and how much

has yet to be discovered. As Buzz Aldrin rightly put it, “Mars is there, waiting to be reached.” Mars has managed to

capture the attention of researchers, engineers, and people from other walks of life, from all parts of the world due to its

unique characteristics which is why it is called a habitable planet. Although the planet provides an unfriendly and

desolate environment, countless spacecraft missions have wandered its soil to gather more information. Whether to

advance scientific research or to explore extraterrestrial life, the Red Planet captures interests from all of mankind.

This paper describes project Planitia-Hellas Human Advance Martian Environment (PHAME) which intends

to support a settlement of 24 dwellers and achieve sustainability by the 40th year of its existence. This paper follows

through the travel to Mars, the construction of habitat, and the fabrication of strong network communication. To meet

the energy requirements, PHAME makes use of Solar and Wind energy harnessing technologies. Giving importance to

the health and safety of the crew, the mission includes many precautions for effects such as the Bends and provides

ways to perform surgeries in times of necessity. This paper also shines light upon reaping benefits from the regolith

itself by mining and processing, along with procedures to follow during an emergency. All in all, PHAME provides a

comprehensive plan for humans to finally colonize Mars.

2. LOGISTICS

2.1 Timeline

Please refer to Appendix A, Figure 9.

2.2 Mars-Earth Transfer Spacecraft

Driving right into the backbone of the mission, we can realize that one of the most intricate aspects of any Mars

mission architecture is its logistics. The six months journey to and from Mars as well as the required planetary

alignment adds significant cost, risk, and time to the mission. The key problems presented by long-duration missions to

and from Mars include, limited payload, transportation to and from Mars, extreme isolation from Earth, and significant

logistical risk. The solution to these key issues is a sound and efficient logistical plan in which humans, resources, and

other mission critical items will be safely transported to and from Mars. The Mars-Earth Transfer Spacecraft or METS

was determined to be the best option to reduce the issues of cost and risk. One of the main advantages of METS over

traditional spacecraft designs is that it will be assembled in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO). METS will be modular, much like

the International Space Station, which adds flexibility as each vehicle can be customized depending on the mission

specific payload. There are three main modules that will make up a METS: the Inflatable Habitation Module, the

Lander Module and the Propulsion Module, attached to the Orion Multi Purpose Crew Vehicle.

The Habitation module will provide the main living quarters for the astronauts on their journey to Mars. The

effective useable volume to weight ratio is significantly increased since the habitation module is inflatable. This

compares well to traditional tin can designs that are used on the International Space Station. The Lander Module,

henceforth referred to as the Crew Transfer Vehicle (CTV), will enable astronauts and payloads to land on the surface

of Mars. The CTV will utilize a Methane and Liquid Oxygen (LOX) propulsion system that will be capable of a

complete entry, descent, and landing from Low Martian Orbit (LMO) to the surface. A Methane LOX propulsion

system is used as it will enable the use of In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) for surface refueling, which is discussed

further in the section. The propulsion will comprise of a cryogenic propulsion system utilizing liquid H2 and liquid O2

to propel the METS vehicle on its six month journey from LEO to LMO, and will also be capable of returning the

vehicle back to LEO, once the specific mission or crew rotation is complete. The Orion MPCV will serve as the ferry

for astronauts to and from the surface of Earth. It should be noted that during a flight to Mars, the Orion provides

redundancy for the life support systems on the METS by providing additional storage for supplies and by serving as a

lifeboat in extreme circumstances. Each of these modules can be launched into LEO by existing Evolved Expendable

Launch Vehicles (EELVs) such as SpaceX‟s Falcon Heavy, NASA‟s Space Launch System (SLS), or any capable

launch vehicles that might be developed during the mission's timeline.

Crew Rotations / Initial Missions: Prior to any humans setting foot on Mars, several robotic missions will take

place in order to test the crucial functionalities critical to the mission. The initial mission to Mars will consist of a

simplified version of the METS spacecraft. Although no humans will be on board, the payload of METS will consist of

the first inflatable habitat, a scout rover, and a construction rover. Once METS reaches LMO, the scout rover will land

on the surface and collect geographical and soil data regarding the landing zone. The purpose of this initial mission is

to validate the compatibility of Hellas Planitia with the mission. The rover will analyze soil composition and look for

signs of water in any form, while also monitoring atmospheric conditions and locating an ideal location for the initial

habitat. This comprises of the Pathfinder Mission, which is to be completed before the first habitat is deployed. Once

an ideal location is found, the Crew Transfer Lander (CTL) will transfer the initial habitat and the construction rover

from the METS to the surface of Mars. The construction rover will then be deployed to cover the inflated habitat, as

will be mentioned in further detail in the Living Spaces section.

Due to the biennial Earth - Mars planetary alignment, it was decided that it is necessary to group several

missions together in order to avoid significantly extending the mission timeline. Once all systems are checked out, the

first of many colonists will embark on their journey to Mars. The first crew of four astronauts will launch two years

after the Pathfinder Mission, described earlier. Subsequently, crew transfers will occur every two years, due to which

the population will experience a steady increase from 4 to 24 dwellers over the course of 6 crew transfers. Table 1

below shows the basic schedule for the proposed mission to Mars.

Martian Surface Logistics: In addition to in-space logistics, the movement of humans presents another logistical

problem. Large-scale, human operated rovers will augment the colony, providing astronauts the ability to cover large

amounts of area, surrounding the colony. The rovers will, most importantly, be extremely lightweight and modular,

allowing the most volume and mass efficient means of transportation. They will also be equipped with hybrid power

systems to best deal with the Martian atmosphere. With a combination of a solar electric power system (detailed in the

Energy section) and Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTGs) the rovers will be able to tackle the most extreme

Martian dust storms.

Although the Martian atmosphere is only about 1% as thick as Earth‟s atmosphere, it is still possible to fly with

extremely lightweight vehicles. Robotic flying vehicles will greatly increase the range of Martian surface that can be

studied in detail compared to traditional rovers. These probes will serve several important roles in aiding human

exploration, such as mapping out hazardous terrain and spotting targets of interest or scientific value. Several vehicle

designs have been proposed by NASA such as a lightweight co-axial helicopter and the autonomous airplane ARES

(Aerial Regional - Scale Environment Surveyor) that validate the technology and its capabilities.

2.3 Location

PHAME will situate within the Hellas Quadrangle in the lower hemisphere of Mars which constitutes the impact

crater, Hellas Basin, and the plains, knows as Hellas Planitia. “Hellas Planitia, is located in the southern highlands

region of Mars” [1]. It is a roughly elliptic impact crater about 3000 km long by 1500 km wide. The topography of this

broad crater slopes down from an average highland altitude of about 2 km above the Martian reference radius (3394.2

km) to an average depth of about 6 km. [2]. “In the deepest parts of the basin, the atmospheric pressure is about 89%

higher than at the surface, which may even offer conditions suitable for water. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

provides strong evidence that the Lobate Debris Aprons, or the geological features, in Hellas Planitia and mid-northern

latitudes are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of rocks. Pure water ice makes up the bulk of the formation” [3]

“Even though Hellas is considered to be a relatively well preserved basin, especially when compared with some of the

other large basins such as Utopia, there is abundant evidence of fluvial, volcanic, tectonic and aeolian modification

within the basin rim region” [1]. This leads to abundant rich opportunities for sample return to gain data about Mars‟

inner core and history.

2.4 Communication and Automation

Communication with the spacecraft during its travel to Mars will be done through the Deep Space Network

(DSN). The DSN gives the ability for the navigation engineers to gather data in respect to the spacecraft‟s speed using

Doppler data, distance using ranging, and location in space using delta DOR [4].

Upon arrival to Mars, base camp will be the central communication hub for the MArs PIoneering Network

(MAPIN). This hub will be able to receive, transmit and store data while also determining all data transfer scheduling.

It will be able to keep track of all information systems that will be present on Mars. All operations and data generated

will give engineers and scientists back at home, a detailed description of all important data from Mars. This hub will be

able to communicate directly with Earth, if needed, for an emergency situation, but the main communication will be

done by relaying signals through the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, Mars Express, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM),

Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN), and PHAME that will continue to orbit around Mars after the

inhabitants have successfully landed on Mars [4].

The MAPIN communication network expands outwards from base camp through a system of nodes. These nodes

include telescoping communication towers, multirotors, solar balloons, and automated land vehicles and will appeal to

astronauts gone out for an EVA or another kind of mission. Refer to Table 2. for the primary and secondary tasks for

each of these communication nodes.

The main communication node that will be used refers to the communication towers. These towers will be

telescoping (as shown in Figure 2) with 5 sections that can extend and retract. This will allow for them to be

transported easier to Mars and will allow for them to retract on Mars for inclement weather. Telescoping

communication towers are currently being used by the Army for surveillance and communications purposes [5] and

can be adapted for the Mars environment.

The height of the telescoping communication tower and the local geography has the most impact on the distance

that it can communicate to. The geography around Hellas Planitia is relatively flat as shown in Figure 3, except for the

crater region which is about eight kilometers below the surrounding area. In respect to height, a simple structural

analysis of shear moments was made in order to determine an effective height. One of the largest forces that will act on

a tower is wind. Air pressure on Mars is significantly lower than that on Earth, coming to around 600 Pa and 101,300

Pa respectively [6]. This means there will be significantly less drag on an object that is facing normal to the direction of

the wind.

Other aspects to consider are weather anomalies and safety factors. Various weather anomalies occurring on

Earth relating to high winds were studied in respect to their average and maximum wind speeds. As can be seen from

Table 3, a safety factor of four as a design parameter will be enough to retain structural integrity through all weather

anomalies. Anomalies on Mars would be different than ones on earth, but a safety factor of four was determined to be

efficient since all the data and personnel tracking is dependent on MAPIN. Research on the fastest recorded martian

wind speed, gave conflicting answers of 60 mph [7] and 200 mph [8] from two different sources.. Due to these

conflicting numbers, the safety factor was added on to the fastest wind speeds recorded by the Viking Lander in the

1970s, performing the communication tower calculations with a wind speed of 240 mph (107 m/s) [7]. It was

subsequently determined that the height of the telescoping communication mast should provide a 10 km

communication radius around each mast. In order to achieve this, a mast height of 14.8 meters was calculated. Further

details on the calculations can be seen in Appendix C.

Another structural analysis was performed to determine the maximum force of the wind (240 mph) on the

telescoping communication mast. The maximum shear stress produced by this force is relatively low and the 14.9

meters mast will be able to withstand it. The details of these calculations can be seen in Appendix C.

These communication towers will be placed using up to four automated vehicles. These automated vehicles will

be designed to push the mast to any desired location. The mast will be placed on wheels and will have the ability to

anchor itself to the ground once at the correct location. It will also have solar panels to power the antenna. Automated

vehicles were used to move the telescoping mast so the communication mast can be easily moved, and reduces the

dependency on EVAs to perform service repairs since the communication mast can be transported back to base.

The remaining nodes include the multirotors, solar balloons, and automated land vehicles. The multirotors will

primarily be used for operations that are close to base for use in transportation and relaying communication signals if

astronauts move outside of the range of communication masts. Multirotors can be designed to transport significant

amounts of weight, which will also be aided by the reduced gravity on Mars. Multirotors on Earth are able to carry

loads of up to 10 kg for short periods of time, giving the possibility for multirotors on Mars to be able to carry loads

from 10 kg up to 30 kg with reduced gravity and air density. Solar balloons, on the other hand, will be used for

surveillance of land, weather data collection, and as a temporary communication, if needed be. Finally, automated

vehicles will be used to assist astronauts on missions, used to move the communication towers, and will be design to

have a highly efficient human-machine relationship with the astronauts. This means that they can switch between

autonomous, semi-autonomous, and manual to desire. They will keep data logs of the operations and health of the

astronauts in order to allow for the astronauts to be able to focus more on their tasks. They will be able to be

programmed to meet any specific needs of the astronauts, including but not limited to, being able to follow astronauts

without the need of constant course corrections, be able to transport and feed specific data to the astronauts, and

perform all operations in a way to ensure that the astronaut is never put in harm by the vehicle.

Communication will also be relayed through satellites, but this is not the primary method of communication, due

to the heavy bandwidth and energy requirements to involve 24 astronauts along with vehicles and communication

devices. Satellites will remain in geosynchronous orbit above the base to ensure constant communication for the

astronauts in situations where the communication masts are retracted during weather anomalies.

As mentioned earlier, the geography around the crater in Hellas Planitia is relatively flat. The crater itself is

about eight kilometers below the surface which create a communication problem unless the signals were rerouted

through one of the satellites orbiting Mars. If it is determined that there will be a large amount of EVA‟s and testing in

the crater, a communication tower will be placed at the border to ensure communication is stable throughout the crater.

Another issue is the sandstorms. If these storms are able to reach speeds of 200 mph [8], then this will effectively sand

blast anything that it storm comes in contact with. This means that all of the MAPIN components will need to be

designed to function under such conditions.

3. LIVING SPACES

3.1 Habitat

One of the biggest concerns in sending humans to Mars will be constructing sustainable living quarters, made of

indigenous material, while providing ample radiation protection. Working within these restrictions, PHAME‟s habitat

has led to the implementation of large interconnected igloo-like domes made from hardened Martian soil. This type of

structure requires a small and compact inner-core to provide an airtight and pressurized environment, while the

majority of the structure is made from locally harvested materials.

The process of building one of these habitats is completely autonomous, and is also finished and quality assured

before an astronaut steps inside. Upon landing of the first module, a shipping container sized storage box will deploy

the inner core out of one side and start to inflate with compressed air. This container will also be used for storage of

furniture, equipment and machinery. Once fully inflated, a robot will autonomously make use of the Icy Soil

Acquisition Device (ISAD), the front chamber of which is made to be used as a scoop. The ISAD performs the

function of removing bulk material. The rear chamber contains a high-speed cutting tool, which can penetrate and

acquire harder icy soil. [9] The ISAD is used to remove Martian soil from the surrounding area and deposit the soil

around the perimeter of the inflated habitat. The robot then hardens the soil by applying heat and pressure with on

board machinery, repeating this process until the entire inner-shell is covered with weather and radiation protecting

hardened soil.

The dome shape of the habitat allows for the robot to traverse up and down the structure of the habitat for

deposition of material at the top without falling off. Once the astronauts arrive, they will attach the airlock and other

necessary utilities while the building robot covers the airlock with Martian soil to finish the habitat‟s structure. After

this, construction of the second habitat will begin for the next four crew members to arrive. Finally, each of the new

domes will be attached with another airlock in order to connect them to the other domes. This type of construction will

provide astronauts the capability to move effortlessly from dome to dome without stepping outside, increasing safety

and efficiency.

At full capacity, there will be seven habitat modules interlocked together, six of which will house four crew

members each with the seventh will contain a botanical chamber. As seen in Figure 4, each of the six habitats will

comprise of two levels. The first area is the main working area, which is split into four quadrants for each member to

work that can be reconfigured using inflatable wall-like dividers. The upper level comprises of the sleeping quarters,

incorporating inflatable mattresses for ease of transportation. Once the first crew arrives to the robotically built

structure, they will unpack equipment and furniture from the storage unit, including the second level sleeping quarters

to finish the interior construction.

Humans on Earth have been building dwellings from soil for thousands of years, and the International Space

Station has already proven that technology can provide bare necessities of life outside of our planet‟s atmosphere. The

two main areas that need further research and development to prove this idea to be viable is the robotic building

machines and the thin inflatable shell that will create the seal between a safe haven and the untamed Martian world.

The inflatable shell contains multiple layers, each having their own specific function. The inflatable shell will have to

be thin and flexible in order to be deflated and stored inside the storage container, yet strong and resilient enough to be

leak-proof and protective. Materials used for other inflatable habitats such as the Bigelow Space Habitat was used as a

reference point to form a suitable composition. The outermost layer will feature a thin film made up of multilayered

insulation composed of aluminized kapton and mylar to reflect thermal radiation [10]. Under this film are the multiple

layers of Kevlar-like fabric to protect against dust. The middle layers will serve the purpose of radiation shielding using

a fabric woven from boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) saturated with hydrogen. The innermost layer will be composed

of beta cloth, a strong fire-resistant cloth currently widely used for aerospace applications. These four layers will

comprise the inflatable walls of the habitat and will protect the crew from the dangers of the Martian environment.

Since both the shell and robotic technology has not been tested for this kind of scale in such a harsh and remote

environment, a TRL level of 5 will represent the habitat system. The research from other inflatable space habitats show

that it is feasible, but the specific technology still is in need of development.

3.2 Quality of Life

Health and Exercise: The living spaces answer many questions about the quarters and the daily protection from

radiation, but raises questions regarding their general health and well being. In order to assess the potential for healthy

colonizers on Mars, a highly specific diet and exercise is implemented. There exist three macronutrients that human

beings must consume in order to survive: Fat, Protein, and Carbohydrates. Recent studies have suggested that protein

can aid in bone density loss, thus a diet higher in carbohydrates and fats is necessary. The ratio of macronutrients

necessary for survival depends on the gender, body type, height, and weight of the colonizer, but micronutrients such

as vitamin D and Calcium will be necessary, in any case, to maintain the bone density of the colonizers at an

appropriate level [11]. Paired with nutrition, exercise is important to maintain the overall health and strength of the

colonizer. NASA is currently utilizing exercising machines in the ISS which combat the difficulty of exercising in a

zero gravity environment [12].

Environment Psychology: In order to maintain a sustainable living environment, a few factors that affect the

quality of life of colonizers need to be taken into consideration. Sleep cycles, temperature, lighting, and decorum

within the habitat have huge impacts on the crew. The dome-like shape of the habitat will certainly amplify noise. In

such a situation, noise cancellation in the sleeping quarters will aid in keeping the colonizers healthy and alert.

Materials such as Acoustic Foam can make this possible. Furthermore, Lensed Indirect Lighting can be used to

substitute natural lighting. Studies conducted by Cornell University show that this type of lighting slows the tiring of

eyes and the loss of focus. Green and blue lights significantly influence emotions, efficiency, and heart rate, creating an

environment that will proactively allow the astronauts to remain calm and centered. Thermal comfort is also an

important factor, and typically environments that are too cold or too warm will result in both unhappiness and a lack of

productivity [13]. Some other issues that astronauts face relate directly to their mental state and their psyche. Without

the earth, one tends to fight the absence instead of yielding to it. This brings about irrational behavior and also the

Earth Out of View phenomenon.

PHAME tackles such repercussions by applying layers of paint to rooms and chambers according to the purpose

they tend to. It creates a specific decorum in the rooms and chambers according to the purpose the rooms tend to. It is

believed that color can affect human emotions and can induce physiological responses. Red stimulates and invigorates

the physical body. It increases circulation, muscular activity, blood pressure, respiration, nervous tension, heart rate,

and hormonal and sexual activity. [14] It stimulates the nervous system, liver, adrenals, and senses in general. In

general, longer wavelength colors (red, orange) are viewed as arousing, whereas shorter wavelength colors (green,

blue) are viewed as calming, and it is thought that longer wavelength colors, relative to shorter wavelength colors,

impair performance on complex tasks [15].

3.3 Medical Arrangements

Building a habitat on planet Mars is a complex and expensive process. Since the plan involves 24 people residing

on Mars for as long as 40 years, it needs to include special measures to counteract the harmful effects of the different

environmental conditions like dust, radiation, hypogravity and, possibly, hazardous microscopic life. The effects on the

human body can be understood in the terms of different systems like the musculoskeletal, the cardiopulmonary,

physiological regulation, etc.

Decompression Sickness: The first and the most frequently encountered problem faced by astronauts is the

Decompression Sickness (DCS) which occurs primarily because the gravity on Mars is reduced by roughly one-third,

as compared to that of the Earth. There have been several studies in the past decade that suggest replacing nitrogen

with helium or neon gases to counter the effects of DCS. [16] Oxygen Prebreathe (PB) is one of the conventional

processes to mitigate the cause of the DCS. PB before decompression, eliminates dissolved nitrogen and therefore

decreases the risk of DCS in astronauts. Factors that affect tissue perfusion, such as position, temperature, and exercise

are known to decrease denitrogenation kinetics during oxygen breathing. Although denitrogenation sessions usually

last 4 hours, much time can be saved by incorporating light exercise. It was found that with two hours of ground level

denitrogenation with light exercise prior to decompression saves subjects from severe DCS as compared to the

conventional 4 hours of denitrogenation. This is so because factors that affect tissue perfusion, such as body position,

temperature and exercise are known to increase denitrogenation kinetics during oxygen breathing. Light exercise

improves blood circulation which in turn quickens the denitrogenation.This was considering a 4 hour simulation of

extravehicular activity at off-nominal pressure modes. In comparison to that, two hours of the conventional oxygen

prebreathing was not enough to protect half that number of test subjects against DCS at emergency pressure level. In

this study, severe bends had occurred after 30 minutes of exposure at this emergency pressure mode. [17] In such a

way, light exercise during PB brings about a drastic time save in the EVA process.

It is possible to develop a non-invasive ultrasonic monitoring device capable of providing an early warning of

impending decompression sickness before any symptoms occur. By monitoring the flow of blood in the pulmonary

artery, one can detect the presence of gas emboli passing through this vessel. Quantification of the number of gas

emboli passing through the pulmonary artery may provide a clear indicator of imminent decompression sickness. Two-

dimensional arrays have been designed and fabricated for use at 5 and 2 MHz with either CW (Continuous Wave) or

pulsed Doppler. Microprocessor-controlled electronics selectively activate portions of the ultrasonic arrays, which have

been tested on human subjects [18].

Muscular Atrophy and Bone Loss: The other problems humans encounter are pertaining musculoskeletal system

are muscular atrophy and bone loss. Findings suggest that very intensive exercises, which impose high loads on the

musculoskeletal system for brief periods, may be more efficient in preserving bone and skeletal muscle conditioning

within "safe" limits for longer periods than low intensity activities such as treadmill running and bicycling. Basic

biomedical support of manned space missions to Mars base should include routine assessment of skeletal density,

muscle strength, cardiac output and total energy expenditure. This information can be used to periodically re-evaluate

exercise programs for crew members. Along with that, clodronate, a new diphosphonate effective in preventing

hypercalciuria and negative calcium balance in normal human bed rested subjects, may prove effective in preventing or

lessening skeletal mineral loss in space [19].

Coagulation of Blood: Other physiological functions that hypogravity affects, surprisingly enough, is

coagulation of blood (or clotting). This directly hampers the wound closure and biological tissue reconstruction in

astronauts. However, a study shows that a Nd:YAG laser turned to 1.32 micrometers wavelength when used at low

power levels to obtain deep tissue penetration with low thermal effect achieves cauterization which limits blood flow.

In such known laser systems, high intensity optical energy by one or more lasers is applied in sufficient quantity to sear

or burn the vessels.

Surgery in Space: Everything from a simple cut to, probably, advanced surgeries could be acted upon by a laser

causing thermal heating of the biological tissue proteins such that the collagenous elements of the tissue form a

"biological glue" to seal immediately and/or to reconstruct the tissue being heated. The collagenous glue is absorbed by

the body during the healing process, so it inflicts no potential threat. [20] Although astronauts are screened for health

issues before leaving Earth, astronauts may need surgery in situations of emergency. The ISS has an escape capsule

standing by in case of emergencies, however, in our plans for Mars, this won‟t be an appropriate option. Surgery in

space is expected to be extremely difficult. Bodily fluids like blood will float free and contaminate the cabin due to the

absence in space or lesser gravity on Mars. Medical tools need to be relatively light but capable of handling many kinds

of situations. The fist-sized robot, a product of Virtual Incision in Lincoln, Nebraska, weighs 0.4 kilograms and has two

arms loaded with tools to grab, cauterize, and suture tissue. They can be controlled by humans through a video camera.

The feed relays to a control station, where a human surgeon operates it using joysticks. It slides into the body through

an incision in the belly button. Once the abdominal cavity has been filled with inert gas, the robot can do many things

like removing an ailing appendix, cutting pieces from a diseased colon or repairing a perforated gastric ulcer.

Prototypes have performed several dozen procedures on pigs. The team says their next step is to work in human

cadavers and then test the technology on a living human on Earth. Remote-operated technologies are generally at a

disadvantage in space, because the further away a spaceship gets, the greater the time delay in communications signals.

Virtual Incision will avoid this problem by training astronauts to perform procedures on each other [21].

4. ENERGY

4.1 Energy Generation

Some critical objectives of the initial manned Mars missions are to establish a human habitat, power life support

systems, enable science and exploration activities, and produce propellant. The achievement of these objectives is

dependent on the ability to generate sufficient power to meet the energy needs of the systems and processes involved.

The type and design of a power generating system is interrelated with our specific mission scenario considered.

However, the following three energy needs are assumed for a Mars mission: baseline life support, science/exploration

activities (such as rover operations or drilling), and ascent vehicle propellant production. The relative requirements and

timing of these needs will determine the niche wind energy will fill. As such, the following niches for wind energy

generation in the manned Mars mission planning and implementation are assumed; first off as a secondary power

supply in an all-solar mission to lessen the effects of dust-storm power reductions, and secondly as a cooperative power

supply to enable non-nuclear unmanned precursor mission of extended surface duration. The utility of wind energy

production systems in an all-solar mission would be to allow the reduction of mass (and therefore cost) of the solar

arrays needed to meet dust storm conditions.

Energy Needs for an All-Solar Mission: The scenarios for using solar power are as follows; first as a primary

power supply in an early Martian settlement with rudimentary in-situ construction capabilities, secondly as a mobile

power supply option to enhance and/or enable long-distance rover operations, and finally as stable primary power

resource for a long term settlement plan.

The current estimates of energy needs for an all-solar mission call for an energy budget of 17 kW of continuous

energy during the day and 9 kW of continuous energy during the night for clear conditions [22] as summarized below

in Table 4.

It is noteworthy that the daytime value for clear conditions includes 17 kW of continuous energy during the day

for rover and Field Activities (FA). During dust storm conditions, the daytime utilization needs drop to 16 kW

continuous, as rover operations will be curtailed.

The calculations for daily and total energy requirements (assuming no power losses) for the initial outpost are

summarized below Table 5.

However, due to losses during dust-storms (radiation reaching the array may drop to 15% of clear condition

values), an all-solar mission must utilize a solar array eight times larger than needed for the baseline requirements

during clear conditions. Given this requirement, the daily solar power produced during clear conditions should be eight

times the base value provided above.

Base Energy Requirement per day = 300 kW-hr

Required Solar Energy Base Value = 8*300 = 2400 kW-hr

Therefore, after combining the two scenarios, i.e. clear and dust storm conditions, mentioned above we are able to get

Table 6.

It should be noted that daily rover operation requirements during a clear 12 hour day equal 12 kW-hr and over

the course of 14000 clear Martian days, the total rover energy requirement is 168 MW-hr. Additionally, Baker and

Zubrin [23] propose that 107 tons of methane/oxygen propellant (for ascent and Earth-return) can be produced on Mars

from 5.7 tons of hydrogen brought from earth and carbon dioxide from Martian atmosphere. The energy needs for this

activity are 370 MW-hr over the 600 day mission. There is expected to be, judging by the numbers derived above,

sufficient excess energy production to meet these needs.

Solar Energy Utilization: The proposed plan is to use compact, deployable solar panels constructed using the

principles of origami folding. This kind of a compact folding mechanism is called Miura Folding, named after Koryo

Miura. Recently, independent student teams at Brigham Young University and Drexel University have both

successfully applied these folding techniques to solar panels used on satellites and CubeSats respectively. These solar

panels have a high stowed-to-deployed volume ratio and Drexel University‟s team has shown that for a particular

design, power generation by origami solar panels is increased by almost 30% over solar panels that have the same

stowed volume. This is due to the higher usable area of the panels once deployed. Research will be performed on

creating the Origami solar panels due to the promising findings of previous research that has been done. These solar

panels will be easier to load and transport since they can be compacted and perform the same or even better results than

conventional solar panels.

Wind Energy Utilization: This paper proposes the use of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) for the

generation of wind energy during the aforementioned dust storm periods. These wind turbines offer a much more

sturdy, flexible and lightweight option than conventional wind energy harnessing technology such as Horizontal Axis

Wind Turbines (HAWT). The disadvantage of the HAWT, however, is that it is generally heavier and it does not

produce well in turbulent winds. This will be an issue on Mars since the winds of the dust storms reach speeds of 60

miles an hour [24]. VAWT are powered by wind coming from all 360 degrees, and even some turbines are powered

when the wind blows from top to bottom. Because of this versatility, vertical axis wind turbines are ideal for

installations where wind conditions are not consistent such as Mars‟ dust storms.

4.2 Energy storage

Presently, the ISS uses lithium and rechargeable Li-ion batteries for energy storage. A problem with these

batteries are that, “primary and rechargeable batteries are heavy, bulky and have limited capability to function in

extreme space environments such as high and low temperatures and radiation”. Also, “safety concerns exist with some

of the primary lithium and rechargeable Li-ion batteries” [25].

Fuel cells use oxygen and hydrogen as fuel to create electricity using stored energy; if the process was run in

reverse, the fuel cells could be used to store electricity as well. The electricity generated from wind or solar can be used

to split water mined on Mars into hydrogen and oxygen in a fuel cell operating in reverse. “The hydrogen can be

stored, and used later in the fuel cell to generate electricity at night or when the wind isn't blowing” [26]. This oxygen

also serves a dual purpose since it can be used for breathing.

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) plants, in fact, work on a similar principle of pumped-hydro power

plants. “But, instead of pumping water from a lower to an upper pond during periods of excess power, in a CAES plant,

ambient air is compressed and stored under pressure in an underground cavern” [27]. Therefore, turbo-compressors can

compress air from the Mars atmosphere and store it underground. Whenever energy is required, the compressed air is

expanded using turbo-expander. The only concern is the energy needed for this procedure. This need can be satisfied if

the thermal energy is stored and released while the air is compressed and used during expansion. This process can

approach 100% efficiency if it were able to have perfect insulation. The above technique is called adiabatic CAES. It‟s

a convenient method for large-scale energy storage.

PHAME will also utilize Electrochemical Flow Capacitors (EFCs), which are currently in development by

Drexel University undergraduate students. In contrast to traditional flow batteries subjected to Faradaic reactions, the

electrochemical flow capacitor is a rechargeable electrochemical energy storage system that is based on the working

principles of super capacitors. The EFC utilizes a fluid carbon‐electrolyte „slurry electrode‟ for capacitive energy

storage. During operation, the slurry is pumped from a storage reservoir through two polarized plates as part of the

charging process. Once fully charged, the slurry is pumped out of the cell and stored in external reservoirs until the

process is reversed and the slurry is discharged. The charged slurry stores charge in electrostatic form at the

carbon/electrolyte interface, which allows for rapid charging and discharging leading to a higher power density.

Faradaic charging processes have losses that cause degradation of the device over time compared to electrostatic

charging, which has near 100% efficiency.

The Flywheel is yet another method that has great potential to become a primary storage system. It, “stores

energy mechanically by spinning high strength composite rotors at high speeds”. Theoretically, “the maximum energy

density for potential flywheel materials is a simple ratio between maximum allowable material stress and density”. But

the primary limiting factor is the “maximum allowable material stress that current materials can achieve” [28]. There is

scope for research in nanotechnology to create a “carbon nano fiber rotors” with greater tensile strength, less density

and light weight [25].

The energy storage will be divided into three parts. 60% of the energy will be stored in fuel cells because, along

with the storage, it will also satisfy the need of oxygen. This will be the primary storage technique in the storage

system. The other 24% of the energy will be stored in CAES plants. This is used as a secondary storage system because

of the need to insulate the underground storage system. The remaining 16% of the energy will be stored in

electrochemical flow capacitors. The high cost and major demand of resources for initial setup of electrochemical flow

capacitor is the reason for such a small percentage of the energy being stored using this method. Also, its lifetime is

100,000 cycles whereas fuel cells and CAES have limitless cycles. Since, the sun and time has no effect on

electrochemical flow capacitors it can be used anytime throughout the day and year.

5. RESOURCES AND TOOLS

5.1 In-Situ Resource Utilization

Martian colonization has evidently been debated for years and many of the discussions have given birth to a

crucial concept termed, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). ISRU refers basically to combining methods to utilize

Martian regolith to its maximum potential, reaping various minerals and metals for later use. PHAME segregates

mission ISRU into distinct parts: Martian Regolith Acquisition, Water Extraction, Iron Ore Extraction, Material

Processing, METS Fuel Processing, and Presence of Perchlorate.

Martian Regolith Acquisition: PHAME understands the importance of In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) and

makes use of multiple calculated steps to mass produce water, fuel and other metals to meet the needs of the habitat

and help it reach sustainability. A habitat on Mars requires a certain mastery in creating usable materials like Iron,

Silver and Lead. Including the aforementioned, it also needs to support sample return missions and the ability to create

an underground tunnel system, for emergencies. Yet another soil acquiring mechanism is needed, which is used to

drive the igloo-like domes to their completion. Another is used for acquiring samples of regolith for the purpose of

research. PHAME, therefore, incorporate three very different kinds of drills: Sample Return, Scoop and Tunnel Boring.

These three are imperative for ISRU, research and the sustainability.

EVAs, as compared to mining for ore, have gone through much research and improvement since its early stages.

The Ultrasonic/Sonic Diller/Corer (USDC) is a percussive and rotary drill to overcome many limitations pertaining to

drilling hard impenetrable surfaces on Mars. A series of modifications of the USDC basic configuration led to the

development of the Auto-Gopher for deep drilling in rocks and regolith. “The developed low mass Auto-Gopher uses

low power and low WOB/preload, and it is not constrained by the mass of a lander/rover to penetrate the formation and

acquire cores.” [29] “During the rotary-only test, the average power was 90 Watt at 25% efficiency – i.e. the power

required to drill was 25 Watts while the rest was attributed to electrical/mechanical losses.” Drilling at the rate of 40

cm per hour, the Auto-Gopher drilled to a total depth of 2 meters in 15 hours, producing core samples every 10

cm.”Total energy to reach the 2 m depth was 500 Whr.” [30] In addition to the wire-line Auto-Gopher, HoneyBee

Robotics, in partnership with NASA, has designed the One Bit One Core (OBOC) architecture for a totally automated

system for acquiring regolith cores and securing them and saving them of any chances of contamination or loss of

material. [31]

A venture like Mars colonization needs the ability to manufacture for the purpose of maintenance and

construction. The elaborate systems and machines will surely require repairing (or replacement of parts) at some point

of time. This calls for the usage of a tunnel boring machine. A tunnel boring machine hacks through material and

releases it from its posterior end. This loose material will then be transported and can theoretically be filtered for water,

ores of Iron, Silver and Lead. Having integral uses for each of the above mentioned elements, boring seems to be an

imperative branch of the materials and resource obtaining system.

As an example, “steel will enable fabrication of buildings, parts for vehicles and machinery, beams, pipe,

fasteners, tools, sheet metal, cooking implements, appliances, cutlery, and countless other things.” [33] The Los

Alamos National Laboratory, in collaboration with Texas A&M University, recommends using “a fission powered,

nuclear SubSelene to provide the heat to melt rock and form a self-supporting, glass lined tunnel suitable for Maglev or

other high-speed transport modes. It was estimated that each SubSelene device will mass 320,000 kg, equally divided

between the tunneler and the waste heat rejection areas, and will have a unit development cost of $50M.” [32] “In this

concept, a reactor provides 3 megawatts of thermal power at about 1,300 degrees centigrade, to each of 134 individual

rock-melting heaters. This tunneler design would produce a 5-meter-diameter hole, using a total of 400 megawatts of

thermal energy, which could advance at a very fast rate of 80 meters per day. The system could be entirely automated.”

[33]

As discussed in the Habitat section, PHAME incorporates a collection of inflatable habitats that will be used by

the colonizers for the purposes of research and recreation amongst other activities. Such establishments demand a

unique nature of protection from Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) and Solar Particle Events (SPE). Many tests have

been done regarding the optimal protection and the ionizing radiation dose (quantified using Sievert and Gray units)

one human can withstand. It was earlier found that in constructions and habitats on the ground, it is estimated that

between 2 and 3.5 meter of loosely piled regolith will be required to provide sufficient protection. [34] Whereas

research done by Donald Rapp [2006], particularly, stands out as it goes to considerable depth with very viable

solutions. By differentiating between the radiation values (quantified using Sievert) and the radiation that is actually

absorbed (quantifies using Gray), Rapp has used point estimates to describe the kind of radiation one would experience

in the Martian atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere itself reduces the effect of GCR during a Solar Minimum from

about 57 cSv/yr to around 32 cSv/yr while the effect of GCR during a Solar Maximum from 22 cSv/yr to 15 cSv/yr.

Also, the effect of a large SPE gets mitigated from around 100 cSv to around 30 cSv per event. Calculations done were

in terms of converting energy values of particles (eV) to their Blood-Forming Organ dose equivalents. It was found

that only a 50-cm thickness of regolith (75 g/cm2 assuming a regolith density of 1.5 g/cm3 ) will reduce the GCR

related BFO dose-equivalent to approximately 25 cSv/yr and the SPE related to 15 cSv [35]. As a result of the above,

all the habitats in PHAME are covered with a 5 m layer of Martian Regolith, providing an inexpensive and simple

solution to safety from radiation. Hence, after the inflation of the habitat, the ISAD will be commanded to carry out the

process of digging and depositing hardened regolith as an extra layer for radiation protection.

Water Extraction: Looking through the aspects of our paper focused on attaining resources via methods of

drilling, we now arrive to the aspect of purifying water for daily consumption and usage. Deviating from its obvious

uses, water can also potentially be used for “minerals smelting, minerals processing, and manufacturing processes.”

[36] The regolith will be acquired using the ISAD and will be deposited on a conveyor belt that is connected to an

oven. This oven is used to heat up the soil and collect water. “In order to obtain 1000kg of water, the system must

process 100,000 kg of soil. The vast majority of energy that must go into this system goes into the actual heating of the

soil, 10.30 kW-hr kg-1

of water. In addition, a small amount of energy is required to run the bulldozer and the conveyor

belts, 0.12 kW-hr kg-1

.” [36] Stoker is using a bulldozer, but we are using the ISAD. Viking measured up to 1% water

content in soil, [37] [38], consistent with the Phoenix lander [36], detecting loose ice cemented soil at a depth from 1

cm to 5 cm overlaying a hard ice-cemented material. The top 5 cm of the soil is loose and easy to dig, avoiding deeper

hard permafrost material. [36]

Iron ore Extraction: “The metals Iron (Fe) and Copper (Cu) are much easier to reduce from their oxides or other

compounds than are other common metals such as aluminum, Al, or magnesium, Mg. Relatively simple chemical

methods can therefore, be used to recover iron.” [39] Metal ores will be procured by using the SUBSLENE. “Iron,

however, prefers to be combined with oxygen and its ores, e.g., hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4), are well

represented, although not uniformly distributed, in the Earth‟s crust.” [40]

Mars seems to be more promising in terms of providing an abundant supply of iron and aluminum (refer to

Appendix) as compared to the other metals and minerals. The manufacturing processes of the same are adapted from

Stoker‟s paper enumerating the possible production methods for Fe.

Caption: Typical Soil Analysis of celestial bodies of interest

Metal Processing: CO will be used to reduce (solid) FeO at a temperature below 800 oC. Thus, the atmosphere

could facilitate iron production. [40] Once an Iron Oxide concentrate is obtained, it can be reduced to native iron by

reduction by either hydrogen gas (H2 obtained by electrolysis of water) or carbon monoxide gas, CO, which can be

extracted from the atmospheric CO2. [39] When using H2 gas,

( )

while, when using CO,

( ) ( )

Paying heed to the equations above, it turns out that iron manufacturing is not only feasible, but relatively

convenient, in relation to Mars‟ atmospheric CO2 content.

METS Fuel Processing: In order to maximize payload efficiency and make use of Martian resources, the Crew

Transfer Lander will use a combination of in-situ resource utilization methods to be refueled on the Martian surface.

Prior to the launch of the initial human mission to Mars, robotic test missions will demonstrate key technologies vital

to the colonization effort. One of these technologies includes the fabrication of methane and liquid oxygen on the

surface of Mars to be used by the CTV. In order to produce these substances, an automated process will make use of

both the Sabatier and reverse fuel cell reactions. The Sabatier reaction is detailed below:

Not only does the reaction produce the Methane needed to fuel the CTL, it also produces water which could be

reused by the habitat. The energy produced by the Sabatier reaction will be used to drive the reverse fuel cell. A reverse

fuel cell will be used to produce the hydrogen gas needed by the Sabatier reaction as well as the oxygen needed to

produce the liquid oxygen oxidizer. The reverse fuel cell will utilize the following reaction:

As seen both reactions share similar inputs and outputs and because of this they can be ran in tandem to increase

sustainability. By using these two reactions it is possible to significantly decrease the amount of reaction mass that

needs to be brought to the Martian surface, therefore increasing the amount of critical payload that can be brought to

Mars.

Presence of Perchlorate: One of the most important findings of the Phoenix suggests the presence of Perchlorate

(ClO-4). Since its discovery on Mars, ClO

-4 has become the focus of interest due to its possible role in destroying

organics in thermal stage of analytical instruments sent to Mars to detect organics. [42]

“The most beneficial use of ClO-4 on Mars would be as a source of O2 for human consumption and to fuel

surface operations. For example, humans breathe or consume 550 litres of oxygen per day. Based on the amounts of

ClO-4 measured in Martian regolith, a daily supply of oxygen for one astronaut could be obtained by complete

dissociation of ClO-4 contained in 60 kg of regolith (40 litres).” [43]

5.2 Plant Growth

One of the most basic necessities for the survival of humans in any setting is the availability of proper, nutritious

food. Thus, food and its production is an integral part of this mission to Mars, more so, because of the duration of the

mission and its ultimate goal of self-sustainability. The goal of this section is to identify the need for appropriate food

production techniques, the methods used in current as well as previous space missions, and alternate methods used for

the mission proposed in this paper.

The traditional way of meeting the nutritional needs of an astronaut on a space mission is to provide packaged

food, rich in the required nutrients and vitamins. This process has ranged from food squeezed into toothpaste like tubes,

to the use of spoon bowls for a wider variety of food items. This has been extended to a more recent multi cuisine

menu consisting of a variety of food items like Kung Pao chicken, dry fruits, and pasta. Even though this is an efficient

way to provide a tasty and healthy meal to the astronauts, it is limited to short term or LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

missions. This is not an ideal method for the 40 year mission to Mars and thus there is a need for an alternate method of

providing food to the inhabitants of Mars. Two methods are being incorporated to deal with the inadequacy of

packaged food for the proposed Mars mission; firstly by growing plants on Mars in simulated environments and

secondly, using hydroponics.

The concept of the Botanical Chamber is similar to that of a greenhouse. However, unlike a typical greenhouse,

the botanical chamber will be completely insulated from the outside conditions and variables like lighting, temperature,

humidity, internal pressure, and atmosphere will all be controlled internally. The chamber will be constructed along

with the rest of the habitat and the required conditions for the plants‟ growth will be set when the first cycle of humans

land on Mars. Since the botanical chamber will be covered with a layer of regolith leaving the interiors bereft of

sunlight (as mentioned in the Drilling section), artificial LED lighting will be used. LED lighting of specific

wavelengths can be used to more effectively grow plants with promising results. Their small size, durability, long

lifetime, cool emitting temperature, and the option to select specific wavelengths for a targeted plant response makes

LEDs more suitable for plant-based uses than many other light sources [44].

Different crop species have different optimum growing temperatures and these optimum temperatures can be

different for the root and the shoot environment and for the different growth stages during the life of the crop [45].

Thus, in addition to maintaining a general room temperature, it will also have to be modified when required. Similarly,

the humidity inside the chamber will be controlled using humidifiers. The atmospheric pressure on Mars is less than

that of Earth, and the low pressure will make plants act as if they're drying out [46]. Thus, pressure controllers can be

used to maintain a standard atmospheric pressure inside the chamber.

Plants and Animals: In order to assess the potential for a self-sustainable colony on Mars, the long term survival

and reproduction of plants and animals must be taken into consideration. According to the journal by Christopher

McKay, “It is likely that microbes and plants will adjust easily to Martian gravity, and some animals might cope just as

well.” [47] The concept of sustainable plant growth beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is not far off. In 2010, the

University of Florida was able to send flowers to the International Space Station (ISS). This research proved that plants

can survive quite well in a microgravity environment, due to the fact that the plant cells do not require gravity for

proper growth, and the roots of the plant simply interact with the surfaces that they encounter when they grow. This

research can be applied to Hydroponics, which, is a method of growing plants in nutrient rich water, as opposed to soil.

During the 6-month voyage to Mars, plants can be grown in hydroponic plant chambers, which are self-sustainable and

can adjust to the environments of varying gravity. In the past, growing plants in a microgravity environment has been a

challenge due to the fact that capillary action is unaffected by any forces of gravity or the lack thereof [42]. Due to this,

plants retain far more liquids in microgravity than necessary. For this reason, the hydroponic plant chamber would be

equipped with a centrifuge to rapidly spin the plants and siphon off excess liquids, allowing the plants to grow

effectively. Thus, upon arrival to Mars, a source of nutrient-rich produce will be readily available for the colonizers.

In light of the fact that human beings are similar to many animals and countless health issues arise for astronauts

during a long period in microgravity, it is safe to assume that animals would not adapt readily [43]. In 1989, the

Discovery brought a fleet of 32 chicken eggs within an incubator aboard the ISS. Half of the eggs were developed for

nine days, and the other half were developed for two days on Earth before being sent to the ISS. Eight of the eggs that

developed for nine days on earth before being sent, hatched and survived, while none of the second half of the eggs

hatched that developed for two days beforehand [44]. The results from this experiment prove what was assumed:

gravity is an important factor for the proper growth and development of animals. However, potential applications of

this experiment can be expanded, in that egg incubators can be equipped with a centrifuge in order to aid the proper

development of the chickens. An issue that arises for using chicken eggs on the proposed Mars mission would be

keeping the chickens dormant within the egg during the trip to Mars. That being said, sources of protein such as fish

have the ability to remain dormant in a frozen pond during the cold winter months, and if this environment were to be

simulated, there exists the potential to transport a source or sources of food to Mars.

Areas of Research: The preparation for a sustainable colony will offer the opportunity for conducting research

that encompasses many areas of engineering, technology, and science. Due to the fact that animals have seldom been

taken beyond Earth‟s atmosphere, the 6 month voyage to Mars presents the opportunity to determine various ways to

transport and care for them. Research can be conducted on Mars as well, because breeding animals is a necessity in

order to keep colonizers healthy and maintain their proper macronutrient ratios. Furthermore, the concept of apiculture

can be addressed. Bees are essential for plant maintenance and reproduction and for producing honey, which is not

only a natural sweetener, but a natural antibiotic.

As mentioned above, the hydroponics technique will be primarily used during the six month voyage to Mars.

Once the first crew lands, the hydroponic plant chambers will be transported to the botanical chambers where they will

further develop. While the hydroponic plant chamber seem to be a promising solution for the provision of food, further

research will be conducted to test the conditions on Mars and how they affect plant growth and development. Initial

research will be pertaining to the growth of plants in Martian regolith. This is reinforced by an experiment conducted

by researchers from the Netherlands that showed that 65% of the plants grown in simulated Martian soil at roughly 60

F grown using only demineralized water, can live beyond 50 days [47].

Another aspect of research will be deciphering the variety of plants that could be grown on Mars. Plant seeds can

be stored by drying them in 100 F for about 6 hours in either direct sunlight or in an oven. Using this method, seeds of

cauliflower, carrots, lettuce, onion, etc. will be stored. [40] These seeds will then be used for research purposes in both

the hydroponics plant chambers as well as in Martian soil. Some of the plants that can be potentially grown include

potatoes (sweet and white), soybeans, wheat, peanuts, dried beans, lettuce, spinach, tomatoes, herbs, carrots, radishes,

cabbage and rice [48]. Besides this, the plants grown in the botanical chamber can be tested for their medicinal uses, as

elaborated on in Quality of Life.

To summarize the above, the colonizers will initially use packaged foods like the ones used on the ISS while the

botanical chamber and hydroponics is being set up and tested on. Once the botanical chamber is stabilized with a

considerable plant produce, its harvest will be used to replace the packed food and be eventually expanded to a fully

functional bio-farm on Mars.

Medicine: While a self-sustainable colony is conceivably possible, there are many major obstacles that must be

overcome in order to achieve this magnificent feat. To illustrate, medicines are not something that usually come to

mind, but are very necessary for maintaining the health of the colonizers. Fortunately, each type of medicine, as well as

chemicals, is derived from some sort of plant. In order to keep medicine production alive after supplies can no longer

be sent to Mars, the hydroponic plant chamber can be used to produce not only food, but necessary medicines and

chemicals as well.

6. EMERGENCY SITUATIONS There are many different components, in this mission, which will have to work in tandem to create and sustain a

successful Mars habitat. As with any complex mission, there are many opportunities for things to go wrong, which is

why emergency protocols will be in place to ensure the safety of the astronauts and everything else. The Martian

habitat will need to be prepared for these major emergency situations; Radiation spikes, Power failures, Dust storms,

Depressurization, and Space object collision.

On the Earth, the ozone layer protects humans from the harmful radiation of the sun, but the Martian atmosphere

does not have such a convenient provision. Therefore, the astronauts will need be protected from constant radiation,

particularly solar events that may occur during the mission. Power failures on Earth can be very inconvenient, but a

failure during the Mars mission can create life threatening issues. Dust storms also present a major issue, because they

can last for several months on Mars, and can potentially sabotage structures. The Martian atmosphere is one hundred

times thinner than Earth‟s, making it important to plan for possible depressurization in the buildings or during an EVA.

Finally, due to the thinner atmosphere and close proximity to the asteroid belt, there is a greater possibility of falling

space debris harming the habitat.

6.1 Solar Radiation and Solar Storms

As mentioned in the Habitat and Regolith Acquisition sections, the buildings will be covered with hardened

Martian soil, which will be able to protect the astronauts from the usual amount of radiation. However, this will not

protect the astronauts from the radiation blast of a solar flare. These solar flares are capable of damaging electronics,

and they pose major health issues to unprotected humans. NASA and the National Oceanic & Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) monitor the sun for flares using specialized satellites and sensors and will be in direct

communication with Mars to alert astronauts of any irregular solar activity. PHAME also includes a centrally located

underground bunker during the initial construction phase; the first astronauts on Mars will be tasked with using the

precious metals found during drilling to fortify this bunker even more. A combination of Lead, Nickel, and Calcium

lining the walls of the bunker will protect the astronauts from any extreme radiation. Although, this paper exceeds to

securing usable iron, other metals are also very much extractable.. In order to reach our sustainability goal for year 40,

a set of CubeSats, which report data directly to our habitat, will be used to watch the sun for irregular solar activity.

These have been proven to work during their initial tests in 2012, when TRIO-CINEMA launched and was successful

at measuring variations in the Earth‟s magnetic field and monitoring fast moving particles. These CubeSats will not be

launched until at least 2030, so more research and development will be done in order to optimize them and make them

as reliable as an average satellite.

6.2 Dust Storms

Martian winds are more frequent and more violent than those on Earth, because Mars has a lower thermal inertia.

These high winds can cause large dust storms, which can affect the habitat for months. Dust storms lower the surface

temperature and spread large amounts of debris, and this debris can significantly erode structures and inhibit the

performance of solar energy. In order to prepare for a dust storm, all buildings will be designed with airtight seals to

prevent debris penetration. During dust storms that last for extended periods of time, the astronauts will not be allowed

to leave the habitats, but they can move from building to building via a network of underground tunnels that connect at

the underground bunker. These tunnels will eventually be constructed using the SubSelene and internal layering using

Lead.

6.3 Power Failures & Depressurization

A power failure during the mission is capable of leading to a whole plethora of issues, so it is crucial that we

have procedures to put into effect in case the power does go out. Since the astronauts will have to exercise everyday to

keep healthy in the low gravity environment, the exercise equipment will be connected to supercapacitors, which will

convert the mechanical energy to electricity and store it for a certain amount of time. These supercapacitors eventually

lose their charge, when they aren‟t used, so they will continually charge and discharge until they get used in a real

emergency situation.

Depressurization could arise from a power failure or leakage of pressure in the habitat, and we can model our

response to the situation in the way the ISS does. Since there will be multiple buildings connected by tunnels in the

settlement, the astronauts will have to put on their EVA suits and isolate the affected buildings via a vacuum sealed

door to avoid a pressure drop in the rest of them. A pressure gage will be installed in each room to make it easier for

the astronauts to identify the problem, and they will work with mission control on Earth to correct it. Any EVA on

Mars will need to be accompanied by a rover similar to the one used on the Apollo missions; this rover will be different

in that it will be built to drive on the Martian terrain and it will have backup life support systems. In case of

depressurization during an EVA, the astronaut that is affected will be able to use the rover‟s support system until they

are transported back to the habitat.

6.4 Protection from Space Debris

Finally, the close proximity of the asteroid belt and the thinness of the Martian atmosphere allows the possibility

of falling space debris to damage the settlement. Planetary evacuation may not ever have to be resorted to, but it is

important to have procedures in place in order to minimize losses. One situation in which planetary evacuation would

be necessary would be an imminent space object collision that could cause settlement-wide damage. In October of

2014, the C2013/A1 comet flew past Mars [45]. The path of the comet had been tracked since January 3, 2013. As the

comet came closer to Mars, simulations became more accurate. Similarly, if a comet were to impact Mars, there would

be ample time for evacuation, receiving data about the collision beforehand. NASA reported on the comet passing by

Mars in October 2014, which had a 1 in 2000 chance of hitting the planet. This comet is 1-3 kilometers in diameter,

and it travels at a rate of 56 km/s. If it crashed into Mars, it would hit with as much energy as 35 million megatons of

TNT, which would be capable of extinguishing any life on Mars either by direct impact or rapid climate change.

Astronomers on Earth are already tracking potentially threatening objects for Earth and Mars via advanced earth

telescopes, so we will continue to rely on them to warn the astronauts of any inbound objects. Threats will be detected

early on, and a decision will be made to evacuate prior to the date of the flyby. If evacuation is necessary, the Orion

MPCV that was used to launch astronauts that stays docked to the CTV will be used as a safe haven until the threat is

clear. To meet our sustainability goal, we will have to launch a space telescope, which will orbit Mars and search for

threatening objects specifically. This will be done sometime in the last 10 years before year 40.

7. BUDGET

The money required for the mission supplies is $22.228 Billion.

This excludes the cost of employees and contractors. This value

was multiplied by a safety factor of two to compensate for any

potential errors in estimation. In order to determine the final

cost for the mission including personnel cost is estimated to be

about $ 44.965 Billion. This adds up to about $1.124 Billion

per year. An expanded version of the TRL‟s and budget chart

can be seen in Figure 8.

8. CONCLUSION

With the research conducted so far, the exploration of Mars has been deemed to be possible and safe for

human settlement. While the colonization of Mars is a distinct possibility, there are many constraints involved with it.

These constraints include the ones mentioned in the mission statement such as the budget and the current generation

technology. Despite these limitations, the mission construction aims to cover all possible avenues, while also

incorporating the resources present on Mars.

It is important to note that while the ideas proposed for the mission are revolutionary, they are based on

extensive research conducted but need further practical testing to validate their functionality. Additionally, the current

performance capabilities of the proposed concepts can be maximized during the adaptation, and subsequent

implementation of project PHAME. That being said, there is always a factor of uncertainty associated since it is not

possible to accurately predict the behavior of machines and/ or other operating concepts on the Martian surface.

PHAME would enable a mission spanning a period of 40 years to achieve the goal of sustainability on

Mars and gradual independence from Earth. The colonizers will include a unique team of trained doctors, engineers,

psychologists and dietitians who would be fully capable of performing operations on Mars and also be adept in the

crucial functionalities of the various aspects of the mission. As this mission involves numerous inevitable risks, the

team would be equipped, both mentally and physically, to tackle any emergency situations that might arise.

The mission has been designed with a budget of $44.965 Billion, which includes the money directed

towards advanced research for the mission as well as their implementation on Mars.

Thus, PHAME aims to lay down the blueprint for the future colonizers of Mars, taking all possible

aspects into consideration. Restating Buzz Aldrin‟s quote, “Mars is there, waiting to be reached.”

9. APPENDICES

APPENDIX A - FIGURES

Figure 1. Logistical Diagram depicting the events of one METS trip to and from Mars.

Figure 2. Telescoping communication mast example [3].

Figure 3. Geographical elevation map around Hellas Planitia [4].

Figure 4. 3D rendering of Mars habitat.

Figure 5. Various parts of the Auto-Gopher.

Figure 6. Image of the Icy Soil Acquisition Device (ISAD).

Figure 8. Expanded TRL‟s and budget chart.

Figure 9. Research & Development Timeline

Figure 10. Mission Timeline

APPENDIX B - TABLES

Table 1. Communication node descriptions and tasks.

Table 2. Wind speed comparison from Earth weather anomalies and Mars.

Table 3. Summary of Energy Requirements.

Table 4. Calculation of Total Energy Requirement over 40 Years.

Table 5. Total Energy Production Over 40 Years.

Table 6. Battery comparison chart.

Table 7. Materials available from Martian Soil [32].

Table 8. Presence of elements on various planets. [41].

Table 9. Abbreviations used.

BFO Blood-Forming Organ

BNNT Boron Nitride Nanotubes

CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage

CTL Crew Transfer Lander

CTV Crew Transfer Vehicle

DCS Decompression Sickness

DSN Deep Space Network

EFC Electrochemical Flow Capacitor

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles

EVA Extra-Vehicular Activities

FA Field Activities

GCR Galactic Cosmic Radiation

HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

ISAD Icy Soil Acquisition Device

ISS International Space Station

LOX Liquid Oxygen

LEO Low Earth Orbit

LMO Low Martian Orbit

MAPIN Mars Pioneering Network

METS Mars-Earth Transfer Spacecraft

MPCV Multi Purpose Crew Vehicle

PHAME Planitia-Hellas Human Advanced Martian Environment

PB Pre-Breath

RTG Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

SPE Solar Particle Event

USDC The Ultrasonic/Sonic Diller/Corer

VAWT Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

APPENDIX C - FORCE BY MARS WIND ON TELESCOPING COMMUNICATION MAST

To calculate the shear moment caused by the wind on the base of the structure, Equation 1.3 and 1.4

were used to determine of the force of the wind on the mast and the shear moment at the base

respectively. Symbol definitions for each equation can be seen in Table 8.

Table 8. Equation 1.3 and 1.4 symbol meanings.

The antenna was assumed to be cylindrical, since most telescoping masts on Earth have this type of

structure, giving the structure a profile drag coefficient of 1.2 as seen in Figure 9. The length/width

correction factor was found using Figure 10, with an assumed length/width ratio of 40, equalling to a

0.98 length/width correction factor. The height of the structure was determined using Equation 1.5

using pythagorean theorem according to Figure 11, where R is the width of Mars (m), d is the

communication range (m), and h is the height of the structure (m).

Figure 9. List of profile drag coefficients [47].

Figure 10. Graph of length/width correction factors [47].

Figure 11. Geometry relationship used to calculate communication mast height based on radial

communication distance [48].

The height was then used to calculate the cross section area by multiplying the height by the height

divided by 40 (length/width ratio), assuming the tower is relatively rectangular. The wind velocity

was converted from 60 mph (highest wind speed according to the Viking Landers) into m/s, which is

about 26.82 m/s. A safety factor of 4 was added in to ensure the structure could remain standing with

winds up to 240 mph. Air density was calculated using Equation 1.6 below, where p (dry air) is the

air density, p is the air pressure, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature. Table 9 shows the

data used in order to calculate the air density.

The data mentioned in the two previous paragraphs was then used to calculate the force by wind in

Equation 1.3. The moment of this force was determined by assuming the force acted at the top of the

communication tower to determine the maximum moment. This is calculated by multiplying the force

by wind with the height of the tower.

For Equation 1.4, the outer diameter was given as the width of the structure that was calculated in

order to determine the cross sectional area of the structure for Equation 1.3. The thickness of the

telescoping mast was assumed to be 2 inches in order to give sufficient structural support. Based on

these values, the max shear stress on the base was determined to be 6.233 MPa. The data used for

calculating Equation 1.4 can be seen in Table 10. When comparing this value to the maximum shear

stress of various metals shown in Table 11, aluminum was determined to be a good candidate to be

used on the mast since it is a lightweight and easily accessible metal that will be able to withstand the

shear moment caused by wind on the telescoping communication mast.

Table 9.. Mars atmospheric data for calculating air density.

Table 10. Data used to calculate maximum shear moment on the communication mast.

Table 11. Shear strength of multiple materials.

APPENDIX D: Compliance Matrix

2015 RASC-AL Technical Paper Compliance Matrix

Earth Independent Mars Pioneering Architecture Theme Y/N

Is the overall system architecture sufficiently addressed? Y

Have you proposed synergistic application of innovative capabilities and/or new technologies for evolutionary architecture development to enable future missions, reduce cost, or improve safety?

Y

Does your scenario address novel applications (through scientific evaluation and rationale of mission operations) with an objective of NASA sustaining a permanent and exciting space exploration program?

Y

Have you considered unique combinations of the planned elements with innovative capabilities/technologies to support crewed and robotic exploration of the solar system?

Y

Have you addressed reliability and human safety in trading various design options? Y

Have you identified the appropriate key technologies and TRLs? Y

Have you identified the systems engineering and architectural trades that guide the recommended approach? Y

Have you provided a realistic assessment of how the project would be planned and executed (including a project schedule with a test and development plan)?

Y

Have you included information on annual operating costs (i.e., budget)? Y

Have you given attention to synergistic applications of NASA’s planned current investments (within your theme and beyond)? *Extra credit given to additional inclusion of synergistic commercial applications*

Y

Does your paper meet the 10-15 page limitation? Y

Team Info Graphic of Concept/Technology

Institution: Drexel University Paper: Planitia-Hellas Human Advanced Martian

Environment (PHAME) Adviser: Dr. Ajmal Yousuff

Team Leader: Rishiraj Mathur Competition: Undergraduate RASC-AL Competition

(Insert graphic/image here)

Summarize Critical Points Addressing Theme Compliance and Innovation

(At a minimum, please quickly address the bullets. Feel free to summarize additional key components of your concept, using up to one additional half page if extra space if needed.)

24 people continuously living on the surface of Mars, completely self-sufficient beginning in 2054

PHAME uses a crew rotation of 4 people every two years. The mission starts with no crew, and gradually builds up to 24 with crew transfers.

Crew rotation from Earth every 2 years after 2054 This project achieves complete sustainability by the 40th year and hence, plans no subsequent crew rotations after 2054.

Gradual build-up of capabilities, infrastructure and risk reduction In the 40 year span, this mission leads the human colony to sustainability with reference to energy requirements, medical issues and life on the surface. As each year allows up to 3 launches to Mars, gradual building up of equipment is fairly simple, judging by the magnitude of the resources and tools used.

Budget accurately reflects the constraints listed in the themes description Our budget reflects the total cost of the mission, cost of travel to Mars and every sub-section of every section. PHAME does not make use of any resource that has a limited budget span and might discontinue.

In-situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) and reusable systems PHAME makes heavy use of the Martian environment and produces many of the crucial resources humans and automated systems will require for functionality. Everything from fuel for return flights to Earth to drinkable water and usable iron.

Development of new technologies and infrastructure necessary for ISRU and transportation PHAME also incorporates research and sample return opportunities. It includes a botanical chamber equipped for research towards plant growth using Martian soil, and animal breeding on Mars.

Innovation in crafting a concept that will extend humanity’s reach beyond LEO – PHAME incorporates launch logistics that includes the assembling of three different modules into a single spacecraft enabling travel beyond LEO. Additionally, fuel production protocols have been addressed outside of Earth.

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