1.ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL Donald R. Wulfinghoff for everyone who uses energy, pays for utilities, controls energy usage, designs and builds, is interested in energy and environmental preservationENERGY INSTITUTE PRESS Wheaton, MarylandU.S.A.

2. Energy Efficiency Manual by Donald R. Wulfinghoff published by:Energy Institute Press 3936 Lantern Drive Wheaton, Maryland 20902 U.S.A. 301-946-1196 888-280-2665 (orders only)Copyright 1999 Donald R. Wulfinghoff All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, or put into or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including but not limited to electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or recording, without prior written permission from the copyright holder, except for brief quotations that are included in legitimate reviews. Custom excerpts and course packs from the Energy Efficiency Manual are available for purchase. Please contact the publisher for selections and prices.Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 99-22242 ISBN 0-9657926-7-6Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wulfinghoff, Donald R. Energy efficiency manual : for everyone who uses energy, pays for utilities, ... / Donald R. Wulfinghoff. p. cm. ISBN 0-9657926-7-6 (alk. paper) 1. Energy conservation Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Energy consumption--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title TJ163.3.W85 1999 697--dc21Printed in the United States of America99-22242 CIP 3. MeasureThe is the unit of information in the Energy Efficiency Manual. Each Measure is a self-contained, hands-on guide to one specific method of saving energy and reducing utility costs. the Measurenumber locates this Measure within the 400 Measures of the Manual.the Section tells you the major subject area, such as boilers, water systems, or lighting. the Subsection tells you the specific type of energy system, such as boiler fuel systems. Or, it tells you a specific area of efficiency, such as reducing solar cooling load.the Ratings suggest the priority that this Measure deserves in your overall energy conservation program, in typical situations. for New Facilities:for Retrofit:for Operation & Maintenance:ADo it wherever it applies. It costs little, and it has no significant disadvantages.AASimple, quick, and foolproof. Or, it must be done to prevent damage or major efficiency loss.BDo it in most cases. Modest cost. Pays back quickly. Does not need special skill or increased staffing.Do it wherever it applies. Simple and quick. Costs little in comparison with its benefits. The risks can be managed easily by the present staff.BBDo it in most facilities where it applies. Pays back quickly. Easy to accomplish. Requires a modest amount of money, effort, and/or training. May have pitfalls that require special attention.CExpensive or difficult. Or, the saving is small in relation to the money, effort, skill, or management attention required. The risks are clear and manageable.Will be done in a well-managed facility. Pays back quickly. Fairly easy to accomplish. Not too risky. Requires a modest amount of money, effort, and/or training. Or, it is a less critical maintenance activity.CRequires substantial money, effort, special skill, and/or management attention. Or, the benefit is small.DThe benefit is small in relation to cost. Or, it is exceptionally difficult to accomplish. Or, it has potential for serious adverse side effects.the sequence number within the Subsection. The Measures are grouped logically. the subsidiary sequence number. Only "subsidiary" Measures have this. NOTE: In the text, "ff" after a Measure number means "the Measure and every Measure that is subsidiary to it."CD the Measure title says what to do.the Summary highlights aspects of the Measure that place it in perspective within your overall efficiency program.the text of the Measure explains who, what, where, when, how, and why. It focuses on issues that are directly related to accomplishing the Measure. (Important background information for the Measures is in the Reference Notes, Section 11.)Economics rates the Measure in terms of three primary financial criteria. You must make detailed estimates for your individual applications.Savings Potential states the amount of savings you can expect, usually expressed as a fraction of the system's operating cost.Cost indicates the amount of money required. Gives you specific equipment and labor costs where possible.Payback Period estimates the length of time needed to pay off the investment.Traps & Tricks alertyou to factors that threaten success. Gives you hints for getting it right the first time and for keeping the Measure effective in the long term.It is very expensive. Or, the payback period is relatively long. Or, operation may require substantial effort, special skill, or continuing management attention. It provides only a small benefit in relation to its cost. Or, it may have high risk because it is novel, unreliable, difficult to install, or difficult to maintain.DExpensive, and provides only little benefit. Or, exceptionally risky because it is difficult to accomplish correctly, or difficult to maintain, or unproven, or unpredictable.the Selection Scorecard rates the financial and human factors that are most important for deciding whether to exploit the Measure in your application. The scores are for typical commercial applications. Shaded symbols indicate a range of scores.Savings Potential is expressed as a percentage of the facility's total utility cost.Rate of Return estimates the percent of the initial cost that is saved each year.over 5% 0.5% to 5% 0.1% to 0.5% less than 0.1%over 100% 30% to 100% 10% to 30% less than 10%Reliability indicates the likelihood that the Measure willEase of Retrofit or Ease of Initiation indicatesremain effective throughout its promised service life.how easy it is for the people involved to accomplish the Measure properly.FOOLPROOF. Equipment or materials will last as long as the facility. Maintenance requirements will not cause the Measure to be abandoned. If a procedure, it is easy to administer. Or, it is a simple, one-time effort. RELIABLE. Equipment has long service life, is not very vulnerable to damage, negligence, or poor operating practice. May fail visibly at long intervals. If a procedure, it is fairly easy to maintain and requires only modest skill. FAILURE PRONE. Equipment needs skilled maintenance, or it is vulnerable to damage or poor operating practice. Fails invisibly. If a procedure, it is easily forgotten or requires continuing supervision. VERY RISKY. Equipment has poor or unknown reliability. Or, it needs frequent maintenance. If a procedure, it is difficult to learn or it may easily cause damage.EASY. Only minimal effort and no extra skill are required. No tricky factors. ROUTINE. Not much effort or skill required. May need to learn a new procedure. DIFFICULT. Needs major staff effort. Or, hard to find reliable contractors. May be tricky. VERY CHALLENGING. Can be unpleasant, likely to be resisted. Or, installation is difficult and expensive. Or, requires major experimentation. 4. How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual The Energy Efficiency Manual is your primary tool for improving energy efficiency and reducing your utility costs. It is a comprehensive, step-by-step guide that is designed to help you manage your activities effectively and with confidence. The core of the Energy Efficiency Manual is 400 energy efficiency Measures. The Measures have a standard format that makes it easy to organize them into an optimum efficiency program for your facility. Refer to the inside of the front cover to learn how to exploit the Measures. The Measures are grouped into Sections and Subsections. These correspond to types of energy systems (for example, boilers, chillers, or lighting) or to energy waste in specific components (for example, air leakage through doors, or solar heat gain through windows). This arrangement lets you quickly identify whole groups of Measures that may or may not apply to your facility. For example, if your boilers are fueled by natural gas, you can bypass the Subsection that deals with fuel oil systems. Use the Table of Contents to find the Sections and Subsections that apply to your situation. The Reference Notes, the last Section of the book, serve you in two important ways. They support the Measures with additional explanation, which may be more basic or more advanced than the working information in the Measures. Also, you can read each Reference Note by itself for a concise overview of an important energy conservation topic. Use the Index to find specific topics that interest you, or to find definitions of terms. u If you are involved in new construction if you are an architect, an engineer, a construction manager, a contractor, or a code official use the Energy Efficiency Manual as a design review guide. As you develop your design, continually check the Manual for efficiency features that you can exploit. Use it to find where the design wastes energy, and to find better ways of saving energy. u If you own, manage, or operate facilities anything from a private house to an office complex or hospital or paper mill use the Energy Efficiency Manual to find all your opportunities for savings. Then, use it to prioritize your activities. Finally, let it guide you in accomplishing and preserving your improvements. u If you are a specialist in energy efficiency, use the Energy Efficiency Manual as a designer or facility manager would, depending on whether you deal with new or existing facilities. It will improve the quality of your work and reduce the time you need to provide the best service to your clients. u If you are a student or teacher, start with the Reference Notes to learn fundamental principles. With each Reference Note, use the related Measures as examples of practical applications. u If you are an advocate for efficiency or the environment, use the Energy Efficiency Manual to learn the real-world aspects of the conservation activities that interest you. The Manual will help you to promote resource conservation that produces credible results. Now, please read A Personal Note: the Right Way to Do Energy Conservation. 5. 7A PERSONAL NOTE: THE RIGHT WAY TO DO ENERGY CONSERVATION Improving energy efficiency may be the most profitable thing that you can do in the short term. How much you will actually benefit from this opportunity depends on how you approach it. Please take a few minutes to read the following suggestions about using the Energy Efficiency Manual and about your role in energy conservation. Invest a little time in learning how to use the Manual, and it will reward you with years of savings and achievement. If you are involved in new construction if you are an architect, an engineer, a construction manager, a contractor, or a code official use the Energy Efficiency Manual as a design review guide. As you develop your design, continually check the Manual for efficiency features that you can exploit. Use it to find where the design wastes energy, and to find new ways of saving energy. If you own, manage, or operate facilities anything from a private house to an office complex or hospital or steel mill use the Energy Efficiency Manual first to find all your opportunities for savings. Then, use it to prioritize your activities. Finally, let it guide you in accomplishing and preserving your improvements. If you are a specialist in energy efficiency if you are an energy consultant, a utility energy specialist, or an energy services provider use the Energy Efficiency Manual in the same way, depending on whether you deal with new or existing facilities. You will find that it greatly improves the quality of your work and reduces the time you need to provide service of top quality to your clients. If you are a student preparing to enter any of these important fields, or if you are a teacher, you will use the Energy Efficiency Manual in a different way. Start with the Reference Notes to learn fundamental principles. With each Reference Note, use the related Measures as examples of practical applications. If your job or your vocation is to advocate efficiency for example, if you are a government energy official or an environmental advocate use the Energy Efficiency Manual to learn the real-world aspects of the conservation activities that interest you. Both governments and advocacy groups have played an invaluable role in promoting efficiency. At the same time, naive enthusiasm sets the stage for failures,which undermine public confidence in energy conservation and actually waste energy. The Energy Efficiency Manual will help you to promote resource conservation that produces credible results. How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual The Energy Efficiency Manual is designed to be your primary tool for improving energy efficiency and reducing your utility costs. It is a comprehensive, step-by-step technical guide, and it also helps you manage your activities efficiently. Learning to use this tool proficiently will take only a few moments. The core of the Energy Efficiency Manual consists of four hundred energy efficiency Measures. Each Measure is a specific energy efficiency improvement or cost saving activity. Each Measure gives you the information you need to plan the activity efficiently and accomplish it successfully. All the Measures have a standard format. This includes special features, Ratings and a Selection Scorecard, that help you to quickly judge the value of each Measure for your applications. Other features, the Summary, Economics, and Traps & Tricks, give you the main features of each Measure. To become familiar with these features, refer to the key to the Measures, inside the front cover, as you browse through the Measures. The Measures are grouped into Sections and Subsections. These correspond to types of energy systems (e.g., boilers, chillers, lighting) or to energy waste in specific components (e.g., air leakage through doors, solar heat gain through windows). This lets you quickly identify whole groups of Measures that may or may not apply to your facility. For example, if your boilers are fueled by natural gas, you can bypass the Subsection that deals with fuel oil systems. Use the Table of Contents to select the Sections and Subsections that apply to your facility. First, find all your opportunities. Resist the temptation to rush into energy conservation projects without considering all your opportunities first. You may be eager to get started after attending a seminar, or reading an article, or getting a sales pitch. Those are good ways to get an introduction to new concepts, but they are no substitute for knowing all your opportunities. D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved. 6. 8If you grab at opportunities randomly, you will miss many good ones and waste money. In a facility of any size, there will be many things that you can do to reduce your utility costs. Every building and plant wastes energy in hundreds or thousands of places. Find them all. There is no way to find the best opportunities first. It is like an Easter egg hunt. You cant tell how big the prizes are until you have searched everywhere and found all the eggs. By the same token, dont expect to find a short list of improvements that are best for your facility. Each building and plant wastes energy in different ways. Your search for efficiency improvements will be time-consuming. (In existing facilities, this search is often called an energy audit.) Typically, it requires weeks or months. In a large, diverse facility, it may require more than a year. Demand the time to do it right. A false concept that came out of the popular energy conservation movement of the 1970s is the walk-through or one-day energy audit. According to this notion, whizzing through a facility reveals energy conservation opportunities by a mystical kind of inspiration. Reject this ouija board approach, even as a starting point. Quickie surveys fool you into believing that you know your options when you really dont.improvements. Energy efficiency is a profit maker. So, you could borrow money to fund any project that you know will pay off. The skills and effort of the people involved are the real limiting factors. Traps & Tricks, located right after Economics, alert you to aspects of the Measure that will challenge the people involved. Give priority to the Measures, or groups of Measures, that will produce the largest savings, even though they may not pay off most quickly. Dont divert your time to minor activities while there are more important things to be done. On the other hand, if you see that you can accomplish a Measure quickly and reliably, go ahead and do it. Dont waste time analyzing small improvements in detail. Try to accomplish groups of related Measures together. For example, make all the control improvements to your air handling systems as a single activity. This avoids duplication of effort, saves money in contracting, and produces a better overall system. The Energy Efficiency Manual is organized to make this easy for you. Most important, dont get in over your head at the beginning with a large project that demands all your attention. If a Measure seems overwhelming, defer it until you have more time to study it. Dont start any Measure until you are ready to complete it successfully.Budget your time as wisely as your money.Dont expect instant gratification.When you complete your list of potential efficiency improvements, your next job is to decide the most effective sequence for accomplishing them. You want to produce the greatest payoff in the shortest time. Be shrewd about managing your programs two most important resources, money and personal capabilities.The desire for quick and effortless results has ruined more energy conservation projects than any other cause. Rushing into a project blindly is unprofessional. You would not want your surgeon to rush through your operation just to prove how quickly he can do it.The Energy Efficiency Manual helps you make the best use of both these resources. The Ratings in each Measure suggest its overall priority, taking into account the economics of the Measure, the difficulty of accomplishing it, and the degree of risk. To refine your ranking, the Selection Scorecard, just below the title, rates these factors individually. At the end of each Measure, the Economics gives you general estimates of the potential savings, the cost, and the rate of return. Recognize that your time is a more precious resource than the money needed to make theYou have heard expressions like no-cost energy conservation measure, pick the low fruit, and so forth, to describe retrofit projects that are supposed to be easy or simple. These notions are illusions that lure you into being too hasty. Every opportunity for saving energy requires significant effort, if it is going to work and to endure. Your willingness to invest the needed effort and time is what guarantees the success of your projects. The Energy Efficiency Manual will show you how to make your improvements as quickly and easily as possible.ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL 7. 9Rely on proven equipment and methods. Energy conservation is not a license to use the owner as a guinea pig. In most cases, rely on conventional equipment and methods. Contrary to popular opinion, energy efficiency does not require exotic technology. Thats good news. The bad news is that fads in energy conservation have strong appeal, distracting people from proven profit makers. The only good reason to do energy conservation is to produce predictable, certain savings. Everyone is fascinated by innovation. Innovation drives progress. But, the price of innovation is a big chance of failure. Most owners cant afford that risk. Leave unproven equipment and methods to those who develop new products and have a laboratory budget. On the other hand, if you are in a position to work at the frontiers of energy efficiency, the Energy Efficiency Manual will help you survive as a pioneer. You will find many Measures at the leading edge of energy efficiency (and a few that are just on the outer fringe). These too can be profitable if you give them the attention they need. Riskier Measures have a Rating of C or D, and their Traps & Tricks warn you of the dangers of unexplored territory. Why is there so much stress on reliability? The Energy Efficiency Manual devotes a lot of attention to the details that make the difference between a reliable system and one that is riddled with problems. This emphasis on avoiding pitfalls and dealing with tricky factors is intended to alert you, not to frighten you. Energy conservation is still a new subject. The blunt truth is that many energy conservation projects have failed, almost always because people ignored vital issues at the outset. These issues are often simple. For example, a common cause of energy waste is failing to mark controls so that people know how to use them. Only successful projects pay off. We want you to contribute to the successes, not to the failures. The Measures spell out the issues that you need to consider. Its like driving around potholes. Keep your eyes open and dont rush. Why all the explanations? A large part of the Energy Efficiency Manual is devoted to explaining how things work. There are several important reasons for this. If you understand the principles, you are much less likely to make mistakes. Knowing the principles also enables youto keep up with changes in technology. And, knowing what you are doing at a basic level turns the work into fun. The theory is located in two places. Each Measure offers the basic information that you need, and if necessary, it suggests where to get more information. Often, a Measure will refer you to one or more Reference Notes. Each Reference Note is a self-contained explanation of a specific topic. Dont let mere words get in your way. Each area of design, construction, and facility operation has a separate vocabulary. Architects have one set of jargon, mechanical engineers have another, electrical contractors still another, and so forth. Dont let this deter you from making efficiency improvements in each of these areas. The principles are important, not knowing particular words. The Energy Efficiency Manual keeps the language as simple as possible. For example, we say lamp or light fixture instead of luminaire. We say window or skylight instead of fenestration. To help you communicate with specialists who may be fussy about language, the Manual explains specialized terms in the places where you need to know them. Fortunately, each area has only a few specialized terms that are important. If you find a word that is unfamiliar, the Index will steer you to a concise, practical explanation. You dont need much math, but be comfortable with numbers. You will probably be happy to see that the Energy Efficiency Manual uses little mathematics. There are only a few simple formulas, and you need only arithmetic to use them. Even so, energy efficiency is all about numbers. In most cases, you are not doing something that is fundamentally new. Instead, you are doing something better. To judge whether the improvement is worth the cost, you have to be able estimate the benefit in terms of numbers. If you are not comfortable doing the math, of if you need a calculation that requires specialized knowledge, get a specialist to make the calculations for you. Recognize that energy savings are uncertain to some extent. They are subject to conditions that you cannot predict, including future energy costs, D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved. 8. 10operating schedules, weather, and human behavior. Make your estimates of savings for a reasonable range of conditions. Keep your facility efficient for its entire life. When energy conservation became a public issue during the 1970s, it was promoted by many wellintentioned people who lacked experience in keeping things working. Energy conservation was treated as a magic pill that would cure the disease of energy waste once and for all. In reality, energy waste is a degenerative condition that keeps trying to return. Maintaining efficiency is like maintaining your physical fitness. You have to keep it up. Design your efficiency improvements to survive as long as the facility. Each Measure that requires maintenance tells you how to keep it profitable. Let all your information sources work for you. Capable professionals depend primarily on a few well-worn references. But, they also know how to get information from other sources quickly. Whether you are a professional or not, the Energy Efficiency Manual is your primary reference for energy efficiency. However, no single book can tell you everything you need to know. To do battle with energy waste, assemble an armory of information that is appropriate for the level of improvements that you plan to make. You will see that the Energy Efficiency Manual is not cluttered with formulas and tables. When you need detailed engineering data, get it from the appropriate reference books. Fortunately, you need only a few of these. If you are involved at a professional level with heating, air conditioning, refrigeration, or designing a buildings skin, you should have the four-volume ASHRAE Handbook on your shelf. For electric lighting, the prime reference source is the IESNA Handbook. Many books are available on specialized aspects of energy conservation, such as solar energy, cogeneration, and residential insulation. Dont hesitate to get another book to expand your knowledge about a subject. There is no better bargain. A good book costs almost nothing in comparison with your utility expenses, and it protects your most valuable assets, which are your time and your professional reputation.Once you decide to use a particular type of equipment, study the catalogs and equipment manuals of different manufacturers. These are a treasure of important details, and they are your most current source of information. But, beware. The big weakness of manufacturers literature is a selective rendition of the truth. Knowing potential problems beforehand is critical to success, but manufacturers tend to omit or minimize this vital information. Talk to others. Two heads are better than one. Seek other peoples opinions before you get involved with unfamiliar equipment or procedures. You can get practical advice from books, trade magazines, professional organizations, consultants, colleagues, and vendors. Talk to facility operators for their opinions about how well something really works. As you do this, take everything with a grain of salt. Peoples perceptions are distorted by wishful thinking, embarrassment about disappointing outcomes, and inability to measure actual performance. I have listened to experienced plant operators brag about big efficiency improvements that they were convinced they had achieved with gadgets that were purely bogus. Dont try to do everything yourself. If you have a big facility, you will not live long enough to make it efficient by yourself. If you try, energy and money will bleed away while valuable efficiency improvements wait to be made. Spread the work effectively. In a big facility, your main job is to decide which Measures to accomplish, and to make sure that they get done correctly. Use engineers, architects, contractors, specialized consultants, along with the facility staff. As your program gains momentum, you will have your hands full making sure that others do their work correctly. Many Measures straddle the boundaries of the established design and construction disciplines. For example, successful daylighting requires close coordination between the architect, the lighting designer, the electrical engineer, and the mechanical engineer. You have to bring all these people together and require them to address all the issues that are critical for success. This is not always easy. Select your people for their willingness to listen and learn.ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL 9. 11Seize the opportunity!Enjoy yourself.The most important point is to get started. At every moment, motors and fans are running, lights are turned on, boilers are burning fuel, and other equipment is consuming energy. Some of this energy is being wasted, and it is probably more expensive than you realize. Remember that cost savings are pure profit. You would have to sell a lot more of your product or service to make as much profit as you can from energy efficiency. Start tapping this resource.At this point, you may feel that you got into more than you bargained for. Dont worry. Energy conservation is a bigger challenge than most people expect, but the Energy Efficiency Manual breaks it down into easy steps. Set a comfortable pace, and stick with it. Your energy savings will soon show up on your utility bills, and those saving will continue to grow and accumulate.On an industry-wide basis, the efficiency of your facilities will increasingly determine whether your organization can continue to survive and compete. On a global scale, improving efficiency is the most satisfactory way for civilization to adapt to declining energy resources and to minimize harm to the environment.Your energy efficiency program can be the most interesting and rewarding part of your career. It will give you an opportunity to become involved in every aspect of your industry. There is probably no other way that you can have as much fun while doing something of fundamental importance. D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.Donald Wulfinghoff Wheaton, Maryland, USA 10. 13Expression of Gratitude This book aspires to bring order and understanding to the vast field of energy efficiency. It organizes what I have learned about the subject during a career that has spanned the most exciting years of energy conservation in the United States and the world. Almost everything that I know was learned from others in one way or another. I would like to begin the book by recognizing those who contributed generously and specifically to the book, and also to recognize several persons and organizations who contributed more generally to my education in energy efficiency. This book is largely their achievement. The following brief acknowledgments cannot adequately recognize the individuals who made important contributions. However, I hope that these mentions will be accepted as a token of my deep gratitude. Clinton W. Phillips, a figure revered in the air conditioning industry for his limitless contributions, erudition, and charm, meticulously reviewed two separate drafts of the material that deals with cooling systems. In addition to checking the text, he made important comments on both the theory of refrigeration and the lore of practical applications. Henry Borger, a leader in construction research as well as a talented writer on diverse subjects, reviewed the entire book, suggesting improvements in structure and content. Charles Wood reviewed the text that deals with boiler systems, providing valuable comments on this technical area and on the editorial approach. Jim Crawford of the Trane Company contributed extensive and detailed information about the fast-changing world of refrigerants. Dave Molin of the Trane Company reviewed the Reference Note on energy analysis computer programs. Richard Ertinger and Edward Huenniger of Carrier Corporation provided valuable information about the most recent advances in cooling technology. Ken Fonstad, of the Graham Division of Danfoss, Inc., wrote lucid explanations of the electrical subtleties of variable-frequency motor drives, accompanied by extensive oscilloscope traces that he made. He also contributed a number of illustrations. Sean Gallagher shared his experience with the practical aspects of lighting retrofits and with utility purchasing in this era of rapid change in the utility industry. Don Warfield of Solarex provided information about the current state of photovoltaic technology, and made several illustrations available. Many others contributed information during the twenty years of the books preparation. It is impossible now to recall all the valuable discussions and presentations. I hope that the individuals will approve of the way that the book reflects their expertise. Many organizations contributed illustrations that help to achieve the books goal of bringing to life many unfamiliar and subtle concepts. These organizations are listed in the back of the book. The individuals who were especially helpful in providing the illustrations include Pat McDermott and Claudia Urmoneit of Osram Sylvania; Eric Johnson, Dave McDevitt, and Pat Barbagallo of Carrier Corporation; Jake Delwiche and Dick Figgie of the Trane Company; Thomas Henry and Pam Blasius of Armstrong International; Andrew Olson and Jim Baker of Rite-Hite Corporation; Tania Davero of Advance Transformer Company; Leight Murray and Diane Iaderosa of the Airolite Company; Doby Byers of American Mill Sales; Peter DeMarco of American Standard; John Figan of Bacharach; William McCloskey of Baltimore Aircoil Company; Steve Hill of Blender Products; Roy Nathan of Calmac Manufacturing Corporation; Bob Agnew of Celotex Corporation; Sharon Quint and Bill Garratt of Cleaver-Brooks; Paul Moulton of Construction Specialties, Inc.; Dewey Boggs of Coyote Electronics; Sherri Snow of Danfoss Automatic Controls; Lynn Hamrick of Donlee Technologies; Trish Steele of Dow Chemical Company; Linda Byam of Duo-Gard Industries; Herman Knapp and Keith Knapp of Fuel Efficiency, Inc.; Chris Van Name of Goodway 11. 14 Tools Corporation; William Bakalich of Hi-Fold Door Corporation; Eric Huffman of Huvco, LLC; Joachim Harasko of IMR Environmental Equipment; Rob Carter of Industrial Combustion; Bruce Keller of Kalwall Corporation; Bob Hanson of Kentube; Judy Kuczynski of Leeson Electric Corporation; Jennifer Vizvary of Lennox Industries; Lee Webster of LightScience Corporation; Don Betts of Ludell Manufacturing Company; Dipti Datta of M&I Heat Transfer Products; Wayne Toenjes and Susie Toenjes of Major Industries; Bob Rank of Paragon Electric Company; Mike Leeming of Parker Boiler Company; Daniel Manna and Juli Stovall of Paul Mueller Company; Steve McNeil of Pennsylvania Separator Company; Larry Wilton of Philips Lighting; Ken Brooks of Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corporation; Leon Siwek of Pure Water/Clean Air Group; Tom Hilty of Reliance Electric; Eileen Moran of Resources Conservation Inc.; Rick Wirth of Robicon; Henry Warner and Deb Jamour of Ruud Lighting; Mike Schweiss of Schweiss Distributing; Jean Posbic and Cindy Axline of Solarex; Jeff Sommer of Spirax Sarco; Brian Edwards of Sun Tunnel Skylights; James Satterwhite and Cindy Selig of Super Sky Products; Mike Williams of Todd Combustion; Gerry Denza of Unenco Electronics; Jim Carney of Vaughn Manufacturing; Michael Boyd of Vistawall Architectural Products; Jochen Schiwietz of Water Technology of Pensacola; Dorothea Rynearson of WaterFurnace International, and Klaus Reichardt of the Waterless Company. The archives of Wulfinghoff Energy Services, Inc. yielded many of the figures, found among thousands of photographs that were originally taken as field notes in energy efficiency projects, and among illustrations made for courses and seminars. Like all who are involved with energy efficiency, I owe a great debt to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, known to the world as ASHRAE. This books many referrals to the ASHRAE Handbook attest to its role as the primary reference for the practice of refrigeration and building design. The Society gave me the opportunity to serve with several committees that defined the course of energy conservation in response to energy crises of the 1970s. Among these responsibilities were helping to organize and to serve as a judge of the ASHRAE Energy Awards, which provided exposure to the energy conservation philosophies of the most innovative engineers of that era. ASHRAE also provided the impetus to write Managing Your Energy, the tutorial on the management aspects of energy conservation that became the basis of the Energy Management chapter of the ASHRAE Handbook. Another committee assignment gave me the opportunity to investigate how the different types of buildings use energy, then and now a topic that is rife with misconceptions. I am particularly indebted to the National Capital Chapter of ASHRAE. During the years that I have been a member, the Chapter presented several hundred technical presentations, from each of which I learned something new and valuable. Two individuals stand out for their accomplishments in the Chapter. Jim Wolf, the president when I first began to serve in its offices, created the model of disciplined organization that keeps the Chapter effective to this day. Jim also facilitated technical reviews and illustrations from the Trane Company and American Standard. Jose Reig was the mainstay of the Energy Management Committee when I served as its early chairman, and later supported me when I became responsible for ASHRAEs energy conservation programs in the midAtlantic States. His intense dedication to everything he undertakes has been rewarded by the success of the engineering firm that he built. The George Washington University provided my first platform for teaching energy efficiency to professionals, starting during the late 1970s. This gave me the occasion to consolidate the lessons that were being learned in those heady days of intense interest in energy conservation. The notes of those courses became the early structure of the Energy Efficiency Manual. The U.S. Navy Engineer Officers School, San Diego, provided my first serious introduction to the machinery of energy systems. The School was a model of effective instruction that should be copied by all engineering schools. 12. 15 My education in energy efficiency would have been inadequate for this task without the practical experience gained while working for the clients of my energy efficiency firm. Improving their facilities taught me the lessons of energy efficiency in the real world, including the diversity of ways that energy is wasted, the importance of details at every step, and the need for relentless maintenance and management attention. I always tried to spare our clients from the fads that were rampant during the infancy of the energy conservation movement. Still, those forward looking managers were the experimental subjects who made progress possible. And, they provided the living that financed the long years of writing. Among our clients who became good friends, Michael Whitcomb deserves special mention as an extraordinary facility energy manager who aggressively and successfully pioneers important areas of energy efficiency. Our discussions about the practical realities of managing energy systems continue to be instructive. The Energy Efficiency Manual benefited immensely from the editorial review of two extraordinary individuals. Nancy Dashiell, the original and veteran writer and technical editor of U.S. Pharmacopeia Drug Information (published by Consumers Union under the title Complete Drug Reference), edited the crucial final manuscript of the book and made valuable suggestions about earlier versions. Felicity Evans, whose experience includes service as a government energy official, insisted on essential changes to the early structure and style of the book. Among other important improvements, her suggestions led to the creation of the Reference Notes. Dan Poynter, renowned parachutist and publishing mentor, made penetrating comments on an early draft that led to a complete rewrite to make the book easy to use by a broad audience. In the production of the book, one individual stands out. Mark Dorbert, the proprietor of Wet Ink Printing & Graphics, shepherded the book from manuscript to press, rendering the interior design, accomplishing the composition and typesetting, and electronically processing the illustrations. An inspired artist, he also designed the end material. He did an enormous amount of work that would normally require a large team of individuals, mastering the range of prepress skills during a period in which the technology of publishing is changing from month to month. Nothing daunts him, he never slackens the pace, and his humor keeps the work enjoyable. Cindy Fowler, of Graves Fowler Associates, rendered the cover design flawlessly and quickly, patiently dealing with many details. Steve Dolan, of Scanners LLC, made the electronic renderings of the authors drawings, putting in many hours of work to meet a short deadline. Donald Wulfinghoff 13. ContentsKeys to the Measures, Ratings, and Selection Scorecard ..........................................................................3How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual ..................................................................................................5A Personal Note: The Right Way to Do Energy Conservation .....................................................................................7Expression of Gratitude .................................................................................................................................................13Section 1: Boiler Plant .............................................................................................................................171.1Equipment Scheduling and Operating Practices .................................................................................................191.1.1Minimize the Duration of Boiler Plant Operation ............................................................................. 1.1.1.1 For Applications with Regular Schedules, Install Clock Controls to Start and Stop Boilers .......................................................................................................................... 1.1.1.2 In Applications That Require a Warm-Up Period, Control Boiler Operation Using an Optimum-Start Controller ...................................................................................................... 1.1.1.3 If the Boiler Plant Is Used Only for Comfort Heating, Limit the Operation of the Boiler Plant Based on the Outside Air Temperature ....................................................................... 1.1.1.4 In Applications Where Automatic Starting and Stopping of Boilers Is Not Desirable, Use Automatic Controls to Signal the Starting and Shutdown Sequence to Operators ..............................................................................................................................201.1.2With Multi-Fuel Boilers, Select the Most Economical Fuel on a Moment-to-Moment Basis ............. 1.1.2.1 Install Automatic Fuel Changeover .......................................................................................28 301.1.3Operate Boiler Auxiliary Equipment Consistent with Boiler Operation and Load ............................ 1.1.3.1 Interlock Auxiliary Equipment with the Boilers It Serves ....................................................... 1.1.3.2 Install Power Switching That Prevents Unnecessary Operation of Spare Pumps ................31 33 341.1.4Distribute the Heating Load Among Boilers in the Manner That Minimizes Total Plant Operating Cost ............................................................................................................................... 1.1.4.1 Install an Automatic Boiler Scheduling Controller .................................................................34 38In Steam Systems, Keep Steam Pressure at the Minimum That Satisfies Equipment and Distribution Requirements ..............................................................................................................40Boiler Plant Efficiency Measurement ...................................................................................................................431.2.1Test Boiler Efficiency on a Continuing Basis ..................................................................................441.2.2Install Efficiency Instrumentation Appropriate for the Boiler Plant ..................................................541.2.3Calibrate Boiler Plant Instruments at Appropriate Intervals ............................................................571.2.4Keep Operators Proficient in Using Instrumentation to Maximize Boiler Plant Efficiency ................58Air-Fuel Ratio ........................................................................................................................................................591.3.1Optimize the Air-Fuel Ratio ............................................................................................................601.3.2Install Automatic Air-Fuel Mixture Controls ....................................................................................651.3.3Adjust and Repair Air-Fuel Ratio Controls ......................................................................................691.1.5 1.21.3This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.22 23 2527v 14. viContents 1.4Clean, Adjust, and Repair Burner Assemblies at Appropriate Intervals ..........................................721.4.2Eliminate Air Leaks in Air Casings, Blower Housings, and Connecting Ducts ................................741.4.3In Boilers That Are Fired at Inefficiently High Output, Reduce the Maximum Firing Rate ...............751.4.4Install Burner Systems That Provide the Best Efficiency and Other Features ................................781.4.5Replace the Motors in Burners and Fans with Models Having the Highest Economical Efficiency .......................................................................................................................................891.4.6Replace Continuous Pilot Flames with Electrical Ignition ...............................................................891.4.7Install Variable-Output Fan Drives on Large Forced-Draft and Induced-Draft Fans ........................90Draft Control ..........................................................................................................................................................931.5.1Adjust Draft for Maximum Efficiency ..............................................................................................941.5.2Correct Defects in Flue Systems and Boiler Room Ventilation That Cause Draft Problems ...........991.5.31.6711.4.11.5Burner and Fan Systems ......................................................................................................................................Minimize Standby Losses .............................................................................................................. 1.5.3.1 Control All Fans in the Combustion Air Path to Stop, and All Dampers to Close, When the Burner Is Not Firing .............................................................................................. 1.5.3.2 Install an Automatic Flue Damper ........................................................................................ 1.5.3.3 Install a Burner Assembly or Boiler That Minimizes Standby Losses ................................... 1.5.3.4 With Cycling Burners, Adjust the Controls to Minimize the Frequency of Firing Cycles .........................................................................................................................102 103 104 106 106Firesides and Watersides ..................................................................................................................................... 109 1.6.1 1.6.2Install Soot Blowers in Boilers That Burn Sooting Fuels ................................................................. 1121.6.3Optimize Soot Blower Operation .................................................................................................... 1151.6.4Clean Watersides at Appropriate Intervals ..................................................................................... 1161.6.5 1.7Clean Firesides at Appropriate Intervals ........................................................................................ 110Avoid Leaving Waterside Deposits When Deactivating Boilers ...................................................... 118Combustion Gas Heat Transfer and Heat Recovery ........................................................................................... 119 1.7.11.7.2 1.8Install a Flue Gas Heat Exchanger to Recover Additional Heat ...................................................... 1.7.1.1 Install a Conventional (Non-Condensing) Economizer ......................................................... 1.7.1.2 Install a Heat Recovery Air Preheater .................................................................................. 1.7.1.3 Install a Condensing Economizer ......................................................................................... 1.7.1.4 Install a Water Spray Heat Recovery Unit ............................................................................120 121 126 129 131In Firetube Boilers, Install Turbulators ............................................................................................ 133Condensate, Feedwater, and Water Treatment .................................................................................................. 137 1.8.1Test and Treat Boiler Water on a Continuing Basis ........................................................................ 142 1.8.1.1 Hire a Qualified Consultant and Contractor to Perform Water Treatment ............................ 150 1.8.1.2 Install Automatic Water Treatment Equipment ..................................................................... 1521.8.2Control Top and Bottom Blowdown to Maintain Required Water Quality and Minimize Waste of Boiler Water ............................................................................................................................... 153 1.8.2.1 Install Automatic Blowdown Control ..................................................................................... 1571.8.3Install Blowdown Heat Recovery .................................................................................................... 1581.8.4Maximize Condensate Return ........................................................................................................ 163 1.8.4.1 Recover the Heat from Condensate That Must Be Discarded ............................................. 166This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 15. Contents 1.8.4.2viiRecover the Energy of Hightemperature Condensate That Would Be Lost by Flashing ................................................................................................................................ 1671.8.5 1.8.6 1.9Keep Vacuum Condensate Systems Operating Properly ............................................................... 169 Replace Pump Motors with Models Having the Highest Economical Efficiency .............................. 171Fuel Oil Systems ................................................................................................................................................... 173 1.9.1Adjust Fuel Oil Temperature to Provide the Optimum Viscosity for Burner Efficiency ..................... 174 1.9.1.1 Install Automatic Fuel Oil Viscosity Control Equipment ........................................................ 1761.9.2Use the Most Economical Heat Source for Fuel Oil Heating .......................................................... 1771.9.3Use Fuel Oil Additives to Improve Combustion Efficiency and/or Improve Other Fuel Oil Properties ...................................................................................................................................... 1781.9.4Replace Pump Motors with Models Having the Highest Economical Efficiency .............................. 1801.10 Steam and Water Leakage ................................................................................................................................... 181 1.10.1 Monitor Boiler System Water Loss ................................................................................................. 182 1.10.2 Locate and Repair Steam and Water Leaks at Appropriate Intervals ............................................. 183 1.10.3 Use the Most Efficient Type of Steam Trap for Each Application .................................................... 187 1.10.4 Test and Repair Steam Traps on a Continuing Basis ..................................................................... 198 1.10.4.1 Install Accessory Devices to Assist in Steam Trap Diagnosis .............................................. 203 1.10.4.2 Hire Specialists to Perform Periodic Steam Trap Inspections .............................................. 207 1.10.5 Recover Heat and Water from Steam Vents .................................................................................. 208 1.11 Conduction and Radiation Losses ....................................................................................................................... 211 1.11.1 Locate and Repair Defective Insulation on All Heating Plant Equipment and Piping ...................... 212 1.11.2 Minimize Cooling or Ventilation of Pipe Tunnels and Other Unoccupied Spaces Surrounding Hot Distribution Equipment ............................................................................................................ 216 1.11.3 Route Combustion Air to the Boiler by a Path That Recovers Heat From the Boiler Room ............ 218 1.12 System Design for Efficient Low-Load Heating .................................................................................................... 225 1.12.1 In Facilities That Operate for Extended Periods with Low Heating Loads, Install a Small, Efficient Lead Boiler ....................................................................................................................... 226 1.12.2 Install Localized Heating Units to Allow Shutting Down the Central Plant During Periods of Low Load ....................................................................................................................................... 230 1.12.3 If It Is Desirable to Reduce the Boiler Operating Pressure, Eliminate High-Pressure Steam Users or Provide Separate High-Pressure Steam Boilers .............................................................. 232 1.12.4 If a Facility Has Several Boiler Plants, Provide Cross Connections That Allow Shutting Down the Least Efficient Boilers .............................................................................................................. 233Section 2: Chiller Plant ............................................................................................................................ 237 2.1Equipment Scheduling and Operating Practices ................................................................................................. 239 2.1.1Distribute the Cooling Load Among Chillers in the Manner That Minimizes Total Plant ..................................................................................................................................... 240 2.1.1.1 Install an Automatic Chiller Scheduling Controller ................................................................ 2432.1.2Use Automatic Controls to Shut Down the Entire Chiller Plant When There Is No Cooling Load .................................................................................................................................. 245 2.1.2.1 Control Chiller Plant Operation by Sensing the End-User Cooling Load .............................. 246This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 16. viiiContents 2.1.2.2 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.4 2.1.2.5Limit the Operation of the Chiller Plant Based on the Temperature or Enthalpy of the Outside Air ............................................................................................................................ In Applications with Regular Schedules, Use Time Controls ................................................ In Applications Where Pre-Cooling Is Required, Use Optimum-Start Controllers ................ In Applications Where Automatic Starting of Chillers Is Undesirable, Use Automatic Controls to Alert Personnel to Start Them Manually ............................................................247 249 249 2502.1.3 2.1.4In Plants with Multiple Water Chillers, Minimize the Operation of Chilled Water Pumps and Isolate Idle Evaporators ................................................................................................................. 2532.1.5Install Power Switching That Prevents Unnecessary Operation of Spare Pumps ........................... 2602.1.6 2.2Turn off and Isolate Heat Rejection Equipment When the Corresponding Chiller Turns off ............ 250Turn off Compressor Sump/Crankcase Heaters During Extended Shutdown Intervals ................... 261Optimum Operating Temperatures ...................................................................................................................... 263 2.2.12.2.22.3Keep the Chilled Water Supply Temperature as High as Possible ................................................. 264 2.2.1.1 Reset Chilled Water Temperature Manually ......................................................................... 265 2.2.1.2 Install an Automatic Chilled Water Temperature Controller ................................................. 266 Optimize the Condensing Temperature .......................................................................................... 267 2.2.2.1 Adjust the Condenser Temperature Manually ...................................................................... 270 2.2.2.2 Install Automatic Condenser Temperature Reset Controls .................................................. 272Condenser and Evaporator Heat Transfer Efficiency .......................................................................................... 275 2.3.1 2.3.2With Water Chillers, Clean Evaporator Tube Watersides at Appropriate Intervals .......................... 2792.3.3With Wet Condenser Cooling Systems, Test and Treat Cooling Water on a Continuing Basis ............................................................................................................................ 280 2.3.3.1 Hire a Qualified Consultant and Contractor to Perform Water Treatment ............................ 282 2.3.3.2 Install and Maintain Automatic Chemical Feeders ............................................................... 2822.3.4With Wet Cooling Systems, Adjust the Bleed Rate to Maintain Proper Water Conditions with Minimum Water Consumption ........................................................................................................ 283 2.3.4.1 Install and Maintain an Automatic Bleed Control .................................................................. 2852.3.5 2.4In Systems with Open-Loop Cooling Towers, Clean Condenser Tube Watersides Regularly ......... 276 2.3.1.1 Install Automatic Condenser Tube Cleaners ........................................................................ 277In Chilled Water Systems, Install Turbulators in the Evaporator Tubes .......................................... 286Heat Rejection Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 289 2.4.1Modulate Fan Output in Heat Rejection Units to Follow the Cooling Load ...................................... 2.4.1.1 Install Variable-Frequency Fan Drives ................................................................................. 2.4.1.2 Install Variable-Pitch Propeller Fans .................................................................................... 2.4.1.3 Install Dual or Multi-Speed Motors .......................................................................................2.4.2In Multiple-Cell Cooling Units, Sequence the Fans Efficiently ........................................................ 3012.4.3Clean Heat Rejection Units at Appropriate Intervals ....................................................................... 302 2.4.3.1 Install and Screen Heat Rejection Units to Minimize Debris Accumulation .......................... 3052.4.4In Gravity-Flow Cooling Towers, Ensure Proper Water Distribution ............................................... 3072.4.5Keep Heat Rejection Unit Housings and Fittings Intact .................................................................. 3082.4.6Avoid Recirculation of Air Through the Same or Adjacent Heat Rejection Units ............................. 3102.4.7Install Fan and Pump Motors Having the Highest Economical Efficiency ....................................... 315This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.291 295 297 299 17. Contents 2.5ixPump Energy Consumption ................................................................................................................................. 317 2.5.12.5.2Install Variable-Flow Chilled Water Distribution .............................................................................. 3192.5.3 2.6Adjust the Discharge of Pumps to Match System Flow and/or Pressure Requirements ................. 318 2.5.1.1 Trim Pump Impellers ............................................................................................................ 318 2.5.1.2 Throttle Pump Discharge Valves .......................................................................................... 319 Install Pump Motors Having the Highest Economical Efficiency ..................................................... 330Compressors ........................................................................................................................................................ 331 2.6.1 2.6.2Replace Inefficient Compressors with Efficient Units ...................................................................... 3332.6.3 2.7If the Compressor Motor Fails, Replace It with a More Efficient Motor ........................................... 332 In Centrifugal Chillers, Install Variable-Speed Compressor Drives ................................................. 335Refrigerant Condition ............................................................................................................................................ 337 2.7.1 2.7.2Maintain the Proper Refrigerant Charge ......................................................................................... 3422.7.3Operate Purge Units Appropriately ................................................................................................ 347 2.7.3.1 Install High-Efficiency Purge Units ....................................................................................... 3502.7.4Install Accessories That Prevent Air Leakage into Idle Chillers ...................................................... 3522.7.5 2.8Repair Chiller System Leaks .......................................................................................................... 338Drain the Water From the Evaporators and Condensers of Idle Chillers ........................................ 354System Design for Efficient Low-Load Cooling .................................................................................................... 355 2.8.1 2.8.2Install Local Cooling Units to Allow Shutting Down the Central Chiller Plant During Periods of Low Load ................................................................................................................................... 3612.8.3 2.9Install Chillers and Auxiliary Equipment of Appropriate Size to Avoid Extended Operation at Low Load ....................................................................................................................................... 357If a Facility Has Several Chiller Plants, Provide Cross Connections That Allow Shutting Down the Least Efficient Chillers .................................................................................................... 364Exploiting Low Ambient Temperature for Water Chilling ..................................................................................... 367 2.9.1Install Chiller Free Cooling. .......................................................................................................... 3712.9.2Cool Chilled Water with a Heat Exchanger in the Cooling Tower Circuit ........................................ 3732.9.3Install a Strainer System to Use Cooling Tower Water Directly in the Chilled Water System ................................................................................................................................ 3752.9.4Install a Waterside Economizer System Using Separate Cooling Coils ........................................ 3792.9.5Install a Closed-Loop Atmospheric Cooling Unit in the Chilled Water Circuit .................................. 3822.10 Heat Recovery from Chillers ................................................................................................................................. 385 2.10.1 Use Condenser Water Directly for Heating Applications ................................................................ 389 2.10.2 Use an Auxiliary Condenser or Double-Bundle Condenser for Heat Recovery ............................... 391 2.10.3 To Recover Large Amounts of Heat at Elevated Condensing Temperature, Install a Heat Recovery Chiller ............................................................................................................................ 394 2.10.4 To Recover Small Quantities of Heat at Maximum Temperature, Install a Desuperheater ............. 397 2.10.5 Improve the Quantity or Economics of Heat Recovery by Adding or Increasing Heat Storage .......................................................................................................................................... 400 2.11 Cooling Thermal Storage ..................................................................................................................................... 405 2.11.1 Install Cooling Thermal Storage ..................................................................................................... 406This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 18. xContentsSection 3: Service Water Systems .......................................................................................................... 437 3.1Reducing Service Water Consumption ................................................................................................................ 439 3.1.1 3.1.2Install Efficient Wash Basin Fixtures .............................................................................................. 4433.1.3Install Efficient Shower Heads ....................................................................................................... 4453.1.4Install Shower Valves That Allow Easy Control of Temperature and Flow Rate ............................. 4483.1.5Provide Instructions for Efficient Use of Water in Showers and Lavatories ..................................... 4503.1.6Install Efficient Toilets .................................................................................................................... 4513.1.7 3.2Repair Water Fixtures Regularly .................................................................................................... 440Install Efficient Urinals or Improve Existing Urinals ........................................................................ 453Water Heating Systems ........................................................................................................................................ 457 3.2.1 3.2.2Install a Separate High-Temperature Water Heater for High-Temperature Applications ................. 4623.2.3Install Water Heaters That Have the Lowest Energy Cost and Highest Efficiency .......................... 4633.2.4Install Supplemental Insulation on Water Heaters .......................................................................... 4683.2.5Install Automatic Flue Dampers on Fuel-Fired Water Heaters ........................................................ 4693.2.6Clean and Adjust the Combustion Systems of Fuel-Fired Water Heaters Periodically .................... 4703.2.7Clean Out Scale from Water Heaters Periodically .......................................................................... 4713.2.8Exploit Interruptible or Storage Rates for Electric Water Heating ................................................... 4733.2.9 3.3Minimize the Hot Water Temperature ............................................................................................. 458 3.2.1.1 Use Low-Temperature Detergents ....................................................................................... 461Control Electric Water Heating to Reduce Demand Charges ......................................................... 477Service Water Pumping ........................................................................................................................................ 479 3.3.1In Facilities That Have Their Own Service Water Pumps, Configure the System to Minimize Pump Energy Consumption ........................................................................................................... 480 3.3.1.1 Use Multiple Pressurization Pumps ...................................................................................... 484 3.3.1.2 Install Gravity Tanks or Pressurized Storage Tanks ............................................................ 4883.3.2Design Hot Water Recirculation to Minimize Pump Energy ............................................................ 4923.3.3Trim Pump Impellers to Eliminate Excess System Pressure .......................................................... 4953.3.4Install Power Switching That Prevents Unnecessary Operation of Spare Pumps ........................... 4953.3.5Install Pump Motors Having the Highest Economical Efficiency ..................................................... 496Section 4: Air Handling Systems ............................................................................................................ 497 4.1Minimizing Duration of Operation ......................................................................................................................... 505 4.1.1Turn off Air Handling Systems When They Are Not Needed .......................................................... 4.1.1.1 Where Spaces Operate on Regular Schedules, Use Timeclocks to Start and Stop Air Handling Equipment ............................................................................................................. 4.1.1.2 Install Optimum-Start Controllers to Adapt Starting Times to Weather Conditions .............. 4.1.1.3 In Spaces with Irregular Usage, Install Rundown Timer Switches to Provide User Control of Air Handling System Operation ............................................................................ 4.1.1.4 In Spaces with Irregular Usage, Install Personnel Sensors to Control Air Handling Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 4.1.1.5 Assign Responsibility for Operating Air Handling Systems to the Personnel Who Administer the Spaces ..........................................................................................................This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.506 507 509 511 513 515 19. Contents 4.1.1.64.2xiIn Applications Where Automatic Starting and Stopping of Air Handling Units Is Undesirable and Operators Are on Duty, Use Automatic Controls to Alert Operators to Turn Systems on and off .................................................................................................. 516Outside Air Intake and Building Pressurization .................................................................................................... 517 4.2.1Adjust Outside Air Intake to the Minimum Needed to Satisfy Comfort, Health, and Code Requirements, and to Maintain Proper Building Pressurization ...................................................... 519 4.2.1.1 During Periods of Reduced Occupancy, Control Outside Air Dampers and Exhaust Fans to Reduce the Quantity of Ventilation Air Appropriately .............................................. 527 4.2.1.2 Control Outside Air Intake by Sensing Air Contaminants ..................................................... 5304.2.2Provide Accurate Control of Outside Air Intake and Building Pressurization by Adding a Return Fan or Relief Fans and Improving the Damper Configuration ............................................. 5324.2.3Where Once-Through Air Handling Systems Are Installed Unnecessarily, Modify Them to Provide Recirculation ..................................................................................................................... 5384.2.4Use Air Cleaning to Reduce the Need for Outside Air Ventilation ................................................... 5394.2.5Provide Outside Air Economizer Cycle Operation of Air Handling Units ......................................... 5474.2.6Install Enthalpy Control of Economizer Cycles ............................................................................... 5514.2.7Install a Purge Cycle for Overnight Cooling .................................................................................... 5534.2.8Install an Exhaust Air Heat Recovery System ................................................................................ 5554.2.9Improve the Envelope Penetrations of Air Handling Systems to Minimize Air Quality Problems, Wind Problems, and Energy Requirements ................................................................... 5634.2.10 Minimize the Use of Extra Heat for Freeze Protection .................................................................... 568 4.2.11 Eliminate Air Handling System Stratification That Increases Energy Consumption or Reduces Comfort ........................................................................................................................... 573 4.3Single-Zone Systems ........................................................................................................................................... 579 4.3.1Install Placards at User Controls to Encourage Efficient Operation ................................................ 5814.3.2If Conditioning Cannot Be Turned off during Unoccupied Hours, Install Temperature Setback .......................................................................................................................................... 5834.3.3Match Fan Output Tothe Conditioning Load ................................................................................... 4.3.3.1 Trim Fan Output ................................................................................................................... 4.3.3.2 Cycle the Running of the Fans and Other Air Handling System Equipment with the Space Thermostat ................................................................................................................ 4.3.3.3 Install Multi-Speed Fan Motors ............................................................................................. 4.3.3.4 Convert the System to VAV Operation .................................................................................4.3.44.4Install Thermostatic Controls That Allow Space Temperature to Drift Within Comfortable Limits ............................................................................................................................................. 4.3.4.1 Install Thermostats That Require Manual Switching Between Heating and Cooling ............ 4.3.4.2 Install Deadband Thermostats .............................................................................................. 4.3.4.3 Adjust or Modify the Coil Controls to Increase Deadband ....................................................585 588 588 591 593 596 597 600 603Single-Duct Reheat Systems ............................................................................................................................... 605 4.4.1Set the Cooling Coil Discharge at the Highest Temperature That Maintains Satisfactory Cooling .......................................................................................................................................... 607 4.4.1.1 Install Automatic Chilled Air Temperature Reset Control ..................................................... 6104.4.2Turn off the Air Handling Unit Cooling Coils When Cooling Is Not Needed .................................... 612This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 20. xiiContents 4.4.3 4.4.4In Terminal Units That Blend Supply Air with Reheated Air, Block the Reheat Passages During the Cooling Season ............................................................................................................ 6144.4.5Trim the Fan Output ....................................................................................................................... 6154.4.6Install Multi-Speed Fan Motors ....................................................................................................... 6164.4.7Convert the System to Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) Operation ........................................................ 6184.4.8Replace All Reheat Coils in a System with Heating/Cooling Coils and Minimize Operation of the Air Handling Unit Cooling Coil .................................................................................................. 6314.4.9 4.5Turn off Reheat Coils When Practical ............................................................................................ 613Install Self-Contained Heating/Cooling Units, and Use the Air Handling System Only for Ventilation ...................................................................................................................................... 634Dual-Duct Reheat Systems .................................................................................................................................. 637 4.5.14.5.2Turn off the Heating Coil and/or the Cooling Coil Whenever Practical ............................................ 6434.5.3Trim the Output of the Air Handling System Fans .......................................................................... 6444.5.4Install Multi-Speed Fan Motors ....................................................................................................... 6444.5.5 4.6Keep the Temperature of the Cold Duct as High as Possible and the Temperature of the Hot Duct as Low as Possible ................................................................................................................ 640 4.5.1.1 Install Temperature Reset Controllers for Both the Cold Duct and the Hot Duct ................. 642Convert the System to Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) Operation ........................................................ 644Multizone Systems ................................................................................................................................................ 651 4.6.14.6.2Turn off the Cooling Coil or the Heating Coil Whenever Practical .................................................. 6544.6.3Trim the Fan Output ....................................................................................................................... 6554.6.4Install Multi-Speed Fan Motors ....................................................................................................... 6554.6.5 4.7Keep the Temperature of the Cold Deck as High as Possible and the Temperature of the Hot Deck as Low as Possible ......................................................................................................... 654 4.6.1.1 Install Temperature Reset Controllers for Both the Cold Deck and the Hot Deck ................ 654Convert the System to Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) Operation ........................................................ 656Variable-Air-Volume Single-Duct Systems .......................................................................................................... 661 4.7.1 4.7.2In Spaces with Shutoff VAV Terminals, Install Deadband Thermostats .......................................... 6644.7.3If the Air Handling Systems Cannot Be Turned off during Unoccupied Hours, Install Temperature Setback .................................................................................................................... 6674.7.4Turn off the Air Handling Unit Cooling Coil When Cooling Is Not Needed ...................................... 6694.7.5Minimize the Minimum-Flow Settings of Terminal Units ................................................................. 6704.7.6Set the Cooling Coil Discharge at the Highest Temperature That Maintains Satisfactory Cooling .......................................................................................................................................... 672 4.7.6.1 Install Automatic Chilled Air Temperature Reset Control ..................................................... 6734.7.7With Minimum-Flow Terminals, Install Heating/Cooling Changeover .............................................. 6744.7.8 4.8In Spaces with Shutoff VAV Terminals, Install Thermostat Placards .............................................. 662Improve the Efficiency of Fan Modulation ...................................................................................... 677Variable-Air-Volume Dual-Duct Systems ............................................................................................................. 681 4.8.1In Spaces with Shutoff VAV Terminals, Install Temperature Setting Placards on Thermostats ................................................................................................................................... 683This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 21. Contentsxiii4.8.2 4.8.3If Air Handling Equipment Cannot Be Turned off during Unoccupied Hours, Install Temperature Setback .................................................................................................................... 6844.8.4Turn off the Heating Coil and/or the Cooling Coil Whenever Practical ............................................ 6844.8.5Adjust Minimum-Flow Terminals to Minimize Overlap of Hot and Cold Air Flow ............................. 6854.8.6Keep the Cold Duct Temperature as High as Possible and the Hot Duct Temperature as Low as Possible ............................................................................................................................. 687 4.8.6.1 Install Duct Temperature Reset Controllers for Both the Cold Duct and the Hot Duct ......... 6884.8.7Improve the Efficiency of Fan Modulation ...................................................................................... 6884.8.8 4.9In Spaces with Shutoff VAV Terminals, Modify Thermostatic Controls to Maximize Deadband ...................................................................................................................................... 683Install an Outside Air Economizer Cycle with Separate Hot and Cold Duct Fans ........................... 689Induction Systems ................................................................................................................................................ 691 4.9.1Maximize the Primary Air Temperature .......................................................................................... 693 4.9.1.1 Install Automatic Temperature Reset Control for the Primary Air ......................................... 6944.9.2Turn off the Air Handling Unit Cooling Coil When Cooling Is Not Needed ...................................... 6954.9.3Install Temperature Setback .......................................................................................................... 6964.9.4Clean, Adjust, and Repair Induction Terminal Units at Appropriate Intervals .................................. 6984.9.5Avoid Discharging Conditioned Air on Exterior Surfaces ................................................................ 699Section 5: Room Conditioning Units & Self-Contained HVAC Equipment .......................................... 701 5.1Minimizing Equipment Operation ......................................................................................................................... 703 5.1.1Install Placards at the Controls of Conditioning Units to Motivate Efficient Operation ..................... 7045.1.2Assign Responsibility for Turning Conditioning Units on and off to Security Personnel or to Those Who Administer the Spaces ................................................................................................ 7085.1.3Install Automatic Controls to Turn off Conditioning Units When They Are Not Needed .................. 5.1.3.1 Where Spaces Operate on Regular Schedules, Use Setback Thermostats or Timeclocks to Control the Operation of Conditioning Units .................................................. 5.1.3.2 In Spaces with Irregular Usage, Install Timed-Turnoff Switches to Provide User Control of Conditioning Units ................................................................................................ 5.1.3.3 In Spaces with Irregular Usage, Install Personnel Sensors to Control Conditioning Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 5.1.3.4 Connect the Power to Conditioning Units Through an Appropriate Light Switch .................5.1.4 5.2709 711 714 714 714Install Proximity Switches to Turn off Conditioning Units When Doors and Windows Are Left Open ....................................................................................................................................... 716Radiators and Convectors .................................................................................................................................... 719 5.2.1Clean and Repair Radiators and Convectors at Appropriate Intervals ............................................ 7205.2.2Install Thermostatic Control Valves on Units with Manual Valves ................................................... 7215.2.3On Units with Manual Control Valves, Provide Easy and Safe Access to the Valves ..................... 7245.2.4Ensure That Convection and Radiation Are Not Obstructed by Enclosures or Other Objects ................................................................................................................................. 7255.2.5Avoid Trapping Heat Output Against Exterior Walls ....................................................................... 7275.2.6Thermally Isolate Radiators and Convectors from Poorly Insulated Walls ...................................... 729This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 22. xivContents 5.2.7With Steam Heating, Install a Vacuum Condensate System to Improve Temperature Control ........................................................................................................................................... 7315.2.8Convert Steam Heating to Hydronic Heating .................................................................................. 7335.2.9Replace Electric Resistance Convectors with Heating Units Having Lower Energy Cost ............... 7365.2.10 Provide Separate Thermostatic Control for Each Area with Distinct Heating Requirements ........... 738 5.3Fan-Coil Units ....................................................................................................................................................... 741 5.3.1 5.3.2Select High-Efficiency Motors in New Fan-Coil Units and When Replacing Failed Motors ............. 7445.3.3Keep Conditioned Air from Discharging on Windows and Exterior Walls ........................................ 7455.3.4Install Thermostatic Controls That Allow Space Temperature to Drift Within Comfortable Limits ............................................................................................................................................. 7475.3.5Convert 3-Pipe Systems to 2-Pipe Operation ................................................................................. 7485.3.6Convert 3-Pipe Systems to 4-Pipe Systems ................................................................................... 7515.3.7 5.4Clean, Adjust, Lubricate, and Repair Fan-Coil Units at Appropriate Intervals ................................. 742Replace Electric Resistance Heating Units with Equipment Having the Lowest Practical Energy Cost ................................................................................................................................... 752Self-Contained Air Conditioners and Through-Wall Heat Pumps ........................................................................ 753 5.4.1 5.4.2Install High-Efficiency Replacement Fan Motors ............................................................................ 7565.4.3Seal Through-Wall Conditioning Units to Prevent Outside Air Infiltration ........................................ 7575.4.4In Units That Provide Outside Air Ventilation by Exhausting Conditioned Air, Abolish This Feature .......................................................................................................................................... 7585.4.5Install Air Conditioning Units and Heat Pumps Having the Hi