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Come and Play
Research Programme
Report
“The impact of music and music-making on children’s development”
Prepared by: Come and Play
May/June 2004
Table of contents
1 BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................3
2 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH...............................................................................3
3 METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................4
4 MANAGEMENT SUMMARY............................................................................................4
5 KEY FINDINGS................................................................................................................7
5.1 MUSIC, COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT & LEARNING.........................................................95.1.1 Music & Cognitive Development....................................................................10a. Neurological differences.........................................................................................10b. ‘Mental Stretching’...................................................................................................11c. The effects of music on spatial reasoning – The Mozart Effect...........................125.1.2 Music, Learning & Academic / Skills Improvement......................................14a. Music and increased academic achievement........................................................14b. The link between musical ability and literacy skill................................................18c. “Levelling the playing fields” for disadvantaged youngsters..............................21d. Effects of music on children with learning difficulties/developmental delays. . .22e. Music for all..............................................................................................................23
5.2 MUSIC, PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL SKILLS............................................245.3 MUSIC, EMOTION, ATTITUDE & BEHAVIOUR..............................................................255.4 COMMENTS ON BEST PRACTICE...............................................................................275.5 CAVEATS................................................................................................................29
6 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................31
7 CONTACTS...................................................................................................................34
8 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................36
Appendix 1.............................................................................................................................. 47
1 Background
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Given the growing body of evidence linking music making to various aspects
of children’s academic, social and cognitive development, 4Children’s Come
& Play project aims to undertake detailed research to highlight and measure
the impact of music making on a selected group of children and out of school
clubs.
The research project, funded by Youth Music, is national in scope and will
take place across 2004 / 2005.
As part of the first phase of this project, this report serves to provide an
overview of relevant research findings detailing the effects that music has on
the development of children, as well as highlighting commentary on current
trends in thinking within this field of enquiry.
2 Objectives of the research
The key objectives informing this research project have been identified as
follows:
Make the public policy argument for music making activities as a key
element of out-of-school services
Create systems to assess how music-making contributes to the social
development of children
Construct and initiate baseline measurements to measure before and
after impacts of the programme and report results in the form of an in-
depth study to Youth Music and key policy makers and stakeholders
3 Methodology
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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3.1 Research undertaken for the purposes of this report took, primarily, the
form of internet research due to the time and financial constraints
associated with the project.
3.2 Contact was also made with a number of researchers, (who have
published research findings relevant to the scope of this project) based at
various academic institutions for their references and input.
3.3 Given the amount of material available, as well as the limits inherent to
internet-based research, the findings should not be regarded as
exhaustive.
4 Management Summary
The following report summarises the quality and scope of existing research
into how music affects children’s development. It also serves to identify
research gaps and provide a rationale for the next steps to be taken for further
research by the Come & Play project.
Research involving music and human development has multiple perspectives.
Beside the large and formal body of work revolving around traditional aspects
of music education, music is increasingly being investigated in its broader
context as an influence on the cognitive, emotional, behavioural and social
aspects of children’s lives, as a support or even entry point into other topics of
learning (maths and literacy) and as an aid to personal development.
While pockets of research overlap, at present these do not necessarily
provide a comprehensive and coherent framework for understanding the
impact that music has on human development or clearly define the
mechanisms involved. Research review projects undertaken by local and
international bodies to build an overview of findings indicate that there is much
ground to be covered.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Clear, well-supported correlations have been found between music instruction
or musical experience and cognitive/neurological development, academic
improvement, and social/emotional/personal development. However,
researchers are cautious about drawing conclusions about music actually
causing these results. Findings are regarded as inconclusive and in at least
one case have been criticised as being “somewhat desperate efforts to prove
that music has an effect on schoolwork or social adjustment” (Keith
Swanwick, 2001).
An area that seems fairly well-researched and documented is that of learning
through the arts programmes in schools throughout Canada and in some
schools in Australia and the USA. In these projects efforts have been made to
integrate music instruction with the rest of the school curriculum. These
programmes provide clear evidence for the effects of music on children’s
development. They focus on the effects of music on specific cognitive or
academic-achievement-based outcomes, are generally long-term in scope,
and employ diverse methodologies.
Positive correlations were found between learning through music and
academic improvement in maths and literacy, as well as increased
engagement (Improving Math Scores: Lessons of Engagement, Upitis, R.,
Smithrim, K., Patteson, A., MacDonald, J., & Finkle, J., 2003). This last was
considered to be one of the greatest programme effects, with researchers
speculating that differences in academic performance were at least partly due
to increased engagement. The benefits occurred for children of all socio-
economic classes and it was suggested that learning in and through the arts
can help level the playing field for youngsters from disadvantaged
circumstances. According to these studies the relative advantage of
involvement in the arts increases appreciably over time, with some effects not
occurring until three years of programming had taken place.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Research projects dealing with music and enhancement of cognitive functions
such as spatial reasoning (The Mozart Effect) have generated considerable
press and public interest, as well as debate amongst researchers concerning
the validity and limitations of the findings.
Other areas of focus for research projects include personal development and
social skills, musical activity as a communicative force, and the links between
music and early physiological development.
One perspective is that the effects of music are stronger in the social domain
than in the cognitive domain, as music tuition involves social interaction and
co-operative activity, which depend on good listening skills, and attributes
such as trust, patience, tolerance and kindness (Spychiger, Maria, B., 1998).
However, there appear to be fewer long-term, integrated studies focusing
primarily on the social domain. (Note: to what extent this reflects the bias of
the internet as publishing medium is not known).
The scope for further investigation into this area is thus highlighted, as well as
the need to direct more attention towards findings of this nature.
The general consensus seems to be that arts appear to be important when it
comes to a variety of non-arts outcomes, but that more research is required
into the nature of the correlations found and the mechanisms involved (Upitis,
R., Smithrim, K., 2001; Upitis, R., et. al., 2003; Gardiner, M.F., 2000; Catterall,
J.S., Chapleau, R., Iwanaga, J., 1999; Champions of Change; The Impact of
the Arts on Learning, 1999; Scripp, L., 2003; The Power of Music, Hallam, S.).
Given the evidence of positive relationships between music and cognitive
functioning, Come & Play is going to progress with research using objective
measurements (what kind?) to investigate whether, and to what extent, these
effects are evident in relation to its making-music programmes.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Concerns exist around defining what will be measured, given the nature of
previous research and the fact that results have been correlational and not
conclusive enough to prove causality. Furthermore, since previous research
has emphasised that results can only be expected over the long-term, there is
also a concern whether short-term programmes may yield measurable
differences.
5 Key Findings
The remainder of this report details the findings from the research and covers
the following areas:
Music, Cognitive Development & Learning
Music, Personal Development and Social Skills
Music, Emotion, Attitude & Behaviour
A worldwide literature review of authoritative articles which address “the value
of music in our lives” highlight the following key points:
Music is powerful at the level of the social group because it
facilitates communication which goes beyond words, induces
shared emotional reactions and supports the development of group
identity.
Music is powerful at the individual level because it can induce
multiple responses – physiological, movement, mood, emotional,
cognitive and behavioural.
The brain’s multiple processing of music makes it difficult to predict
the particular effect of any piece of music on any individual.
Music has powerful therapeutic effects which can be achieved
through listening or active music making.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Music can promote relaxation, alleviate anxiety and pain, promote
appropriate behaviour in vulnerable groups and enhance the quality
of life of those who are beyond medical help.
Music can play an important part in enhancing human development
in the early years.
Active involvement in music making in children may increase self-
esteem and promote the development of a range of social and
transferable skills.
The easy availability of music in everyday life is encouraging
individuals to use music to optimise their sense of well-being.
Music can influence our behaviour in ways which are beyond our
conscious awareness. Knowledge of these effects can be used to
manipulate our work and purchasing behaviour.
The easy availability of music means that it tends to be taken for
granted. This can lead to neglect in considering how the
infrastructure supporting music and musicians is resourced,
maintained and developed.
(Susan Hallam, The Power of Music, http://www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk)
5.1 Music, Cognitive Development & Learning
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Much evidence has been put forward indicating the positive relationship
between music instruction or musical experience and cognitive development
(Altenmüller & Gruhn, 1997; Costa-Giomi, in press – from Susan Hallam and
Alexandra Lamont, BERA Music Education Review Group).
Some researchers recognise music as one of the basic building blocks for the
brain’s higher cognitive functions (Frances Rauscher, 1994) and studies have
shown neurological differences between those who have been exposed to
music instruction and those who have not.
Furthermore, correlations have been found between music instruction at an
early age and skills improvement in areas such as creativity (K.L. Wolff.
Essential Advocacy Resources for Music), spatial reasoning (F. Rauscher,
1994; L. Scripp, 2003), and academic improvement specifically in the areas of
maths and literacy (J.S. Catterall et al., 1999a; L. Scripp, 2003, R. Upitis et.al.
2003).
The idea has been put forward that music develops flexibility in thinking
because it draws on so many different attributes. According to Dr Howard
Gardner1 (best known for his theory of multiple intelligences) “Musical training
is an effective way, not only to enhance the conceptual-holistic-creative
thinking process, but also to assist in the melding and merging of the mind’s
capabilities” (Gardner, 1884, as quoted in James R. Ponter, Feb 1999).
The idea of ‘mental stretching’ was also proposed to explain the interactions
between music and learning. The idea being that our brains can take 1 Dr Howard Gardner, Professor in Cognition and Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education; Adjunct Professor of Psychology, Harvard University; Adjunct Professor of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine; and Chair of the Steering Committee of Project Zero – an educational research group established in 1967 at Harvard Graduate School of Education.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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advantage of analogous thinking in two areas such as music and maths, and
that learning how to process in one area may improve one’s ability to process
in the other, related area.
5.1.1 Music & Cognitive Development
a. Neurological differences
According to Dr Susan Young (Exeter University), there is currently a growing
interest in the idea that musical experience in the very early years (0-3)
encourages valuable synaptic networks.
Research data indicates that those who study music, particularly beginning at
an early age, show neurological differences when compared to those who
have not had much training. Adult musicians have stronger and faster brain
responses to musical tasks (Faita and Besson,1994 as quoted by Donald A.
Hodges, Institute for Music Research) and certain parts of their brains, related
to music processing, are larger or more responsive (Elbert et al., 1995; Flohr,
Persellin, & Miller, 1996; Pantev et al., 1998; Pascual-Leone et al., 1995;
Petsche, 1992; Petsche et al., 1985; 1988, 1993; Schlaug et al., 1994, 1995;
Williamson and Kaufman, 1988).
Research strongly suggests that early musical experiences imprint
themselves on the brain as do all learning experiences that have the potential
for changing brain organization. Whether or not these changes have
implications for other domains of learning continues to be investigated.
(Donald A. Hodges, Institute For Music Research, University of Texas at San
Antonio)
Practicing musicians demonstrate 25 percent more brain activity than non-
musicians when listening to musical sounds”. (Essential Advocacy Resources
for Music, Exposure to Music Is Instrumental to the Brain)
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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“The part of the brain responsible for planning, foresight, and coordination is
substantially larger for instrumental musicians than for the general public.”
(Essential Advocacy Resources for Music, Music on the Mind)
“Researchers at the University of California and the Niigata Brain Research
Institute in Japan have found an area of the brain that is activated only when
reading musical scores.” (Essential Advocacy Resources for Music, Musical
Brain – Special Brain Area Found for Reading Music Scores)
b. ‘Mental Stretching’
Researchers such as Dr Martin F. Gardiner, (Brown University, USA, Centre
for the Study of Human Development) have collected data to measure the
impact music lessons can have on the ways children learn. He introduces the
concept of ‘mental stretching’ to help explain how, why, and when interactions
between music training and learning can take place. The theory proposes
cross-fertilization of specific mental skills or capabilities from one area of
learning (e.g. arts) to another (e.g. maths) if the required mental skills to be
developed are sufficiently closely related. (Dr Martin F. Gardiner, Jan 1999)
For example: types of mental processing – such as organization, production
of melodies and learning pitch – needed for making music also help students
to learn maths. “Once you learn how to organise and use a scale in your
thinking, that may make it easier for your brain to organize and use a number
line,’ he said. …‘Your mind is now different than it was before…It’s stretched
out in some particular area and now has a new capability which can be
applied, it seems, in other areas.” (Dr Martin F. Gardiner, as quoted by
Eleanor Chute, 1998)
c. The effects of music on spatial reasoning – The Mozart Effect.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Studies done by Rauscher, F.H. and Shaw, G.L., indicated that music and
music instruction play a positive role in enhancing spatial reasoning – the
brain’s ability to perceive the visual world accurately, to form mental images of
physical objects, and to recognize variations of objects. In specific, results
showed that listening to Mozart's Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major K. 448
enhanced spatial-temporal performance in what has become known as ‘The
Mozart Effect’.
These results generated considerable interest and also gave rise to several
misconceptions. The debate centred on whether there really is a “Mozart
Effect”, and whether listening to Mozart can ‘increase intelligence’ (a claim the
researchers assert they did not make). According to Rauscher, many of these
misconceptions have been reflected in attempts to replicate the research.
Despite proving difficult to replicate in some instances, ‘The Mozart Effect’ has
been confirmed by various other studies, as well as meta-analysis of 26 other
“Mozart Effect” studies (Lois Hetland, 2000). It is reported to be “limited to a
specific type of spatial task that requires mental rotation in the absence of a
physical model”. On the basis of this meta-analysis Hetland agreed that
“music instruction enhances spatial–temporal reasoning for preschool- and
elementary-age children while instruction is occurring and through at least two
years of such instruction”, but also points out that “the educational
implications of raising children’s intelligence or long-term spatial skills through
exposure to classical music were not demonstrated in the analyzed studies”.
(Joanne Haroutounian, 2001)
The importance of this finding lies in the fact that spatial reasoning is regarded
as “essential to success in a variety of academic subjects, notably maths, the
sciences, and engineering” (Frances Rauscher, 1994) and, in fact, Rauscher
also suggested that “mere listening can boost spatial reasoning…” However,
this effect is generally regarded as being temporary in nature and not
necessarily applicable to other aspects of cognitive functioning.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Follow-up studies by Rauscher and Shaw confirmed that that listening to
Mozart has a positive effect on spatial-temporal tasks involving mental
imagery and temporal ordering. Rauscher emphasises that they do not claim
that Mozart enhances intelligence (a popular misconception).
Evidence from other studies that appear to support Rauscher’s findings is set
out below:
“…with upper-primary school-aged children in a school setting. Scores on a
Paper Folding Task (PFT) for a class which listened to Mozart during testing
were significantly higher than the PFT scores of a control class…a similar
result was obtained for another class which listened to Bach during testing.
The musical educational experience of the children…did not significantly
contribute to the variance in PFT scores. We believe that this study is the first
to find a Mozart Effect for school children in a natural setting…” (Vesna K.
Ivanov and John G. Geake, 2003)
“Learning to play a musical instrument has been shown to produce small
temporary effects on spatial reasoning but not on other aspects of cognitive
functioning”. (The Power of Music, Applications)
“Keyboard instruction does predict higher test scores in young children’s
spatial-temporal cognitive tasks.” (Larry Scripp, 2003)
“[In] a pilot study in which ten three-year-old children were given music
training – either singing or keyboard lessons, the scores of every child
improved significantly on the Object Assembly Task, a section of the
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – revised, that measure
spatial reasoning.” (Frances Rauscher, 1994)
“[In] a follow-up experiment…we found that the spatial reasoning performance
of 19 preschool children who received eight months of music lessons far
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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exceeded that of a demographically comparable group of 15 preschool
children who did not receive music lessons.” (Frances Rauscher, 1994)
In a further follow-up study undertaken in 1997, Rauscher and Shaw
comparing the effects of musical and non-musical training on intellectual
development. “78 three and four-year olds from working class families [were]
divided into four groups. One group had six months of private piano lessons;
another got computer lessons, a third, singing lessons and the fourth, no
training. Unlike the kids who learned piano, Rauscher notes, those given
singing lessons were taught little about musical concepts. By the end of the
study, the piano students scored 34 percent higher than the others on a test
of spatial-temporal reasoning – putting a puzzle together to gauge their ability
to process information in sequence and space.” (Judy Foreman).
What Drs. Rauscher and Shaw have emphasized has been the causal
relationships between early music training and development of the neural
circuitry that governs spatial intelligence. Their studies indicate that music
training generates the neural connections used for abstract reasoning,
including those necessary for understanding mathematical concepts.
(Essential Advocacy Resources for Music, Music Making Beats Computers at
Enhancing Early Childhood Development).
5.1.2 Music, Learning & Academic / Skills Improvement
a. Music and increased academic achievement
Evidence from various studies has shown strong correlations between music
instruction and ‘learning through the arts’ and academic improvement:
“Students involved in the arts may exhibit higher academic achievement than
their peers who are not involved in the arts.” (Catterall, 1998; Catterall,
Chapleau, & Iwanaga, 1999a, 1999b; Deasy, 2002; Fowler, 1996; Hamblen,
1993; Hetland, 2000; Luftig, 1995; Moore & Caldwell, 1993; Murfee, 1995;
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Parks & Rose, 1997; Welch & Greene, 1995 as reported by Upitis, Rena et.
al, 2003).
It is suggested that “involvement in music can develop transferable skills
which may raise academic achievement”. (Harland et al., 1998; Weber et al.,
1993; Zulauf, 1993 – as reported by Susan Hallam and Alexandra Lamont,
BERA Music Education Review Group).
Furthermore, meta-analysis studies based on large bodies of research over
the last decade demonstrate positive relationships between music learning
and learning in other academic subject areas. (Larry Scripp, 2003)
This appears to be particularly relevant to music and mathematics, with
students who have consistently high levels of involvement in instrumental
music over the middle and high school years showing “significantly higher
levels of mathematics proficiency by grade 12. This holds both generally and
also for low SES students as a subgroup (SES refers to socio-economic
status – a measure of family education level, income, and type of job[s] held
by parent[s]).” (James Catterall et. al., 1999).
These findings are further supported by meta-analyses of six experimental
studies on the relationships between music and mathematics achievement
where it was indicated that “music study appears to cause increases in
mathematics achievement”. (Vaughn, 2000, quoted in Rena Upitis, Katharine
Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003). Similarly, it
was found that “students concentrating in instrumental music do substantially
better in mathematics than those with no involvement in music.” (James
Catterall et al., 1999)
Other researchers analysing data from Learning Through The Arts (LTTA)
programmes in Canadian schools found that “the Grade 6 students (10 – 12
year olds) scored significantly higher on tests of computation and estimation
than students in the two types of control schools.” It was also found that taking
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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music lessons outside of school was found to be a “significant contributor to
achievement on the computation and estimation test”. (Rena Upitis, Katharine
Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003), with those
students who took music lessons outside of school scoring “significantly better
on all language and mathematics measures than their peers, regardless of
household income level and education.” (Dr Rena Upitis and Dr Katharine
Smithrim, 2001).
Similar results were found in a 3 year study involving students in Austrian and
Swiss schools. “Those who had 5 music classes per week instead of the
usual 1 or 2 (at the expense of classes in mathematics and language) were as
good in maths and better in languages than their peers with regular schedules
at the end of the 3 year study” (Armstrong, A. & Casement, C. (1997). The
child and the Machine. Toronto: Key Porter, and Weber, E.W., Spychiger, M.,
& Patry, J. (1993). Music makes the School. Schlussbericht zu “Bessere
Bildung mit mehr Musik”. Padagogisches Institut der Universitat,
Freiburg/C.H. – as reported by R. Upitis (2002)
It therefore appears that not only does involvement in the arts not come at the
expense of achievement in mathematics and language (Rena Upitis,
Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003), but
even when students are pulled out of ordinary lessons to participate in music
lessons they achieved higher scores in proficiency tests than their non-pullout
peers. (Michael D. Wallick, Essential Advocacy Resources for Music)
It was also found that students of the arts outperform their non-arts peers on
the SAT® (formerly called Scholastic Aptitude Tests, used by colleges and
universities in the USA as a standard way of assessing students that come
from different schools using different grading systems, who wish to progress
to higher education). “In 2001, SAT takers with coursework/experience in
music performance scored 57 points higher on the verbal portion of the test
and 41 points higher on the maths portion than students with no
coursework/experience in the arts…Longer arts study proved to parlay into
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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even higher test scores.” (The College Board. Profile of SAT and
Achievement Test Takers, 2001, 1996)
While it is clear from this evidence that learning through music, or receiving
music instruction, is positively related to better performance in other subjects,
and in particular maths and language, this does not necessarily mean that
music was the cause of the improvements observed as much of the research
is “correlational in nature…” (Rena Upitis, Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson,
Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003)
An important element found in learning through the arts programmes was that
the use of music in learning programmes results in increased engagement
on the part of the student. Some researchers speculate that this increased
engagement with the subject matter may actually be behind the increases in
achievement found amongst children involved in those programmes (as
compared to children in control schools). This may be particularly relevant to
improved achievement in computation, as this is “the kind of task than can be
improved by paying closer attention to the material at hand”. (Rena Upitis,
Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, & Janice Finckle, May
2003)
It is also important to note that the positive effects in maths achievement
associated with ‘learning through the arts’ are reported to be gradual rather
than sudden. It was observed that effects grow significantly over time (James
S. Catterall et. al., 1999), and in some cases effects did not occur until three
years of programming had taken place (Upitis R, et.al. 2003)
Researchers therefore warn that oversimplifying expectations for learning
transfer from the arts to academics “may limit the impact of arts-based
programmes. Research suggests that inter-disciplinary learning transfer
effects are more complex and less linear than the usual “cause-and-effect”
models of education that the general public expects from the popular media.”
(Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning)
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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b. The link between musical ability and literacy skill
A study showing an association between rhythmic ability and reading
prompted the examination of the relationship between musical ability and
literacy skills. A further pilot intervention study showed that “training in
musical skills is a valuable additional strategy for assisting children with
reading difficulties”. (Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., Levine, L. J., Wright, E.L.,
Dennis, W.R. & Newcomb, R.L. (1997) as reported in The Power of Music). It
has thus been suggested that a structured programme of musical activities
can be used to help children develop a multi-sensory awareness and
response to sounds.
Based on research showing that the ability to respond physically to a musical
beat is closely linked to children’s skills in reading, writing and concentration,
a motor-skills class given at an elementary school in Ventura, California
teaches first through fifth-grade classes how to keep a steady on-two beat
with music. Using various activities such as dance, clapping, marching or
jumping rope in weekly classes, children are given the opportunity to improve
these skills.
The teacher, Joanne Bowie, bases her instruction on workshops taken from
Phyllis S. Weikart, a retired physical education professor from the University
of Michigan and nationally recognized expert in motor-skills development for
children.
Weikart maintains that children should begin to develop an innate sense of
timing when they are infants and that through activities such as patting or
stroking babies to the tune of a lullaby, caregivers are helping children make
connections between what they hear and what they do. She further maintains
that this ‘hearing-feeling connection’ is what allows children to listen to
something that is being said or watch something that is being done and follow
the directions. She says: “What you are linking is action, thought and
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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language.” She also maintains that having a sense of inner timing allows
children to speak or read in whole sentences instead of just one word at a
time.
The principal of the school, Beverly McCaslin says that the class helps kids
concentrate and hold their attention span longer. She says “We have seen
kids who have difficulty reading and writing improve because they are able to
organize their thoughts better.” (Maia Davis, Los Angeles Times, 1994) With
regards to the above-mentioned example, scepticism has been levelled at
what is referred to as ‘beat competency’, with the idea being that is has not
been adequately substantiated.
“A massive two-year study in Switzerland run with 1200 children in more than
50 classes scientifically showed how playing music improved children’s
reading and verbal skills through improving concentration, memory and self
expression. Younger children who had three more music classes per week
and three fewer main curriculum classes made rapid developments in speech
and learned to read with greater ease.” (Weber, E.W., Spychiger, M., and
Patry, J-L., 1993, as reported in Music. Play for Life)
“A 1965 study by H. Pelletier found that teaching students to play string
instruments in third grade increased their reading achievement…The two
groups were equated on I.Q., sex, reading achievement, and spelling
achievement. The experimental group received 25 weeks for instrumental
(string) instruction during the school day…At the conclusion of the study he
found that the experimental groups’ reading gain was 1.9 months higher than
the control group. He further noted that when the low readers in each group
were compared, it was found that the experimental group students were 3.5
months ahead of the same students in the control group.” (Music and Reading
Skills, Essential Advocacy Resources for Music)
A study done by Debby Mitchell at the University of Central Florida titled “The
Relationship between Rhythmic Competency and Academic Performance in
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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First Grade Children” explored how sensory and motor development may
influence later cognitive, perception and language skills.
Findings showed that there was a significant difference in the academic
achievement levels of students classified according to rhythmic competency.
Students who were achieving at academic expectation scored high on all
rhythmic tasks, while many of those who scored lower on the rhythmic test
achieved below academic expectation.
The study concludes that the large percentage of children who are achieving
below academic expectation are lacking in foundation skills that should have
been developed prior to entering school. (The College Board, Profile of SAT
and Achievement Test Takers, 1998, 1996).
A meta-analysis of 30 studies on the relationship between music instruction
and performance in reading, done by Butzlaff (2000), which included 24
correlational studies and six experimental designs, found consistent
correlations between reading and music instruction, but did not find a reliable
causal link between these two activities. (as reported in Rena Upitis, et.al.
2003)
Studies exploring the effects of increasing the amount of classroom music
within the curriculum have found that children receiving extra music lessons
kept up with their peers in language and reading skills despite having fewer
lessons although there were differences between different ability groups. (The
Power of Music, Applications).
For those students who have the greatest difficulties with early literacy,
music’s enhancement to reading is thus regarded as an investment worth
making, even if it takes some time away from tutoring (Scripp,L. 2003).
c. “Levelling the playing fields” for disadvantaged youngsters
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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In research enlisting the National Educational Longitudinal Survey (USA), a
panel study which has followed more than 25,000 students in American
secondary schools for 10 years, it was found that the probability that children
were engaged in arts activities were “almost twice as high for students from
economically advantaged families” and “the probability of low arts involvement
is about twice as high if one comes from an economically disadvantaged
family”. (James S. Catterall, et. al., 1999).
It was found in this same study that “all high SES students do better than the
average student” when it comes to achievement in maths (James S. Catterall,
et al., 1999) and “…low SES students with high involvement in music do
better than the average student at attaining high levels of mathematics
proficiency.” (James S. Catterall, et al., 1999)
Given the benefits shown from being engaged in music or arts activities,
specifically when it comes to maths achievement learning in and through the
arts can help ‘level the playing field’ for youngsters from disadvantaged
circumstances. (Champions of Change, The impact of the arts on learning,
Music Forum Article)
Other sources affirm the value that learning through the arts offers to children
from lower socio-economic backgrounds:
“music programmes in schools may enable the disadvantaged to learn on a
more equal footing with children from more affluent backgrounds. Because it
is nonverbal, music…does not force disadvantaged children to struggle with
language or cultural differences”. (Frances Rauscher, 1994)
“For all students, but particularly for those in the low SES (Socio-Economic
Status) group, academic performance, attitudes and behaviour were positively
correlated with long-term involvement in the arts.” (Rena Upitis, Katharine
Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003)
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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“..insofar as there was a programme effect, the benefits of the Learning
Through The Arts programme occurred for children of all socioeconomic
classes” (Rena Upitis, Katharine Smithrim, Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald,
Janice Finkle, 2003)
“In our pilot study with preschool children, those from disadvantaged
backgrounds displays (sic) a particularly dramatic improvement in spatial
reasoning ability following music training.” (Frances Rauscher, 1994)
d. Effects of music on children with learning difficulties/developmental
delays
Music used as a therapeutic intervention is known to have a number of
positive effects. Amongst others, it is reported that music therapy can help
children with learning difficulties to focus their attention, increase their
concentration span and, over time, improve vocalisations, looking behaviour,
imitation, and initiation of ideas. (The Power of Music, Applications)
In improvised musical play, music and lyrics have been used to facilitate
social play between developmentally delayed and non-developmentally
delayed children in mainstream settings. “The intervention improved the
length of play episodes beyond those normally reported in the literature.” (The
Power of Music, Applications)
Furthermore, there is a substantial body of research showing that music can
be effective with children with learning difficulties when it is offered as a
reward for particular behaviours, for instance, to develop attention, reading or
numeracy skills or reduce the incidence of aggression or maladaptive
behaviour. (The Power of Music, Applications)
“Music therapy seems to have an effect on personal relationship, emphasising
the positive benefits of active listening and performing, and this in turn sets
the context for developmental change. A further investigation of the data
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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revealed the importance of hand-eye coordination for developmental change.
The active element of musical playing, which demands the skill of hand-eye
coordination, appears to play a significant role in the developmental changes
as they occur in the therapeutic musical relationship.” (Aldridge, D., Gustroff,
G., & Neugebauer, L. (1995), as quoted in The Power of Music)
e. Music for all
Where music instruction has traditionally been seen as specialised learning
relevant to a fortunate, talented few, it has been demonstrated that the
benefits of music instruction are not confined to those with musical performing
“talent”.
“Notational skills in music – and not musical performance ability – correlated
positively with academic achievement in maths and reading. That is, among
kindergartners, first graders, second graders, and pre-literate children, those
who can work with symbols in music were more likely to do better on the
Stanford tests of Academic Achievement….Thus the most obvious learning
connection between music and other subject areas does not rely on musical
performing talent independent of academic skill, but rather the opposite. The
ability to process musical symbols and representations,…is a leading
predictor of music’s association with learning in other subject areas.” (Scripp,
L. 2003)
While simply listening to music appears to produce only temporary effects in
humans, evidence for the impact of arts training on broader learning when
training of skill is included has been provided in the work of Rauscher and
Shaw (e.g. Rauscher et al., 1993; Rauscher et al., 1997).
According to Dr Martin F. Gardiner, “strong attention should be paid to making
certain that students develop not only appreciation but also skill in the arts”
(Dr M. F. Gardiner, 2000). As such, music instruction that is aimed at giving
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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children notational skills or music reading ability would be regarded as useful
and beneficial.
5.2 Music, Personal Development and Social Skills
In the review of research on the benefits that music has for humankind titled
“The Power of Music”, Susan Hallam (UK) notes that “children receiving
additional or regular classroom music lessons have shown increased social
cohesion within class, greater self-reliance, better social adjustment and more
positive attitudes. These effects are particularly marked in low ability,
disaffected pupils. Children of low economic status receiving individual piano
lessons have also exhibited increases in self-esteem compared with controls.
There is also some evidence that involvement in music can increase social
inclusion”. (The Power of Music, Applications)
These effects are supported by other researchers who report “there is growing
evidence for the positive influence of music on social-emotional development
and behaviour in schools”. (Scripp, L. 2003)
Reported benefits of the arts include “increased student creativity, lower drop-
out rates, and increased social skills.” (Catterall, 1998, Luftig, 1995, quoted by
Upitis, R. et.al., 2003)
Research with instrumental music teachers supports these findings. “They
believe that the benefits of learning to play an instrument include the
development of social skills, gaining a love and enjoyment of music,
developing team-work, developing a sense of achievement, confidence and
self-discipline, and developing physical co-ordination.” (The Power of Music,
Applications)
“Comments from students, parents, teachers, and administrators indicate that
they value the social benefits, such as the growth of self-esteem, which they
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
24
attribute to Learning Through The Arts”. (Rena Upitis, Katharine Smithrim,
Ann Patteson, Jane MacDonald, Janice Finkle, 2003)
At-risk children participating in an arts programme that includes music “show
significant increases in self-concept, as measured by the Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale”. (Essential Advocacy Resources for Music,
Project ARISE: Meeting the needs of disadvantaged students through the
arts)
In addition to positive correlations between music and academic achievement
“changes in personal behaviours also occurred and include improvement in a)
Self Motivation, b) Self Esteem, c) Responsibility, and d) Initiative…” (Martin
F. Gardiner, PH.D. 2000)
5.3 Music, Emotion, Attitude & Behaviour
While music has the power to influence moods, emotions and physiological
responses, individual characteristics of the listener and prior experiences with
music are important mediators of the effects. According to Susan Hallam (The
Power of Music), “the brain’s multiple processing of music makes it difficult to
predict the particular effect of any piece of music on any individual.”
She comments further that “generally, music which is slow and quiet tends to
encourage relaxation and reduce anxiety while stimulating music tends to
increase our arousal levels. Personal reports that music helps us to relax are
supported by evidence showing that muscular tension can be reduced by
listening to quiet, sedative music.” (The Power of Music, The effects of music
on individuals: overall trends)
“Scientific observations of the behaviour of young children when lively music
is playing indicate that they become more active suggesting that this is a
‘natural’ response.” (The Power of Music, The effects of music on individuals:
overall trends)
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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However, it appears that evidence with regard to the effects of particular types
of music on the mood and emotions of particular groups of people is mixed.
“Exploration of gender, age or social class differences have revealed no clear
patterns…Nevertheless, there is some evidence that music can affect our
moods, emotions and physiological responses whether we like the music or
not. In one study, favourite music of whatever type lowered feelings of tension
while physiological responses were greater during exciting music regardless
of whether the listeners liked it.
Similar effects have been found with young children undertaking a writing
task. While they enjoyed writing with exciting background music playing, their
task performance was better when the music was quiet and classical.” (The
Power of Music, The effects of music on individuals: overall trends)
However, Susan Hallam also points out that music that we have not
personally chosen to listen to, can have a powerful effect on our emotions and
subsequent behaviour. Depending on its level of intrusiveness it may be
merely irritating or create great distress. (The Power of Music, The effects of
music on individuals: overall trends)
“Individuals can have very strong emotional experiences to music. Music can
also play an important role in helping us overcome powerful emotions.
Adolescents who report a high frequency of personal problems report a higher
frequency of listening to music.” (The Power of Music, The effects of music on
individuals: overall trends)
Music is also of great importance to adolescents. In a study of the importance
of music to adolescents in England, responses indicated that “listening to
music was preferred to other indoor activities but not to outdoor activities” and
that adolescents between 13 and 14 years of age listened to music for an
average of 2.45 hours per day. (North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J. and O’Neill,
S.A. (2000)
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Furthermore, findings also suggest that music has a positive effect on children
with emotional and behavioural difficulties with evidence that playing
background music in their classes may improve their concentration and the
standard of their school work. The effects were particularly marked for
children whose problems related to constant stimulus-seeking and over-
activity. An Improvement in co-operation and a reduction in aggression were
also observed. (Hallam, S. & Price, J., 1998, The Power of Music)
A research project investigating the possibility that specific properties of
certain Mozart orchestral compositions in combination, improve the co-
ordination skills of pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties, suggests
that Mozartian qualities may affect the physiological parameters of blood
pressure, body temperature and pulse rate, slowing down body metabolism
and reducing enzyme and hormone production. In the study, “an improvement
in co-ordination was observed, accompanied by a corresponding drop in the
the aforementioned physiological parameters and an observed improvement
in behaviour.” (Savan, A. (1999), as quoted in The Power of Music)
5.4 Comments on Best Practice
At present, programmes using music and other art forms in educational
settings are still in the process of identifying what constitutes ‘best practice’.
Nevertheless, based on the work that has been done so far, the following are
factors that have been identified as key to the success of in-school arts
education programmes, but may also be applicable to other settings:
Studies found that the nature and consistency of teaching / facilitation was an
important element within successful arts education programmes and
speculation is that differences in outcomes could link to differences in
teachers/facilitators’ level of ability to deliver the programme. Facilitator
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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training and set minimum standards may thus be an important aspect of
ensuring that arts programmes are delivered successfully.
“…as the same classroom teachers work with the same set of artists over the
years, the student work gets better.” (Gail Burnaford, 2003)
Programmes that focus on teaching music skills (such as notational skills and
actual instrument skills) may be of more long-term benefit than those that
focus simply on listening to music. Larry Scripp, from Project Zero, an
educational research group at the Graduate School of Education, Harvard
University, says “it would be a mistake,…to base school programmes solely
on recent research focused on the temporary effects of listening of music (e.g.
the “Mozart effect”), when far more studies tell us that making music and
becoming literate in music – being able to read, interpret, and write music –
make a greater and more sustainable difference in enhancing learning in
other subjects. (Scripp, Larry. 2002)
The length, depth and breadth of music programmes are determining factors
when it comes to bringing about beneficial results. Adopting an inclusive,
longer term approach, where sustainability is the focus rather than short-term
results, and where emphasis is placed on integrating music programmes with
other aspects of education programmes (or curricula), at all age levels, would
seem ideal.
Furthermore, effective teacher / facilitator training and development in the arts
would be essential. In identifying key elements of successful arts education
programmes it is noted that artists are involved as teachers, coordinators, or
as resources for arts specialists and non-arts teachers.
It is also useful to note that one of the key elements of successful in-school
arts education programmes was that the community, business, and local arts
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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organizations are actively involved in helping students learn about the arts,
within and outside the school day.
A successful programme would also require that teaching and learning are
regularly assessed and evaluated to determined best what works in arts
education. (key elements drawn from: Essential Advocacy Resources for
Music, http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf)
Dr Rene Upitis, Professor of Arts Education at Queens University, Canada
suggests that there should be multiple approaches to arts education. She
identified the following four reasons:
Children are different from one another and, consequently, often
learn in profoundly differing ways, even within the arts
Cultural differences and regional differences require flexibility in
approaches to teaching and learning in order to maximize
opportunities for children and the communities in which they live
Teachers bring differing strengths and expertise to the teaching of
the arts
Arts education must include learning about, through, and in the arts,
and these different approaches to the arts require differing types of
resources and expertise
(Dr Rene Upitis, 2000)
5.5 Caveats
The following quotations indicate the importance of adopting a judicious
approach when it comes to the utilisation of music for developmental
purposes, since study results are mixed.
“We should not be simplistic about the positive outcomes of music
education...” (Maria B. Spychiger, 1998)
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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While many studies have shown that music-making has the power to change
significant psychological conditions such as mood, concentration, stamina,
state of motivation, etc, and even the improvement of important factors in
mental abilities, such as those shown in studies relating to the Mozart-effect
(Frances Rauscher), these provide examples of short-term effects of music or
musical activity. From these kinds of results it cannot be assumed that music
can change things in the long-term. She identifies 5 qualifying statements that
need to be applied when considering conclusions on the positive effects that
music has on children’s ability to learn.
a. Short-term and long-term effects of music and musical activity need
to be distinguished from each other.
b. Positive (long-term) effects on the cognitive domain are not
necessarily direct outcomes of music and musical activity. (Rather,
it may be a result of more creative teaching methods or spill-over
effects such as improved social connectivity and communication
between programme participants).
c. The effects in the social domain are stronger / more direct than in
the cognitive domain (“music tuition is, more than other subjects,
based in social, interaction and shared activity, and…it depends on
the ability to listen to each other, including trusting, being patient,
tolerant, and kind. Many of the single sociograms show that children
who at the beginning of the assessment were outsiders became
increasingly integrated throughout the three years.”
d. It depends on the quality of the teacher. (“Good teaching has been
the strongest factor in the conclusiveness of the findings of positive
extra-musical outcomes from (extended) music education.”)
e. The transfers are specific (“Not just any musical activity will be
benefical to other…abilities and capabilities; rather, the musical
activity and the topic of the extra-musical improvement have to be
similar.”) (Maria B. Spychiger, 1998)
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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In a study done by Konrad J. Burdach & Sylvia-Gioia Caesar in 1979, “They
used two different music programmes in two groups and received different
extra-musical outcomes for the two groups. The one focusing on creativity
and social activity had effects on social factors such as aggressivity and
inhibition, but not on concentration or other school subjects. The other
programme, concentrating on music theory, Solfège (a way of assigning
syllables to names of the musical scale, i.e. Do, Re, Mi, Fa, etc) and notation,
had positive impact on achievement in general, but not on social factors.”
(Maria B. Spychiger, 1998)
6 Conclusions & Recommendations
From the research data related to music and children’s development it is clear
that there is robust evidence concerning the links between music and the
cognitive development domain, including, but not limited to, neurological
development, spatial reasoning, academic gains in the areas of maths and
literacy, and the therapeutic use of music with children that have
developmental delays or learning difficulties. Music as a medium for learning
offers clear benefits in these areas, not least in that arts education
programmes result in increased student engagement. However, there is much
to be done in the way of clarifying the mechanisms involved in bringing these
effects about. A cautious approach is justified when it comes to issues of
causality.
Research has also yielded evidence concerning the links between music and
the realm of personal development including emotion, attitude, behaviour, and
social skills. While the power that music has on mood, emotions and
physiological responses is widely acknowledged and accepted, evidence of
the effects are somewhat mixed.
Similarly, while the effects of music on children’s personal and social
development is generally held to be positive with respect to enhancing self-
concept and encouraging pro-social skills, research in this area appeared to
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
31
be less integrated, with less long-term study data available on the internet.
(To what extent this may reflect the limitations of the internet as publishing
medium, rather than constrictions within the research field, is not known).
The relatively lesser degree of emphasis on findings in this area may also
reflect the inherent difficulties of social science research. Given the complexity
of variables involved and the difficulty in isolating them in order to measure
differences brought about through experimental design, as well as the fact
that measurements are derived from oral or written reports of events and
these may be biased, inaccurate or incomplete, social science is necessarily
more subjective than physical science and offers results that are less definite
and harder to replicate.
Given the benefits that music holds in terms of cognitive development and
academic achievement, and that music programmes may enable the
disadvantaged to learn on a more equal footing with children from more
affluent backgrounds, the importance of in-school or out-of-school music
programmes may lie also in the fact that, in some instances, they may offer
disadvantaged children their only opportunity for music instruction.
However, while the current data provides support for music programmes
contributing significantly to education, it does not necessarily follow that
simply having arts programmes within a total programme will in itself
guarantee benefits. According to Dr Martin Gardiner2 (Brown University, USA)
positive outcomes are as likely to depend on “good design based on what is
already known, good teaching, and continued research, and development of
understanding of the factors involved and related theory” (Dr Martin F.
Gardiner, 2000).
2 Dr Martin F. Gardiner, Researcher at Brown University’s Centre for the Study of Human Development. Faculty member at New England Conservatory, Senior Research Associate of the Conservatory’s research centre for Learning Through Music.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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Note: Research data on out-of-school music programmes was not
readily available to this research method.
7 Contacts
Dr Susan O’Neill Project Director: Young People and Music Participation Project
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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(funded by the Economic and Social Research Council)[Research Associate: Professor John Sloboda – [email protected]]Keele UniversityDepartment of PsychologyKeeleStaffordshireST5 5BG(t) 01782-583669(f) 01782-583387s.a.o’[email protected] via email: copied to John Sloboda. Susan O’Neill provided a reference but no interest indicated regarding tender. No direct reply from John Sloboda.
Dr Alexandra LamontCourse Director: MSc in Music PsychologyLecturer in Psychology of MusicDepartment of PsychologyKeele UniversityKeele, Staffordshire ST5 5BGTel: (+44) 1782 583323Fax: (+44) 1782 [email protected] via email: Interested in seeing tender. Not involved in research on this topic herself, but has project students who have done.
Jim ClarkUniversity of Northumbria0191 215 6420Secretary: 0191 215 6420Contacted via telephone. Involved in an ongoing study with children under 5 years that has a 4 year scope. No results published as yet.
Dr Susan YoungSchool of Education and Lifelong LearningUniversity of ExeterHeavitree RoadExeter EX1 2LU01392 264965Contacted via email: Responded positively and indicated interest in the tender. She is currently writing a chapter of a book on ‘musical communication’. Her focus: music in early years.
Adrian NorthDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of LeicesterUniversity Road
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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LeicesterLE1 7RH (t) 0116 252 2170(f) 0116 252 2067 [+44(0) 116 252 2170]General no’s.(t) 0116 252 2522(f) 0116 252 2200Contacted via telephone. Indicated interest in seeing the brief, although he is not involved with work involving children’s development. Referred writer to David Hargreaves and Alex Lamont.
Professor David H Hargreaves Centre for International Research in Music Education (CIRME)University of Surrey RoehamptonSouthlands CollegeRoehampton LaneLondonSW15 5LSTel: +44 (0)20 8392 3755Fax: +44 (0)20 8392 3786Email [email protected]://www.roehampton.ac.uk/cirme/Contacted via email: Responded positively and indicated an interest in the brief. He provided references.
Dr Jane W. DavidsonUniversity of SheffieldDepartment of Music38 Taptonville RoadSheffieldS10 5BR(t) +44 (0) 114 222 0470(f) +44 (0) 114 222 [email protected] via email: no reply
Dr Susan HallamLifelong Education and International DevelopmentInstitute of EducationUniversity of London20 Bedford WayLondonWC1H 0ALRm: 716Tel: +44 (0)20 7612 6371Fax: +44 (0)20 7612 6632Email: [email protected] contacted as yet.
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
35
Compiled: ‘The Power of Music’ website: www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk/directory.htm
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Appendix 1
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34. Mapping Music Education Research in the UK 1BERA Music Education Review GroupCollection of presentations at the BERA National Event Number Five 'Mapping Music Education Research in the UK' held at University of Surrey Roehampton, 18 Sept 1999. BERA Music Education Review Grouphttp://www.bera.ac.uk/publications/pdfs/musicreview.pdf
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45. Music in the Education of Young AdolescentsRobert H. Woodypublished in Middle School Journal, Vol.29, No.5, May 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
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52. Music, Learning & Behaviour: A Case for Mental StretchingMarin F. Gardiner, PH.DJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2000http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
53. Musicality from Birth to FiveDonald A. Hodges, Institute for Music Research, University of Texas at San Antonio
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54. Notes of Nurture - Kids Who Make Music Also Build Brain Power, Research Shows
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John Reinan, Staff writer, The Charlotte Observer, Jan 5, 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
55. One Size Does Not Fit All: The Need for Multiple Approaches to Arts Education in Canada
56. Dr Rena UpitisPresented at the Arts and Education 2000 Pre-Conference Summit, Toronto, November 10 - 12, 2000Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6http://educ.queensu.ca/~arts/[email protected]
57. Performing Musicians as Artist-TeachersEric BoothJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
58. Piano and Computer Training Boost Student Math AchievementDr Gordon Shaw, Neurological Research, March 15, 1999 (presented at American Music Conference; "UC Irvine study Shows Second-Graders in Study Scored Higher than Others on Fractions and Proportional Math")http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
59. Piano Boosts Student Math SkillsNeurological Research, March 1999American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org
60. Private Music Lessons Are Linked To Higher Math Test ScoresJoyce M. Cheek and Lyle R. Smith, Adolescence, Vol. 34, No. 136, Winter 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
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62. Read With A Beat: Developing Literacy Through Music and Song Gayla R. Kolb, published in 'The Reading Teacher' vol. 50 no.1, Sept 1996, pp.76-77http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
63. Research & Assessment on the Arts and Learning: Education Policy Implications of Recent Research on the Arts and Academic and Social DevelopmentJames S. CatterallJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
64. Research Findings on the Benefits of a Music EducationMusic. Play for LifeAustralian Music Associationhttp://www.mca.org.au/mpfl/research1.htm
65. Research that matters (Work that matters: Research & Policy in Music Education)Upitis. R (2001)Presented at Sixth Colloquium for Teachers of General Music Methods, Mountain Lake, Virginia, May 18, 2001Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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66. Research, Music and Policy DebatesJoan Schmidt, Director National School Boards Association, Montana School Boards Association Bulletin, April 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
67. Rhythm students learn fractions easierDr Frances RauscherNeurological Research, March 15, 1999American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org
68. Rhythmic Ability as a Foundation for Learning and EvolutionTiming, Concentration, and Motor Skills (TCAMS) Professional Resource Centrehttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
69. Second Grade Students Combining Computers and Music Score As Well As Fourth Grade Students on Math Examwww.MINDInst.orghttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
70. Singing Familiar Songs uses Spatial IntelligencePerception Special Interest Research Group Newsletter vol.13 No.1http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
71. Strategies for Low-Performing Schools and At-Risk YouthVH1 President John Sykes and VH1 Save the Music Executive Director Bob Morrison, to the National Governors Association , Feb 25, 2001http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
72. Strategies for School Change through Music and the ArtsLyle Davidson, Caryn Claar, & Masami StampfJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
Substance abuse lowest in music studentsHouston Chornicle, Jan 11, 1998American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org
73. Teacher Education and Professional Development Through CollaborationGail BurnafordJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
74. Teaching Musicians the Art of Possibility: Observations on a Master Class by Ben ZanderPatrick KeppelJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
75. Ten-Year Study shows music improves test scoresDr James Catterall, UCLA, 1997American Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org
76. Texas All-State Musicians Score 196 Points Above National Average on The 2000 SAT
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www.tmea.org/025_Advocacy/allstate.htmlhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
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78. The Arts' Impact on LearningRichard J. Deasy and Harriet Mayor FulbrightEducation Week, Vol.20, no.19, Jan 24, 2001, pp34,38http://www.edweek.org/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug+19deasy.h20http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
79. The Brain-Music Connection'Brain: Music of the Hemispheres', Discover, March 1994; 'Music of the Hemispheres', James Shreeve, Discover, October 1996; 'Sweet Taste in Music May Be Human Trait, Harvard Study Finds', Richard A. Knox, Boston Globe, Sept 1996http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
80. The Effects of an Enriched Elementary Arts Education Program on Teacher Development, Artist Practices, and Student AchievementDr. Rena Upitis, Dr. Katharine Smithrim, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, CanadaPresented at American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Seattle, Washington, April 10 - 14, 2001http://educ.queensu.ca/~arts/[email protected]
81. The Impact of the Arts on Learning: Champions of ChangeThe Arts Education Partnership, a publication of The Arts Education Partnership & The President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities in the USA.Music Council of Australiahttp://www.mca.org.au/m15231.htm
82. The Mozart Effect and primary school childrenVesna K. Ivanov & John G. Geake, University of Melbourne; Oxford Brookes UniversityPsychology of Music, Vol 31 Iss 04, 10/2003SAGE Publications (for Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research)www.sagepub.co.uk & www. Sempre.org.uk
83. The Mozart Effect: Does Involvement in the arts really translate into academic success or is the claim spurious?Music. Play for Lifehttp://www.amc.org.au/mpfl/research1.htmhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
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85. The Power of MusicSusan Hallamhttp://www.thepowerofmusic.co.uk
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86. The Teaching Artist and the Artistry of TeachingEric BoothJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
87. The Wrong Keyboard?Popular Science, June 1997http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
88. Verbal Memory Improved by Music TrainingAgnes S. Chan, Yim-Chi Ho, and Mei-Chun Chuang, 'Music Training Improves Verbal Memory', from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Printed in Nature, Vol. 396, Nov 12, 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
89. Want Sharp Students? Music Notes Might Be the KeyCarrie Sturrock, Charlotte Observer, August 30, 1999http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
90. What do we want our schools to do?Eric Oddleifson, Phi Delta Kappan, Feb 1994(Chairman of the Center for Arts in the Basic Curriculum, Washington, DC)http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
91. What Happens When Two Elementary Schools meet a Symphony Orchestra?Larry ScrippJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2000http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
92. What Makes Music Great for Education?Based on presentation by Robert Kapilow & the Borromeo QuartetJournal for Learning Through Music / Summer 2003http://www.nec-musicined.org/journal-index.html
93. Why Arts Education Is BasicThe Changing Workplace Is Changing Our View of Education', Business Week, October 28, 1996http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
94. Why Do Schools Flunk Biology?LynNell Hancock, Newsweekhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
95. Wisconsin District Requires Piano Lessons for K-5 StudentsKaren L. Abercrombie, Education Week, Oct. 14, 1998http://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
96. World's leading academic countries value music educationAmerican Music Conferencehttp://www.amc-music.org
97. Year-Old Babies Remember Music Heard In WombTim Radford, 'Babies have ear for music in womb', Guardian Unlimited/The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,519873,00.htmlhttp://www.amc-music.com/pdf/essential-advocacy-resource.pdf
Author: May BleekerResearch Foundation 4ChildrenMay/June 2004
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