DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 231 775 SP 022 473

AUTHOR Klausmeier, Herbert J.; And .0thersTITLE Improvement of Secondary Education-through ResearCh:

Five Longitudinkl Case Studies.INSTITUTION Wisconsin Center for Education Research, Madison.SPONS AGENCY - National Inst..of Education (ED), Washington, DC.REPORT NO PR-83-12PUB DATE May 83,CONTRACT NIE-G-81-0009NOTE 316p.PUB TYPE 'Reports Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

MF01/PC13 Plus Postage.'*Academic Achievement; Case Itudies; ChangeStrategies; Educational' Change; EducationalObjectives; Educational Research; EducationalStrategies; *Improvement Programs; InatitutionalCharacteristics; Longitudinal Studies; MiddleSchools; *Outcomes of Education; *ProgramDevelopment; Program Implementation; *ResearchUtilization; Secondary Education; *Student.Improvement

ABSTRACT sTwo middle schools, one junior high school, and two

senior high schools participated in a study conducted from 1977-81.The study prqject included both development and research activities.The goal of development activities was for each school to start orrefine administration-organization arrangements and improvementstrategies. Research activities had four main objectives, all relatedto the development of the school's improvement capability: (1)maintain a satisfactory level of student achievement in selectedareas from year to year or raise an unsatisfactory level; (2)determine the extent to which each school could implement a researchmethod and three comprehensivs improvement stategieS; (3) relate .changes occurring in student outcomes from year to year to threeareas--planned improvements made annually by each school staff,planned changes not directed specifically toward selected studentoutcomes, and unanti,cipated events; and (4) generate knowledgeregarding usable and effective improvement strategies and schoolstructures and processes that facilitate implementation ofimprovement strategies. In this report of the'five schoolsparticipating in the research prOject, in-depth profiles arepresented of each school, with discussion and analysis ofimplementation of improvement programs and outcomes. (JD)

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IMPROVEMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION THROUGH RESEARCH:

-FIVE I:ONGITUDINAL CASE STUDIES

1

Herbert J. Klausmeier

Ronald C. Serlin

Mónica C. Zindler

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

R. 1?o ss m ;//et-

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ETC)."

Wisconsin Center for Education Research

May 1983

Program Report 83-12

1

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

gDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (ERIC)L, TI dOcument has been reproduced as

r pEeIved from the person or organuatemogrnatong

Motor changes have been made to .mmovereprodutbon quality

PointS of view or oprolOns stated in this document do not necessarily represent official NIEPOSIOOrt Or poky

*

4.

Wisconsin Center fol. Education Research

MISSION STATEMENT

The mission of the Wiiconsin Center for Education Research11% is to understand, and.to help educators deal with, diversity

among students. The Center pursues its mission by conductingand synthesizing research, developing strategies and materials,and disseminating knowledge bearing upon the education ofindividuals and diverse groups of students in elementary andsecondary schools. Specifically, the Center investigates

diversity as a basic fact of human nature, throughstudies of learning and development

*diversity as a central challenge for edudationaltechniques, through studies of clasbrOom processes

diyersit.y as a key issue in rel ationabetweenindividuals and institutions, through studies ofschool processes

diversity as a fundamental questiOn in Americansocial thought, through studies Of social policyrelated to education

The Wisconsin Center for EducationlResearch is a noninstruc-tional department of the.University of,Wisconsin-MadisonSchool of Education. The -Center- -.Vs- support-ed.-1n imarilywitii----funds fkom the National Institute:pf Education.

+my,

The research reported in.this paper win funded by the Wisconsin Center for Education

Research which is supportedwin part by a grant from the National Institute of Education

(Grant No. NIE-G-81-0009). The opinions expressed in this paper do not necessarily

reflect the position, policy, or endorsement Of the National Institute of Education.

-Acknowledgements

The authors expr s their personal thanks to the persons whocontributed in many different ways to this monograph. First, schooldistrict personnel and educators in Steuben Middle School, Milwaukee,WI.; Webster Transitional School, Cedarburg, WI.; Carl Sandburg JuniorHigh School, Mundelein, IL.; Cedarburg High School, Cedarburg, WI.;arid Hood River Valley High School, Hood River Valley, OR., contributeda great deal of time to gathering and providing information to the proj-ect. Especially appreciated is the continuing assistance provided byprincipal Donald Luebke and learning coordinator Russell Ziemer ofSteuben Middle School, principal Thomas Pautsch of Webster TransitionalSchool, principal Al Steely of Carl Sandburg Junior High School, princi-pals Jerry Thomas and James Leonhart and PACE cooDOInator Janice Waughof Cedarburg High School, and principal Charles Bowe of Hood RiverValley High School. These individuals coordinated the informationgathering in their schoolaand they helped in formulating and refiningall of the components of the design for the renewal and improvement ofsecondary education.

The 4200 students enrolled in the five schools spent many hourseach year taking tests and inventories. Without this participationthe study could not have been conducted. We hope that their participa-tion contributed to better education for them. It is now contributinggreatly to the betterment of the education of many other students.

John Daresh, now Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership atthe University of Cincinnati, served as a project associate for twoand one-half years and assisted the schools in their data analysis andprovided many other services to the project. Ronald Serlin, AssociateProfessor of Educational Psychology, determined the particular analy-ses of the data that were .performed, supervised the computer analysis,and reviewed and edited this manuscript. Graduate student MonicaZindler assumed responsibility for the computer data processing, frominputting the information siarting in August, 1980, through receivingthe output and completing most of the table preparation in August)198;v Graduate students Louise 1:11ddendorf and Daniel Probst sgrvedcongecutively as project assistants from Janu r 1 78 to January,

-082.- Thomas Sipple, project specialist, worked on an hourly basis toaid in the fipal tabling of the data and the proofreading of the var-.ious drafts of the chapters: Janet Lindow, Julie Bixby, and DonnaMIsna consecutively provided parttime secretarial Assistance fromOctober, 1977, to August, 1982. The Wiscdnsin Center administrationand support personnel were helpful in many ways, including the finalword processing and production of this monograph. The contributionsof all of the Center persons are deeply appreciated.

Gratitude is expressed to James M. Upham, Professor of Educa-tional Administration, who worked.with me in planning the project and

who coordinated a vast amount of research on leadership,'shared deci-sion making, and/planned change.

Recognition is given to the-University of Wisconsin that permit-ted we through a chaired professorship to devote over half of my timeduring six Academic years to this project. This project and monographCould not have been completed without this arrangement.

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My seCretary, Arlene Knudsen, typed dtrafts of each chapter ofthis monograph. She also very.cheerflilly. and effectively providedmany set-I/ices and gave helpful information to all the project person-

. nel -as well as to the schools throughout the course of the project. -

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Herbert J. KlausmeierApril. 1983

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Contents

List of Tables...ix.

List of Figurgs...xv

FOREWORD...xvii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...1

Propositls for the Reform of Secondary pducation...2Learning and Indiv dual Differences...7A Conceptual baci for pia Improvement of Secondary Education...12

CHAPTER 2 PURPOSES AO PROCEDURgS...21

Participating'Schools...21.Time Schedule...22 k

,---Prposes of the Research...23ReSearch Method...25Improvement Strategies...30Roles of the Project Staff...40

CHAPTER 3 ).STEUBEN MIDDLE SCHOOL...43

Staffing and Student Enrollment...43Data Gathered and Analysis of Data by the:Steuben Staff...45Improvement Strategies Implemented by the Steuben Staff...47Descrlption of Steuben Middle School as of 1977-78...49Unplanned Events, Non-Specific Plannga Changes, and Focused

Planned Changes 1977-78 through 1980-81...56Results_Related to Educational AchNvement...60Relgtforiship*Changes inEducational'Achievement to Impleitien-

' -.tation of filrovement Strategies and Unanticipated Events...73Resulte-Related20 Student Attitudes and Self-Concepts...77Re1ationship_peAlfective Results to Changes and Unanticipated'

Events...79-Concausions.-7-9__

CHAPTER 4 WEBSTER TRANSITIONAL SCHOOL...81

Staffing and Student Enrollment...81Data Gathered and Analysis of Data by the Webster Staff...82Improvement Strategies Implemented by the Webster Staff...84Description of Webster Transitional School as of 1977-78...86Unplanned Events, Non-Specific Planned Changes, and Focused

Planned Changes 1977-78 through 1980-81...94'Results Related to Educational Achievement...98

Relationship of Achievement Results to the Focused PlannedChanges, Non-Specific Planned Chtnges, and UnanticipatedEvents:..l06

Results Related to Student Attitudes...112Conclusions...114

CHAPTER 5 CARL SANDBURG JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL...117

Staffing and Student Enro11ment.,.117 #

Data Gathered and Analysis of Data by the Sandburg Staff...118 -Improvement Strategies Implemented by the Sandburg Staff...119Description of,earl Sandburg Junior High School as of 1977-78...122Non-specific Planned Changes, Unplanned Events, and Focused

Planned thanges:..129Results Related to Educational Achievement...133Relationship of Changes in Educational Achievement to Implemen-

tation of,Improvement Strategies.and Unanticipated Events...140Results Related to Student Attitudes...144Conclusions...146

CHAPTER 6 ,CEDARBURG HIGH-SCHOOL...149

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Staffing and Student Enrollment...151Data Gathered and Analysis oi Data by the Cedarburg Staff...153Improvement Strategies Implemented by the PACE Staff.:.154Description of Cedarburg High School as of 1977-1978...156Staff Changes, Activities to Extend PACE, and Focused Planned

Changes...166Results Related to Educationa1 Athievement...170Relationship of Changes in Educational Achievement to Implemen-

tation of Improvement Strategies and Unanticipatssl Events...179Results Related to Student Attitudes...183Conc1us±ons...186

CHATR 7 HOOD thVER VALLEY HIGH SCHOOL...189

Staffing and Student Enrollment, 1977-78 throUgh 1980-81...189Data gathered and Analysis of Data by the Hood River Valley. .

Staff...191Improvement Strategies Implemented by the Hood raver Valley

Staff...192Description of Hood nver Valley High School as of 1977-7T.:.193Unplanned Events,'Non-specific Changes, and Focused Planned

Changes...204Results Related to Educational Achievement...208Relationship of Changes in Educational Achievemedt---6 Implemen-

tation of Improvement Strategies and UnanticipatedEvents...215

Results Related to SeUdent Attitudes...218Conclusions...219

vi

CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND DI$CUSSION.)...221

Participating.Schools and Data Gathered by Each School...222Research Method...224Improvement Strategies...225Sex Differences in Achievement...226

Differences in Achievement Among Quarters in Mental Ability...236Effects of Implementing the Improvement Strategies on the Total

Grade Groups and Longitudinal Cohorts...238Facilitative School Structures and Processes...251Comparison with School Effectiveness Research...255Improvement-Oriented Educational Research...260Discussion...262A Postscript...264

References...267

APPENDIX A...273.

Desirability of the Comprehensive and Enabling Objectives:Wisconsin Program for the Renewal and Improvement of SecondaryEducation

APPENDIX B...283

List of Tables in Supplementary Tabular Information to Accompanythe Research Monograph: Improvement of Secondary EducationThroughResearch: Five Longitudinal Case Studies by Klauspeier,H. J., Serlin, R. C., & Zindler, M. C., 1982.

...".

vii

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Variables Associated with Rapid and Slow Cognitive Develop-ment...10

Table 3.1 Grade 7 Local Percentile Ranks and Their CorrespondingNational Standard Scores, National Grade Equillplents, andNational Percentile Ranks Based on Metropolit4 Achieve-ment Test, Advanced, Administered 5/78, and-Mental Ability .and Related National Percentile Ranks Baped on Otis-LennonMental Ability Test Administered to Students when inGrade 5: Steuben Middle School...48

Table 3.2 Total Number of Students of Four guccessive Grade 7 andFour Successive Grade 8 Groups and Their Mean Mental Abil-ity (Raw Score): Steuben Middle School...61

Table-3.3 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Four SuccessiveGrade 7 Groups with Mental Ability Scores: SteubenMiddle School...63

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table 3.4 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p< ,05) in Educational .Achievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Four SuccessiveGrade 8 Groups with Mental Ability Scores: SteubenMiddle School...64

Table 3.5a Significant`Diderences (ANOVA p.< .05)Achievement" Gain from Grade 7 tO-brade

cbomparisong for Longitudinal Cohort 1:School...67

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Table,3.5b Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05)Achievement, Gain from Grade 7 vibriadeComparisons for Longitudinal Cohort 2:School...68

Table 3.5c Significant Differences (ANOVA p

Table 3.7

Table 3.8

Table 3.9

Mean Achievement of Three SuccessiveGrade 7 and Grade 8Groups on a Locally Constructed, Objective-ReferencedMathematics Test: Steuben Middle School...72

Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Achievement of FourSuccessive Grade 7 and Grade 8 Groups and PercentileRanks Corresponding to Adjusted Achievement Means:Steuben Middle School...74

Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Gain and Mean Achieve-ment of Three Successive Longitudinal Cohorts: SteubenMiddle School.....76

Table 3.10 Mean Percent of Favorable Responses to School SentimentIndex for_Three Successive Grade 7 and Gradt(8 Groups:Steuben Middle School...77

Table 3.11 Mean Percent of Favorable Responses to Self-Appraisal In-ventory for Three Successive Grade 7 and Grade 8 Groups:Steuben Middle School...78

Table 4.1 Quarters of Three 1978-79 Grade 8 Pods (Groups of Stu-dents) in Mental Ability and the Mean Percent Correct on6 Subtests and Total of a Locally Constructed MathematicsTest. Percent Correct Based on Administration of theTests when the Students Were in Grade 8 in Fall andSpring of 1978-79, in Grade 7 in Fall of 1977, and inGrade 6 in Fall of 1976: Webster TransitionalSchool...85

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Table 4.2 Total'Numbeeof Students of Grades 6, 7, and 8 and TheirMean Mental Ability: Webster Transitional School

Table 4.3 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Three SuccessiveGrade '6, Three-Successive-Grade 7,--and---Tcro---S-trecessive-Grade 8 Classes: Webster Transitional School...101

Table 4.4 Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05) in Educational ,4Achievement, Gain from Grade 6 to Grade 7 to Grade 8, and

,ePost-hoc Comparisons of Gain by Quarter Interactions forLongitudinal Cohort 1: Webster Transitional School...103

Table 4.5 Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05) in Educational

/N Achievement, Gain from Grade 6 to Grade 7 to Grade 8, andPost-hoc Comparisons of Gain by Quarter Interactions forLongitudinal Cohort 2: Webster Transitional School...104

-Table 4.6 . Significant Differences (ANCOVA p

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Summary of Findings Regaraing Mean Achievement of ThreeSuccessive Grade 6 Classes and Percentile Ranks Correlsponding to Adjusted Achievement Means: Webster Transiltional,School...108

Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Achievement of ThreeSuccessive Grade 7 Classes and Percentile Ranks Corre-sponding to Adjusted Achievement Means: Webriter Transi-tional School...10

Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Achievement of TwoSuccessive Grade 8 Classes and Percentile Ranks Corre-sponding to Adjusted Achievement Means: Webster Transi-tional School...110

Table 4.10 Summary of Findings RegardingMean Gain and Mean Achieve-(

ment of Two Successive Long udinal Cohorts: WebsterTransitional School...111

Table 4.11 Mean Percent of Favorable Responses to School SentimentIndpx for Three Successive Grade 6, Giade 7, and Grade 8Clases: Webster Transitional School...113

Table 5.1 Quarters of Grade 8 Class in Mental Ability and TheirCorresponOing Mean Standard'Scores and Mead Percentile .Ranks, Rpsed on Metropolitan Achievement Test, Advanced;and Mean Mental Ability and COrrespondIng Mean PercentileRanks of Each Quarter Based on Otis-Lennon Mental AbilityTest, Administered 5/78: Carl Sandburg Junior HighSchool...121

Table 5.2 Total Numbers of Students of Grades 7 and 8 and TheirMean Mental Ability': Carl Sandburg Junior HighSchool...133

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Table 5.3 "Significant_Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in Educational'Achievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Three SuccessiveGrade 7 Classes: ,Carl Sandburg'Junior High School...135

Table 5.4 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in Educational ,Achievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Three SuccessiveGrade 8 Classes: Carl Sandburg Junior High School...136

Table 5.5 Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05) id EdUCationalAchievement, Gain from Grade 7 to Grade 8r and ostrhocComparisons of'Gain by Quarter Interactions fo Longi-tudinal Cohort 1 and Longitudinal Cohort 2: Carl SandburgJunior High School..,138

Table 5.6 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement, Gain from Grade 7 to Grade 8, and Post-hocComparigons for Two Longitudinal Cohorts: Carl SandburgJunior High School...139

Table 5.7 Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Achievement of ThreeSuccessive Grade 7 land Grade 8 Classes and PercentileRanks Corresponding to Adjusted Means: Carl SandburgJuniot High School...141

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Table 5.8 Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Gain and MeanAchievewment of Two Successive Longitudinal Cohorts:, CarlSandburg Junior High School...143

Table 5.9 Mean Ratings of 'Attitudes of Grade 7 and Grade 8 Students:Carl Sandburg Junior High School...145 1V

Table 6.1 Quarters of 1977-78 Grade 9 PACE Group in Mental Ability(STEA) EmTheir Mean Achievement and Equivalent National,Percentile Ranks, Based on Iota Teit of EducationalDevelopment Administered 9/77: Cedarburg High

School...155 1Table 6.2

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Total Number of Traditional Students and Total Number ofPACE Studenti and Their Mean Mental Ability Score forFour Successive Grade 9 Classes, Three Successive Grade10 Classes; Two Successive Grade 11 Classes, and OneGrade 12 Class: Cedarburg High School...171

Table 6.3 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in Educational

At -Achievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Four SucceRsiveGrade 9 PACE Groups: Cedarburg High School...173

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Table 6.4 Significant Diff4rences (ANCOVA p < .05) in Educational"Achievement and Post-,hoc Comparisons for Three Success ve

Grade 10 PACE Groups: Cedarburg High School...174

Table 6.5 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in EducationsAchievement.and Posit-hoc Comparisons for Two Successiv

Grade 11 PACE groups: Cedarburg High School...17.5

Table 6.6 Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement for Grade 9 thronge GrSde,12 for PACE Longtudinal Cohort 1 and Post-hoc Comparisons: Cedarburg

High School...176

Tablt 6.7 Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement for.Grade 9 enrough Grade11 for PACE Longi-tudinal Cohort 2 and Post-hoc Comparisons:- Cedarburg

'High School...177

Table 6.8

Table 6.9

Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement and in Gain between PACE Cohort 1 and'Cohort 2:Cedatburg High School...178

Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Achievement of FoueSuccessive Grad 9, Three Successive Grade 10, and TwoSuccessive Grade 11 PACE Grdups and Percenflle Ranks

Corresponding to Adjusted Achievement Means: CedarburgHigh School...180 .

Table 6.10 . Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Gain and Mean Achieve-'ment fot Two Successive PACE Longitudinal Cohorts:Cedarburg High School...182

Table 6.11 Adjusted Means and Differences between the Means of TWoSuccessive PACE Longitudinal Cohorts and Two SuccessiveTraditional Longitudinal Cohorts: Cedarburg HighSchool...184

Table 6.12 Mean Score of Favorable Responses to IOX School SentimentIndex for PACE Cohorts: Cedarburg High School...185

Table 7.1 Quarters of 19748 Grade 10 Class in Mental Ability(GATE) and Their Mean Achievement and Equivalent NationalPercentile Ranks, Based on Stanford Test of AcademicSkills Administered 5/78: Hood River Valley HighSchool...193

Table 7.2 Total Number of Students of- Four Successive Grade 10Groups, Four Successive Grade 11 Gimps, and Four Suc-cessive Grade 12 Groups and Their Mean Mental Ability:Hood River Valley High School...209

Table 7.3 Significant DifferenceS (ANCOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement and Post-hoc Comparisons for Four SuccessiveGrade 10, Grade 11, and'Grade 12 Groups with MentalAbility Scores: Hood River Valley High School...210

Table 7.4 Significant Differences (ANOVA p < .05) in EducationalAchievement, Gain from Grade 10 to Grade 11 to Grade 42,and Post-hoc Comparisons for Longitudinal Cohort 1: Hoodliver Valley High School...212

Table'7.5 Significant Differences (ANOVA g < .05) in EducationalAchievement, Gain from Grade 10 to Grade 11 to Grade 12;yand Post-hoc Comparisons for Longitudinal Cohort 2: HoodRiver Valley High Schtita...213"

Table 7.6 Significant Differences (ANCOVA p < ,05-) in EducationalAchievement, Gain from Grade 10 tO-brade 11 to Grade 12,and Post-hoc Comparisons for Two Longitudinal COhorts:Hood River Valley High Schoal...214

Table 7.7 Summary of Findings Regarding Mean Achievement of FourSuccessive Grade 10, Grade 11, and Grade 12 Groups andPercentile Ranks Correspohding to Adjusted Means: HoodRiver Valley High School...216

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Table 7.8 Sumplary of findings Regarding Mean Gain and Mean Achieve-ment of Two Su,ccessive Longitudinal Cohorts: Hood RiverValley High Sdhool...217

Table 7.9 Attitudes of Students of Grades 10, 11, and 121 towardVarious Aspects 4f Schooling: Hood River Valley HighSchool...219

Table 8.1 Summary of Signi icant Differences in Educational Achieve--ment between Males and Females of Grades 7 and 8 of SteubenMiddle Schdbl and Carl Sandburg Junior High School...227

Table 8.2 Summary of Significant Differences in Educational Achieve-ment between Males and Females of Different Grades ofCedarburg High School and Hood River Valley High School...229

Table 8.3 Summary of Significant Gain by Sex Interactions (ANCOVA) ,of Three Longitudinal Cohorts of Steuben Middle Schooland Two Longitudinal Cohorts of Carl Sandburg Junior HighSchool...231

Table 8.4 Summary of Significant Gain by Sex Interactions (ANCOVA)of Two Longitudinal Cohorts of Cedarburg High School andTwo Longitudinal Cohorts of Hood River Valley HighSchool...233

Table 8.5 Summary of S nificant Gain by Quarter Interactions(ANOVA) for Ea h ongitudinal Cohort of Five Schools...237

Table 8.6 Adjusted Means and National Percentile Ranks for Succes-sive Grade 7 and Grade 8 Classes: Steub'en Middle School...240

Table 8.7 Adjusted Means and National Percentile Ranks for Succes-sive Grade 7 and Grade 8 Classes: Carl Sandburg JUniorHigh Schdol...242

Table 8.8 Adjusted Means and Percentile Ranks for Grade 10, Grade11, and Grade 12 Classes: Hood River Valley High School...245

Table 8.9 Adjusted Means of the First and Last Grade 6, Grade 7,and Grade 8 Classes: Webster Transitional School...248

Table 8.10 Adjusted Means and Differences between Means for PACE andTraditional Longitudinal Cohorts 1 and 2: Cedarburg HighSchool...251

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List of Figures.

Figure 8.1 Means of boys and girls on'test of standard written'English. (From: Educational Testing Service, 1980,p. 5.)...234

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4 Foreword

Research was conducted cooperatively with two middle schools, onejunior high school, and two high schools during the years 1977-78through 1980-81. The schools are located in three states in a smalltown, rural area, two suburban areas, and a large city. The studentenrollment of the five schools combined was approximately 4200 eachyear.

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The main purpose of the research was to determine the.extent towhich each school could implement three improvement strategies andmake operational various organizational structures and processes thatfacilitate implementation of the strategies. The three iiprovementstrategies are designated as individual educational programming, indi-vidual instructional programming, and goal setting. These strategiesand the facilitative structures and processes are incorpoytted in adesign for the renewal and improvement of secondary education. Aschool that makes progress annually toward attaining desired studentoutcomes by implementing the improvement strategies is regarded ashaving developed iis owi improvement capability.

Each school focused itsjmprovement efforts on raising an un-desired level of achievement in English, mathematics, and reading, ormaintaining a desired level. Each school for.at least one year workedtoward improving the attitudes or the attendance of its students;Three schools gathered data oh other student outcomes but did notdirect any effort toward improving them. Each school determined thenorm-referenced and locally constructed achievement tests and theinventaries and questionnaires to administer to all of its studehtseach year. Each school summarized and analyzed its data descriptivelyand used the information in planning its improvement activities. Theschools provided the data on.each student to the project so that thedata could be analyzed for all four years. Each school provided threeother kinds of information to the project: planned changes focused onimproving student achievement in English, mathematics, and readingand, if relevant, attitudes or attendance; nonspecific planned changesrelated to other student ouftomes; and unanticipated events thatoccurred that might have influenced student athievement, attendance,or attitudes.

The project analyzed the achievement data on a cross=sectional.1)gal-9-by-analysis of covariance with mental ability the covariate.This permitted comparing the achievements of groups of students en-rolled each year in each grade of the school, for example, comparing\the Ehglish achievement of the luade 10 students of 1977-78, 1978-7941979-80, and 1980-81. The changes in studint achievement.from year toyear were related to the unanticipated events, the nonspecific changes,and the improvement activities carried out in implementing the improve-ment strategies. The achievement data were also analyzed for the stu-dents of each longitudinal cohort, that is, the students who entered

the first grade of.the school, took all the tests, and completed thelast grade of the school.

Each school implemented the educational programming strategy, theinstructional programming strhtegy, or both during the first two yearsof the project but implemented the goal-setting strategy for the firsttime in the third,gear, 1979-80. Student achievement typically wasnot significantly different in the second year from the first year.However, the concurrent implementation of the goal-setting strategyand one or both of the other strategies in the third and fourth yearsresulted in raising student achievement significantly in 67 campari-sons of the last two years with an earlier year, maintaining the samelevel of achievement in 69 comparisons, and not maintaining it inthree (all in reading vocabulary in one school). Moreover, in anumber of the nonsignificant comparisons, the students were alreadyachieving quite high in the third year. Accordingly, implementingindividual educational programming, individual instructional program-,ming, or both was instrumental in mgintaining the same level of achieve-

- ment from year to year while goal-setting was necessary for consistentlyraising it.s The findings based on the longitudinal data support thesecross-sectfOnSI-results.,'"_

-Student attendanceand attitudes became slightly more pos4ivefrom year to year when a'schbol set goals to improve them, and theyremained relhtively stable when this was not done. When a schoolcarried out activities only to maintain oy to raise student achieve-ment, littlechange occurred in student dititudes and attendance.

Based upon the cOns9tently positive results, we conclude thatthe soceptual design that intorporates,the improvement strategies andthe faCilitative organizational structures and processes-provides rele-vant guidelines for the renewal and improvement of Secondary education.In this context the design l.'s considered to be validated as both ushbleand effective for improving education in schools having characteristicssimilar to those included in the present study.

The preceding positive results occurred despite some unantici-pated events in each school that were judged to have negative effectson student achievement. One deterrent_to attaining tigherstudentachievement in the third and fourth years was a reduction in the staffAnd in'educational programs. This occurred as student enrollmentdecreased quite sharply in four of the schools. We-should recggnize,too, that the'Na5116Wal Assessment of Educational Progress found thatthe academic achievement of students of age 13 and 17 tended to godown during'the 1970sr--AceM1.ngly, each school's maintaining thesame level of aglievement might be interpreted as a positive effect afimplementing the strategies.

The Kesent,schools applied the improvement strategies to selectedareasiof student achievement and indicated the desired outcomes in .termObf.student performances based on standardized or locally con-structed`tests that they were already using in 1977-78. The schoolsmight have selected other areas for improvement, selected other student

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outcomes, and used other measures,of student ,performance. The designis not prescriptive in these matters. Rather, each school makes thedecisions on these and other matters related to educational improvement.

The project analyzed the achievement data to identify differencesbetween the mean achievements and the mean gains in achievement of theboys and girls of each school and among students of four levels ofmental ability. These findings are presented and discussed. Differ-ences between implementing the present design and acting on the resultsof school effectiveness research are also presented.

A postscript is in order inasmuch as two years elapsed betweenthe last data collection in the schools and the publication of thismonograph. In 1982-83 all five schools-were implementing the goal-setting strategy and one or both of the other improvement strategies.They were continuing their organizational structures and processes.

A statewide secondary school improvement program was started inWisconsih in 1981. A Wisconsin Secondary SchoOl Improvement CounCilwas formed to expedite the program. The 'charter members included theprofessional education associations of Wisconsin, including those ofteachers and administrators, the Wisconsin gssociation of. SchoolBoards, the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruttioq, seven teachereducation institutions, and five other organizations.airectly.con-cerned with secondary education. 'Two workshopsbased on the designwere codaucted annually for representatives of the Counadol and forindividuals and teams from Wisconsin secondary schools, starting in1981. In August of 1982 the Superintendent of Public Instruction of,Wisconsin endorsed the,design and committed the Department of PublicInstruction to provide staff for the workshOps.

As of April, 1983, individuals and teams of two to seven personsfrom 7 middle schools, 12 junior high schools, and 52 senior highschools had participated in six workshops. Neither funding nor timewas available for a formal follow-up of the workshop riarticipants.However, the results from a,questionnaire'and telephone calls indi-cated that many schools were implementing one or more elements of,thedesign, such as individual educational programming or the goal-settingstrategy.

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CHAPTER .1

INTRODUCTION

.0

Nationwide concern for the betterment of secondary education isreflected in.the mass media as well as in the reports of various com--missions and individuals. The concerns'are with all elements of second-ary education, including the curriculum, teaching, learning, evaluating,advising, and the process of improvement itself. Some concerns are withthe education of a particular group of students, such as a language orethnic minority, while others include the entire secondary school popu-lation.

These widespread concerns derive from a fundamental problem insecondary education, namely, local schools have not developed theirown improvement capability. The inability to improve their 'own educa-tive processes prevails in part because faculty members perceive theirroles only as teachers, advisors, or administrators, not as members ofa professional team working together to improve education in theirschool. Other deterrents to the development of an effective improve-ment capability by a school are obsolete organization structures and alack of research-based imnrovement strategies. Along with these deter-rents, changes in the family, the community and society at large resultin demands on education that are increasingly difficult to meet.

The present project was carried out to ascertain the usability andeffectiveness of a design for the ipproverient of secondary education.The design incorporates improvement strategies and school structuresand processes that facilitate the implementation of the-strategies.As a school becomes able to adaprthe design to achieve,desired stu-dent outcomes, it develops an improvement capability.

The conceptual design was formulated by the first author of thismonograph when the project was in the planning $tage. Subsequently,it was evaluated by the faculties of six middle schools and junior.high schools (Klausemier, T. W., 1978) and in four senior high schools(Maier, 1978) as indicating desirable means and directions for improv-ing secondary education. This initial version of the design providedthe substantive framework for developing the improvement capability ofeach school participating in the present project and for conductingthe related validation research with these schools.

Since no precedent for developing an improvement capability wasfonnd, the validation of the design was carried,out as five intensivecase studies over a period of five years. Two middle schools, ajunior high school, and two senior high schools were selected to par-ticipate in the study. These schools are located in three states andin small town, suburban, or large city environments. The student en-rollment of the schools ranges.from 300 to 1400. Accordingly, theresults of this study regarding improvement strategies and organiza-tion structures and processes that are common to the five schools

1

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should be generalizable to other schools with these characteristics.As will be discussed more fully in Chapter 2, the primary validationcriterion in all five schools was that the implementation of the stra-tegies would result in raising an unsatisfactory level of studentachievement from year to year or in maintaining an already high level.

Since each.school'developed its own improvement capability, notwo schools.implemented the improvement strategies in an identicalmanner. Similarly, no twodschools had identical organization struc-tures. Therefore, the development of the improvement capability andthe research proceeded somewhat differently in each school. Accord-.ingly, the procedures and results are presented separately for eachschool in Chapters 3 through 7, one for each of the five schools.Chapter 8 presents a summary and discussion pertaining to all fiveschools.

This chapter introduces the conceptual design. It is based on anevaluation and synthesis of the recommendations of 'national and statecommissions, the results of research, and input from practitioners andscholars. "Since 1977, minor changes have been made in the design totake into account the findings from the present project asthey accumu-lated from year to year and also recent theory and research related toschbol effectiveness (Edmonds, 1982; Purkey & Smith, 1982). The rela-tionships between theory and research regaTding school effectivenessand the results of the present research are discussed in Chapter 8.Looking forward to the discussion, we will see that a school that hasdeveloped its own improvement capability can respond intelligently tofindings from school effectiveness research as well as to any otherproposal for educational improvement.

Proposals for the Reform of Secondary. Education'

At the time this project was planned, many individuals, commit-teese and commissions had given serious attention to impeoving theeducation of American youth. They had tried to identify the problemsof secondav educatign as well as the causes of the diffitnities andhad recommeridad policies and programs which presumably'would eliminatethe problems. A synthesis follows of tAe Aajor recommendations of thepanels and commissions of the 1960s and 1970s through 1977 (Brown,1973; Coleman, 1974; Gibbons, 1976; Hostrop, 1975; Martin, 1976;Shane, 1973, 1977; Thomson, 1975; Toffler, 1974; Van' Til, 1976; andWirtz, 1977):

Schools should personalize and humanize the educative processrather than continuing the three-track system of college prepara-tion, general education, and vocational'preparation.

,

'Mult,iple.paths leading to high school graduation should be madeavailable to students rather than requiring a certain number ofCarnegie units for graduation and trying to enforce compulsoryschool attendance until die 18.

3

Progress in learning and-credit toward high school graduationshould be based on demonstrated proficiency rather than on theamount of time spent attending class. )

.

Students should be given more Oportunity and responsibility forplanning and evaluating their educational programs.

Greater emphasis should be iiven to preparing youth for work, forcitizenship, and for their future familial roles.

The educational resources of the community should be used muchmore as a means of promoting experiential-learning, making careerpreparation more effective, and foatering adolescent interactionswith children and adults.

Students, teachers, parents, and.other citizens should be repre-sented on school councils and committees that deal with curricu-lum and instruction, student conduct, school governance, and '.other educational matters.

In 1976-77 there was considerable aupport for most of the preced-ing proposals. However, two other recommendations were made thataroused considerable debate and opposition.

The President's Science Advisory Committee Panel-on Youth .(Coleman,4974) dealt with the period of transition from childhood to adulthood,roughlyfte 14 to 24. A hotly debated recommendation of the Panel wasto provide vouchers enabling students to choose where they will be edu-cated and when. One means of implementing this recommendation wouldallocate tax monies for educational purposes to the parents and stu-dents rather than to the local school district. The parents wouldthen transfer the money to the public or private school which theyselect.

4 The National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Education,like other groups, identified many problems and made related recom-mendations (Brown, 1973). A recommendatlon that received widespreadattention was to drop the legal school attendance age to 14. Carryingout this recommendation ptesumably would get physically mature stu-dents into productive work arrangements in the community. They couldreturn for any desired form of education at any later time. To assurethis, the Commission recommended legislation to guarantee students atotal of 14 years of tuition-free education. After the compulsoryeight years, up to age 14, they should be Rrovided an additional sixyears of schooling, wherever and at such timesas they decide to takethe additional six years.

One aim of the preceding national commissillfons and panels was toinfluence federal and state legislation regarding education. Anotherwas, to'influence local,education practices as Olool administratorsahd teachers became aware of the problems and related proposals. Adifferent and very interesting strategy was followed by the CalWrniaCommission on the Reform of Intermediate and Secondary Education(Newcomber, 1975).

2.i

4

In .1974 Wilson RIles, Superintendent of Pubiic Instruction ofCalifornia, formed the 37-member California Commission for the Reformof Intermediate and Secondary Education (RISE). This Commission andits work had several interesting features. Its members included stu-dents, teachers, counselors, principals, and other school personnel,and also representatives of organized labor, farm groups, business,and the professions. All were residents of the state of California.They believed that their report was highly important. Another featurewas that intermediate as well as high schools were included. Thismade-it possible to take Into account the emergence of the middleschool as an appropriate response to the earlier physical maturationf the present generation of boys and girls. It also enabled the

Commission to state aims of schooling that imply continuous progressof students.from the intermediate grades through high school gradua-tion. Petbaps the most important feature was that the California De-partment of Education would take responsibility for implementing theCommission's recommendations. The major recommendations of the Com-mission follow.

Learners as the Most Important Individuals in ihe School

Eachjearnevi should be recognized and ,accepted as the primaryclient to be served by the school... Parents, the community, and thelarger society are secondary clients who will benefit from schoolsthrough the education gained by the learners. As maturing learners,move toward adulthood, they should progressively be able to make moreeducational choices and also tb assume responsibility for thosechpiEes.

Progress Dependent on Demonstrated Proficiency

The strengths and weaknesses of each learner should be assessedand, based on this assessment, each learner should be able to chooseand pursue au instructional program consistent with the assessment andthe learner's choices. When the learner demonstrates that he/she hasattained the objectives of the Instructional program, appropriatecredit should be received. The learning activity should not be con-fined to the essential skills but should encompass attainment of allof the aims of California education.

A System of Multiple Options in rrograms and Learning Styles

A wide variety of choices and options in program and curriculumcontent should be available to learners so as.to enable them to meetpersonal objectives in varied ways according to each learner's ownlearning style. The alternatives or options might include schools-within-a-school, work-study programs, regional occupational trainingprograms, special interest schools or centers, anti departmentalizedtraditional programs. The multiple options for learning should allowthe learner to take advantage of such opportunities as learning inde-pendently, learning_In groups of varying size and composition, and

2,2

5

learning in different locations, including the traditional schoolsetting.

Gaining Skills and 'Knowledge in.a Variety of Locations

Multiple opportunities are needed to enable students to gainfirst-hand experiences by means of study, observation, service,participation, and work in both the school and the wider community.Means of evaluation should be developed enabling learners to earncredit or other recognition through certain types of work situations,participation in community activities, or self-designed independentactivities away from the traditional school setting.

Flexibility in Times for Learning-

The hours, days, months, and school year should be flexible, ex-tensive, and sufficiently varied to accommodate a diversity of inter-ests, needs, and choices of individual learners. Class schedulingshould be arranged to allow a learner to move freely from one activityto another on the basis of demonstrated proficiency. School sites andfacilities should be available and used throughout the year and beyondthe traditional school hours and five days of the week. School attend-ance .requirements should allow a learner to leave the school systemtemporarily with the approval of the learner's parents and the schools.The furloughs should be of flexible duration, of educational value tothe learner, and consistent with the learner's educational needs andobjectives.

Personalized Instruction

The siz6)and setting of the leaTning group should be based on thetype of learning activity to be conducted. Groupings of learnersshould be small enough to offer a psYchological and physical atmo-sphere that promotes the development of the learner's self-worth andidentity within the school and community. All schools with large en-rollments should be divided into several smaller schools to insure amore personalized setting. Middle schools particularly should givespecial ifttention to limiting school size because early adolescentshave unique needs in learning to live and work with one another.

In addition to the preceding recommendations that affect allaspects of education, the California Cpmmission recommended manychanges in the curriculum in ovder for the learner to gain the skills,competence, knowledge, and values requ4red to functioi effectively asan individual and a citizen today and Auring the last quarter of thistwentieth century. Concerning proficiency in essential skills, theCommission recommended that each learner should achieve and demon-strate specified levels of proficiency in the following essentialskills areas:

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The communication skills of reading, writing, speaking; andlistening.

Computational skills of addition, subtraction, multiplication,and division as well as in the use of decimals and percentagesand in the understanding of the systems of measurement.

Ability to maintain a satisfactory level of physical conditioningand psychomotor coordination consistent with the individual'sidentified needs and rate of physical development. Also eachlearner should acquire an undetstanding of the health practicesthat will serve him/her throughout his/her lifetime. '

Scientific and technological literacy, including a basic under-standing of scientific principles and the ability to apply theprinciples,to everyday situations.

Klaowledge of American government and institutions and an under-standing of the responsibilities of a citizen in a democraticsociety.

The skills needed for positive interaction with others in theschool and with individual groups and institutions within thelarger society-.

Minimum levels of proficiency in reading, writing, computation,and in other essential skill areas as a condition of completingsecondary education and receiving a highLischool diploma.

In addition to the explicit econnnendations regarding proficiencyin essential skills, the RISE Commission also made recommendations forthe following:

Social concepts that reflect present and'future needs of society,including its economic, political, social, and cultural institu-tions.

Cooperation, understanding of others, and mutual respect.

Processes of decision making.

Career awareness,,axploration, and preparation.

Leisure time.

'Aesthetic experiences.

The Commission did not assume that the preceding recommendations. could be carried out, except as they are accepted by students and par-ents and by teachers and other school personnel. Also, mere acceptanceof the desirability of the recommendations is not sufficiftnt. Teachersand other educational workers must be given the opportunity to acquirenew knowledge and skills to perform more effectively. As the schoolday is currently organized and as conditions for staff development

2

activities are arr;anged, there is not timed opportunAty, or incentivefor teachers to acquire the knOwledge and kills.

In accordance with this need the Coxi4ission recommended that, inorder to gain and strengthen their knowle ge and skills, teachers andother school personnel be provided with eater opportunities to design,conduct, and participate in a variety of staff development activities.A further recommendation was that the st ff development programs be de-signed and administered primarily at th locil or regldnal levels sothat they will be respdhsible to the in ividual learners, the staff, -and community needs. Therefore, staff iembers should assist in Aenti-fying their specific staff development eede, ,and programs should bedesigned to meet these needs. The abi ities of inaividuals on theschool staff should be identified and jeleased tiAe provided so thatthey may help Other staff members impr ve their instructional techni-ques. Particularly needed are staff 4evelopmnt activities directedtoward arranging more appropriate leajning activities for the-individ-ual student and techniques of evaluat ng student learning and instruc-tional programs.

0

Learning and Indiv dualeDifferences

The prior rec mmendations sugg st changes that various groupsthought would result in the improve ent of secondary.educationcfPrinciples of /earning and the psy ology of_individual d±fferencesalso imply directions for the bett rment'Of secondary education.

Prineiples df Learning ----

Many theoriee of learning we e extant in the 1970s. Althotighthere are many possible applicat ns of these theories, ajew princi-ples that facilitate leatning ha e been identified in many learningexperiments.that have been carri d out in expejimental laboratbriesand in school settings (Klausmei r, 1976). Teachers seem to be awareof these principles, but school nd classroom conditions'do not alwayspermit successful applications, f the principleS.

The first principle is tha the learner actively engages in thelearning activities during the ime allocated for,learning. Thismeans that the student comes t the class, starts to woyW'immediately,and continues to work on the 1 arning'activities until it is time tostart o her activities.

The second principle is t at the learning activities are of anappropriate level of difficul y for the learner; they are neither tooeasy nor too difficult. The earner does not experience a sense ofaccomplishment by completing very easy tasks and experienbes frustra-tion after making unsuccessf I efforts to perform tasks that are tooadvanced,fror too diffItUltv

1: 7

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A third principle is that the learning session is neither tooshort nor too long. Too little time means that nothing is learnedwell and accordingly it is not retained from one session to the next.-Too much time results in boredom, even for the highly motivated'student:

4 ,eA fourth principle involves guidance of the ldarner. Guidance is

interpreted broadly here to include teacher activities such a provid-1ing models, confirming correct responses, aiding students in rrect-ing errors, and providing a proper balance of teadter-directed andstudent-initiated individual, small-group; and large-group activities.

. .1.

Effective applicationrof these principles securet maximUm learn-ing effectiventLs over a short period of time, such as during a classperiod. To secure the maximum amount of learning over.long,r timeintervals, such asduring a semester or across a level of schooling;-there must .be continuity in the learning:activities.

deeThe conceptual design for improvem and renewal of secon-

dary education, to be discuss later, endtu es teachers, curriculum6)ordinators, and other local school personnel apply the short-termprinciples and also to provide for continuity in learning throughoutthe school years. In this regard, one serious learning problem of the1970s was that an instructional strategy based on students' mastery ofdetailed performance objectives did not take into account the firstfour_principleiadequately, and there was a near-totel-lack of,contin-uity. No provisions were made for students to integrate, synthesize,or Delearn; rather, they mastered/discrete objectives once and thenforgot what they had mastered. ,f-

v- .

Individual Differences

- The preceding principles-Apply to students in general. However,their apiIications shOuld take IntOatcount differences among indi-vidual students. Longitudinal research involving four groups of chil-dren and youth when in grades 1-3, 4-6, 7-9, and 10-12 indicates thatthe difference among the students of the same grade in their level ofcognitive development are exceedingly gieat and that the differenceincreases at the successively higlw levels of schooling (Klausmeier &Alien, 1978; Klausmeigr & Associatat, 1979). Moreover, some veryrapidly developing students in grade 3 were found to b as advancedCognitively:as other very slow.developing students, .111 grade 12Cognitivedevelopment as measured in this longitudi tudy includunderstanding of concepts and principles drawn fr the fields ofEnglish, maiheMStics, and science, and-thdability to solve problems.

)Ad intensive study of six rapid and six slow developers of gradet

6 and 12. participating in this,longitudinal study was undertaken (Mize& Klausmeier, 1977). The main purpose of the study was to identifyconditions related to each student's individual and personal charac-teristics, school and education, old home and family that might con=,tribute to_rapid or Slow cognitive development. The hypothes,is was

p.

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9

that 6ne pattern of conditions contributed to rapia-develOpment-andanother to slow development.

Comprehensive information was gathered on each of the 12 studentsin order to answer the following questions:

1. Do students of rapid and,slow cognitive development differ ina. Intellectual abilities?b. Self-esteem and perceptions of self?c. Self-directedness of behavior?d. Peer relations?e. Educational aspirations and life goals?f. ,Attitudes toward school and teachers?g. Rapport with teachers?h. Attributions of resp6ñi1bil1tj for ia-demic performance?iN Use of leisure time (e.g., television viewing, reading,

interests)?

j. .Home orientation, responsibilities, and perceptions of--/family?

2. Do parents and families of students of rapid arid slow cogni-tive development differ ina. Demographic draragteristics (e.g., divorce, education,

number of children)? N,b. Tamily structure and family life (e.g., cohesiveness)?c. Attitudes and perceptions of the child?d. Attitudes toward children and child rearing?e. Attitudes toward school, teachers, and education?f. Values, goals, and aspirations for the &daily and for

their child?3. Do the school programs and educational backgrounds of stu-

dents of rapid and slow cognitive development differ ina. Schools attended?b. Courses taken?c. gctivities pursued?d. rades made?e. School attendance?f. The teachers' perceptions of the.student's attitudes

toward school and education, achievement motivation,school behavior, self.-esteem and self-perceptions, peerrelations, and values and goals? (Mize & Klausmeier,1977, p.3) 4

Tests, structured interviews with the students, their parents,and teachers, and examination of school records were employea tosecure information regarding the preceding items. This informationwas evaluated and synthesized, first for each student, and then forthe'rapid and slow developers. The judgment as to whether a certaincondition was or was not associated with rapid and slow development isi'presented in Table 1.1.

Eight of the 31 variables given in Table 1.1 were judged not tobe useful for diff0entiating rapid and slow developers at eithergrade level.* Fourteen were judged to differentiate between rapid andslow de4lopers at both grades. Nine variables discriminated between

10

Table 1.1. Variables Associated with Rapid and Slow Cognitive Developmenta

Variables Sixth Grade Twelfth Grade

SelfIQ Score - Yes YesSelf-Esteem . . -Yes YesInternalized Responsibility for Learnifig No NoAttitudes toward School Yes YesAttitudes toward Curriculum Yes YesAchievement Motivation Yes : 'YesSelf-Directedness of Behavior Yes YegPeer Relations 4. No YesAtflErat-toward Pardfif-s--Home -Hi)* -Me

School/educationAbsenteeism Yes YeseGrades (A-F) Yes Yes'Curriculum (Courses Taken) No YesSchool Involvement-Activities No YesExtracurricular Activities:TV No Yes

Reading Yes YesSports No No

Hobbiesb

Yes YesSchool Structure

bNo No

Classroom Structure No NoHome-School Interaction No YesRapport with Teachers No Yes

Home/family--,

Demographic:Socioeconomic Status of Parents Yes YesMarital Status of Parents No NoNumber of Children in Family No No

Parental Attitudes toward School-Education Yes YesParental Expectations for Child Yes YesParental Involvement with Child No YesParental Supervision-Control of Child No YesIntellectual Climate of Home ' Yes YesChild's HoMe Responsibilities No NoParental Child-Rearing Attitudes "No No

aBased on Mize and Klausmeier, 1977, p. 220.

bThe rapid and slow developers in each grade group went to the same

schools and also had their instruction in the same or similar classroomarrangements.

11

the two developmental extremes at grade 12, but not at grade 6. Thisdifference between the students in grades 6 and 12 appeared to beinterpretable as.follows. The self-concept, schook7education, andhome-family variables differentially associated with rapid and sloWcognitive develOpment in grade 12 had become more stable and also moresharply differentiated than they were in grade 6. The grade 6 stu-dents were still developing cognitively and socially and some of theirself-school-education, and home-family attitudes and behaviors werenot yet crystallized and integrated. , For example, grade 6 studentswhose school achievements were relatively low and whose rate of cogni-tive development was slow nevertheless demonstrated peer relationships,attitudes toward parents and home, involvement in school activities,rapport with teachers, and other'variables shown in Table 1.1 similarto those of the rapid developers;

The contributions of the various variables to rapid and alow cog-nitive development of the grade 12 students may be summarized. Therapid developers have above-average IQ scores and good school achieve-ment as represented by high grades. They have a low rate of schoolabsenteeism and pursue an academic curriculum in high school. They.enjoy reading and manifeat strong achievement motivation, self-esteem,'and positive atttTudes toward school, education, and teachers. Theyactively engage ih school activities and hold positive attitudes to-ward parents, family, and home, and their social skills with peers andadults are good. More often than not they come from upper-middle ormiddle-class homes characterized by a'good 'intellectual climate. _Theirparents have completed high school and possibly some college, have highaspirations and expectations for their child, ho.ld positive attitudestoward school and education, and are concerned and actively interestedin their child's school, teachers, and curriculum.

Slow developers, in contrast, have average or below average IQscores and make low grades in school. They have a high rate of schoolabs.enteeism and pursue nonacademic subjects in high school. "They arenot interested in reading but depend on television for information andsedtntiry recreation. They have low_self-esteem, low motivation forlearning, and negative attitudes'toward school, education, and teachers.They do not engage in-extracurricular school activities regularly.They have less positive attitudes toward family and home and have poorsocial skills and peer relations. Slow developers are more likely tocome from a lower-middle-class home with an Impoverished intellectualclimate and parents who did not complete high school. The parents orguardians have low expectations for their child, show little involve-ment with the child, express negative attitudes toward school andeducation, and exhibit little understanding of or interest in theirchild's school, teachers, and curriculum,

It should be pointed out that the slqw developers identified inthis study in grade 12 undoubtedly represent the high end of the rangeof slow developers at the high school level. These seniors were allsufficiently successful to comilete four years of high school and rev.ceive a diploma. Other students who dropped out of echool before ,their senior year were not available for inclusion in the study.

r""w):.)

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c".

Many of the conditione associ§ted With sloW development are prob-ably preventable if changes can be made in_the 'lope and family situa-tion, in the school curriculum and instruction dr the child, and inthe relations among teachers, parents, and the student. Moreover, con-ditions such as absenteeism, lack of interest in reading, low self- .esi.em., low achievement and negative attitudes toward school, teachers,and the curriculum must be changed if'the student is-to achieve reasonTs.ably'well. Personalizing the instruction,and advising of, students andarranging a more suitable educational program for each student are twopossible means of aiding the slow developer, as well as other students.These and other ideas derived from the longitudinal research; as wellas from other research on individual differences, were taken intoaccount in formulating the design for the improvement of secondary.

A Conceptual Design for the Improvement

of Secondary EduCt4on

Some of the prior recommendations, the preceding and other researchon learning and individual differences, as-well as reseaich on instruc-tion and adolescent development, were used by the first author in 1977in formulating a design for thg,improvement of secondary education. Atthat time, calls were being heard for better discipline, more structure,And higher achievement in secondary schools than is implied in the pre-ceding recommendations. Newmann and Behar (1982) report that this trendcontinued in later recommendations. The present design reflects the needto promote the intellectual development of the student.

After the design was reviewed by scholars and practitioners, doctoralstudies were carried out at the middle school level (Klausmeier, 1978)and at the high school level (Maier, 1978) to validate the objectives asindicating desirable directions for improving secondary education. Thesestudies indicated that teachers, counselors, and administrators icrossthe nation believe that implementing the design would yield improvementof secondary schooling.

0 The design indicates 10 components of secondary schools, one fOreach major component of a functioning secondary school. For eacb com-ponent there is a comprehensive objective. The-10 comprehensive ob-jectives indicate desirable directions for the improvement and renewal ,of secondary education. The enabling objectives for each comprehensiveobjective ?rovide illustrative means of achieving the comprehensiveobjective. The 10 comprehensive objectives and the enabling objec-tives for Component 1 of the design, Educational Programming for the,Individual Student, follow. Ik

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Educational Programming for the Individual Student

Comprehensive Objective: (Part I)

An individual educational program of coursec'work and other activitiesis arranged for each student each semester that satisfied the stu-dent's developmental neeas and characteristics and that also meetsdistrict and state requirements.

N.

Illustrative Enabling Objectives:

Each student's individual educational program which inniudes allcourses and other activities:

1.1 Is planned each semester or year by the student and the student'sadvisor.

1.2 Takes into account the student's aptitudes for learning differentsubject matters, interests,, Motivation, learning styles, careergoals, and other personal and social characteristics.

1.3 Provides for experiential learning, including-work experience inthe community, for studenta who will benefit.from it.

1.4 Is monitored cooperatively by ttle student and the student's ad-visor throughout the semester.

' 1.5 Is changed as'necessary during the semester to assure high qual-ity education for the student.

Comprehensive Objective: (Part II)

An individual instructional program is arranged for the student'in.each course and other activity that is part of the student's totaleduCational program that takes into .account the student's aptitudes,interests, motivation, learning styles, career goals, and other per-"sonal and social characteristics.

Illustrative Enabling Objectives:

The instructional program of the student:

1.6 Is planned by the student and the teacher of the course at the'beginning of the course.

1The complete set of comprehensive.and enabling objeCtives is given in

APpendix A.

31

a

C.

1.7 Includes course and unit objectives that are appropriate for thestudent in terms of the student's aptitude, entering achievementlevel,-and career goals.

,

1.8 Provides an appropriate amount of time in class, during schoolhours, &r oufside school hours to suit the student:s rate ofachieving his/her objectives In the course.

1.9 Provides for apPropriate individual attention by the teacher totake into account the student's motivation and other personalcharacteristics.

1.10 Provides for,an appropricre-atount'ofpair,-small-groupl and large-group activity to take into accountehe student's need for independence and preferences for mode Of,instruction.

1.11 Provides for an appropriate amount of student-initiated individual,pair, smill-group, and large-group activity to take into accountthe student's need for independence and preferences for Mode ofinstruction.

1.12 Provides for appropriate use of printed materials, audio-visualmaterials, and direct experiencing to take into account the stu-dent's preferred modes of learning--visual, auditory, tactual, orki, nesthetic.

Planning an appropriat educational Program for each student andmonitoring the student's prog ess requires a school person to have aconference at least three time per semester with,each student. Accord-ingly, there must be many counselors in the school,to meet.with thestudent6 or each teacher must serve asoon educatiónal advisor to 15 to25 students to plan their programs and to monitor and evaluate theirprogress.

Providing an appropriate instructional program for each studentin each course requires both,teacher-directed and student-ihitiatedactivities to be arranged to take into account the differing educa-tional needs and characteristics of students. Similarly, individual,small-group, and whols-cliss activitieO must be matched to the indi-vidual student's learning c4ability for the particular subject matter,learning styles, and other characteristics. Neither all teacher-directed whole-class instruction nor all individual assignments andactivities can possibly provide for the educational,needs of all stu-

.

dents:. 4

Curricular Arrangements

The curriculum is structured to meet state and district requirementsbut it can be adapted by the school and individual teachers to takeinto account the differing educational needs of students.

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Three sets of changing conditions point to the importance of acomprehensive but flexible curriculum. Local, state, and federalagencies are making ever-increasing demands and regulations related tocareer education, competency testing, minority students, female stu-dents, handicapped stud9at-t, economically disadvantaged students,bilingual students, gifted students, and others. Adults' perceptionsof the developmental needs and the rigilts and responsibilities ofstudents are changing, and the students'' awn perceptions regarcqngthese matters are evolving also. Knowledge in ail subject fieldscontinues to accrue rapidly. ,The school's curriculum attempts to takeinto account these and other,societal conditions so that an excellentindividual educational program can be arranged for each student.

Experiential Learning and Career Education

Career education is arranged for all students; experiential-learningactivities and/or work experiences in the community are arranged foreach student who can profit from them. (Senior high school students,more than middle school.students, requ1re work experience and partici-patioldni community activities.)

The demands on the'sZaol,fer an effective program cs careeeawareness, exploration; and preparation and also for citizenlhip edu-

cation are increasing. Career education necessarily includes work '

experience for some students.

Closely.related to this, many career and other educational exper=-iences can be provided away from the school site. Most of,our localcommunities have many potential opportunities for work and other educa-tive experiences in which adolescents may participate with adults andalso with younger children. Furthermore, many student's are able to

travel and study anywhere in our entire nation as well as in foreigncountries-as part of their community learning activities.

Student Decision-Making Arrangements

Students progressively assume more responsibility for planning, imple-menting, and evaluating their prbgrams and activities with a lesseramount of adult direction and control.

Boys and girls in the United States mature physically about twoyears earlier than did their grandparents who werd born at the turn ofthe 20th century, the time at which the grade 7-9 junior high schoolwas started to meet the unique needs of this age group. Although they

are maturing faster, the age at which they become economically indepen-dent is delayed increasingly; and in recent decades there has been agreat increase in juvenile delinquency, crippling accidents, violentcrimes, alcoholism, and venereal disease aMong modern yoUth of middle

, school and high school age. Despite the conditions, we should notinfer that students are incapable of governing themselves as individ-uals .or in small groups. However, it is equally fallacious to assumethat all of them will become socially conscious, self-governing citi-

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zens without wise guidance and without observing the traditions andcodified regulations that are needed to govern our adult society.Rules and regulations and means of enforcing them, as well as a stu-

,dent bill of rights, are required.

Starting in the early school years, boys and girls should havemany opportunities for working individually and in smalI.groups intheir classes. As they progress into-middle school, they shouldassume increasing responsibility for making important decisions abouttheir own education and other matters. The high school must providethem opportunities to share decision making and planning with otherstudents and with adults as a means of preparing them for their adultfamilial and citizenshi"0-roles. Throughout this developmental pro- 'Nosgression, the students need ise guidance.

Evaluating Student Learning and Educational Programs

The individual student's progress toward attaining his/her course ob-jectives, the student's instructional program in each course, the stu-dent's total educational program, and the school's total educationalprogram are evaluated systematically and the results of the evaluationare used in improving the educative processes of the school.

-Teactlers use a variety of measurement tools and devices to assesstheir stUdents' athievements effectively. Rarely, however, has thestudent's total.educational program for a semester, a,year, or for anentire level of schooling such as the senior high school been evalu-ated. One of the problems here is that the criteria have not.beenidentified by which to evaluate-the student's performances in various4

courses and other activities. Whether a student attains course objec-tives is not a sufficient criterion; the appropriateness of'the prokramobjectives and the instructional materials 4nd aeivities for the stu-dent also must be evaluated.

In recent years, many designs have been formulated for evaluatingeducational programs for groups of students, particularly programsthat are federally funded. Generally, the designs call for evaluationdirectly related to the program objectives. Although designs are avail-able and federally funded programs are evaluated, local schools rarely

--take the initiatiye for evaluating their own programs. Yet, annualevaluation by the staff of the local school is essential for guidingits own improvement efforts. In recent years, many innovative schoolsthat have not gathered evaluation information systematically hacW-beenforced to abandon-some of their excellent programs.

Administrative Arrangements

The school's administrative arrangements provide for cooperative plan-ning and shared decision making by the persons responsible for'imple-menting the plans and decisions that are made, mainly administrators,counselors, teachers, and studeRts.

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Decision-making groups that include administrators, teachers,counselors, and, in some instances, students and parents are formed toenable persons to participate in formulating the programs and plansthat they are responsible for carrying out. Areas of shared decisionmaking include aims and philosophy, curriculum, instruction includingits evaluation aspects, and student advisory arrangements. The pri-mary outcome'of these administrative arrangements is that students,teachers, and counselors work enthusiastically to implement programsand plans that they help formulate: Other outcomes include favorablestudent,attitudes, community involvement and support, high staffmorale and high work satisfactiqn.

Ofganization for Instruction and Student Advising

The faculty and atudents are organized irito groups so that an effec-tive educational program is arranged for the individual student eachsemester and advising is personalized.

Organizing students and teachers into smaller units makes it pos-sible to provide an excellent individual educational program for eachstudent and to personalize and humanize the instructional and advisingprocesses. A team of teachers having the same students for a consider-able period of time during the day permits much flexibility, in usingtime, materials, and Space to arrange the best possible instructionfor the students in the subject or sdbjects taught by the team ofteachers. klhen each teacher of the academic team also serves as anadvisor to tome of the students, the teacher advisor is aware of theprogress anif problems that the advisees are experiencing in the'classesof all the team members. Furthermore, clo.se and continuing contact isestablished between the,44xisor and the paitonpeof the advisee.

Home-School-Community Relations

effective co..unication and cooperative educational efforts betweenthe school and the community are carried out as part of a program ofhome-school-community relations.

.We are all aware of the rapidly changing conditions in our neigh-borhoods and in family living. In general it may be more difficultnow ttlan before to initiate and maintain communications and other de-sired relationships with the local community, but it is also impera-tive to do so. As one example, high quality career education is im-possible foiemany students except as they participate in communityactivities

The traditional family of fathers mother, and one to four chil-dren liVing in the same home may no longer be the prevalent familyunit. The new patterns in family and home life will probably continueand the school will be called upon to provide more effective Commu-nication and interaction between the parent(s) or guardian(s) of stu-dents and their teachers. Parent(s) or guardian(s) should participateat least once each semester in educational planning with the student

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and the teacher advisor; ,In a corollary fashion, the teacher advisor,should be able to meet with any parent or guardian to discuss theeducatioA of the stuclent.

Internal and External Support Arrangements

The environment fpr learning and instruction in the school and forwork and other educative experiences in the community is enrichedthrough the intellectual, technical, and material support provided byschool and school district groups, and by external agencies, such asthe state education agency, intermediate agencies, teadter-edimationinstitutions; and professional associations.

Adiinistrative and organizational arrangements in the school andschool district of the kind outlined earlier in this section are neces-sary for creating a desirable learning environment throughout theschool. These arrangements require internal support by the principalin arranging class schedules and work loads of groups of teachers sothat they can meet together at regularly scheduled times during theirworking hours. Adequate spaces must be found for their Meetings.Counselors, too, can support teachers in serving as educational advi-sors to students. Many other kinds of support in terms of providingassistance to teachers are required of the principal.

The role of the district office, the state education agency,teacher education institutions, and professional associations requirereappraisal with respect to how they can contribute to an excellentlearning and teaching environment in the schools. The'educationaltalent exists in our schools and external educational agencies forcreating and maintaining good secondary schools. The working rela-tionships between local schools and the external agencies need redi-rection and improvement.

Continuing Research and Development

Student learning and personality development, instruction, advising,administrative arrangements, and other educational processes becomebetter understood and are improved through continuous research anddevelopment conducted by school personnel and cooperating individualsand agencies.

One problem associated with educational research today is thatmany researchers 'use the students and the school faculty as objects oftheoretical research in which they are interested rather than conduct-ing cooperative research'with the schools to identif and help Solvecritical problems that the cooperating schools are periencing. Arelated unresolved problem is for researchers to get ot tially use-ful results of educational research into forms that st dents andteachers can use. These continuing problems suggest that any majorrenewal and improvement effort will require the local school staff todevelop a capability for carrying out its awn research and also toparticipate in cooperative problem-solving research with external

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agencies that are interested in identifying and solving currentproblems with the local schools.

This 10-component design provided the conceptual framework forconducting the research and development reported in this monograph.Accordingly, the improvement strategies worked out with the schoolsfor raising student achievement in Englishrmathematics, and readinginvolved (a) arranging an appropriate educational program of academicwork and other educational activities for each student, (b) arrangingan,appropriate instructional program for each student enrolled in eachacademic course, and (c), annually setting goals to maintain or toraise the achievement of individual students and composite groups ofstudents, such as all the students of a grade. ThOle strategies ateexplained more fully in Chapter 2. Another feature of the project wasfor each school either to establish an educational improvement commit-tee composed of the principal and representatiVe teachers and counselorsto plan its research and improvement activities or to assign these re- ,sponsibilities to an existing committee. Changes related to other com-ponents of the design were also made in order to implement the improve-ment strategies.

CHAPTER 2

PURPOSES AND PROCEDURES

A conceptual design for the improvement of secondary educationwas presented in Chapter 1.___This-design-provided the substantive-_ _ _framework for conducting the cooperative research with the participat-ing schools. The design implies that each sLool is a unique socialorganization. Accordingly, no two schools have identical organizationstructures or carry out identical improvement processes although theremay be much similarity among schools. This view regarding the uniquenature of schools is reflected in the purposes and the procedures thatfollow.

Two other points should be made before considering the purposesand procedures. First, the goal of the project was tor each school todevelop a permanent improvement capability. This called for eachschool to use procedures during the project that it would continueafter the project ended. 'Accordingly, the data gathered and the im-provement activities varied among the schools. They were not pre-scribed by the project director.

Second, each school collected and analyzed data on student out-comes annually and used this information in planning its improvementactivities. After the last data collection, the project analyzed thesame data on student outcomes and other information that was suppliedby each school. Thus, the schools and the project had different pur7poses 'for analyzing the data and, accordingly, used different tech-niques.

Participating Schools1

Two middle schools, one junior high school, and tiro senior highschools participated in the research. These schools were part of anetwork of innovative secondary schools that were associated with theWisconsin Center for Education Research. They were selected from thelarger network population on the basis of being representative of small,medium, and large, schools of rural, suburban, and urban communities.

The teachers and students of each,school were already organizedinto Small groups in 1976-77, and each school was trying to provideeffective instruction in each of the aCademic subject fields. A com-plete description of each school as it was lunctioning in 1977-78, aswell as an indication of the changes that were made each year*there-after, are provided in ChaPters 3 through 7. There is one.chapter foreach of the five schools. Accordingly, only a brief sketch of each -school is given here,

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Steuben Middle S hool is an inner city schooA. of Milwaukee,

Wisconsin.' joout ha f of the student population ti.s. black and abeut

half is whitlk Grad 6 was being phased out during theproject and

the grade 6,enrbllme t dropped from 92 in 1977-78'to 36 in 1980-81.

The total enrollmen in grades 7 and 8 was 751 in1977%-78 and 874 in

1980-81-

,Webster Trans ional School of Cedarburg, Wisconsin-, is a subur-

ban school with,a redominantly white population. The student enroll-

ment in grades 6 and 8 was 761 in 1977-78' and 712 in .198041. About

equal mumbers_of udentswere enrolled.in eachArade.

Carl Sandbur Junior High School of Mundelein,Illinois, has some

of the propertie of both a rural and a suburban school.Its student

body is white. t has only grades 7 and 8.The enrollment in the two

grades combined as 380 in 1977-78 and 322 in 1979-80.Data were not

gathered in thi: school in 1980-81 because the school changed its

achievement tes battery that year.

Hood Rive Valley High School,)HoOd Rive4 Oregon, has the charac-

.teristics of a rural, small-town school. A small percentage of its

students are 0 iental and the remainder kte, white. The.total enroll-

ment was 785 1977-78 and 607 in 198g781.

Cedarbur High School of Cedatburg, Wisconsin, is a suburban

school with student body that $s predo inantly white.The total'

enrollment t grades 9, 10, 11, and 12 was 1,376 in 1977-78 and 1,214

in 1980-81.

An inn r-city high school of Milwaukee-was selected in1976-77 as

a sixth sc ool. The research Plan was tohave two large city schools,

4one at eac the middle school and high

school level, two suburban

A schools, d two small-town, rural schools.The large city high '

school of Milwaukee opened in the fall of 1977-78 in a newbuilding.

'However, ts enrollment and teachingstaff did not stabilize until two

years la er in 1979-80. Accordingly, no information onstudent out-

comes co ld be collected during the first two years,and the decision

was mad not to include it in the present study.Despite theloss of

this sc oOl, the conclusions drawn in Chapter 8 regardingthe'improve-

memt s.rategies and the school-organization structures thatfacilitated

the i..lbmentation oi.the strategies are considered Asseneralizable

to th two levels of schooling and to the three kinds ofsettings.

Time Schedule

jhe project extended for six Years. The main activitiespf the

scljools and the projett follow:

19 6-77: The project director formulated a conceptnaledesign for the

, -1improvement and renewal of s'econdary education and, based bn

the design, completed plans for cooperative longitudinal

improvement-oriented research with the five schools.

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1977-78: The-project director and,the school staffs,planned416--ie-.

search activities and the related improvemat strategies.The schools collected baseline data on all the studentsenrolled in their schools%

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1978-79: Each school summarized,and analyzed the 1977-78 daia; basedon the results, each school planned and implemented minaf.improvement activities in the second semester of 1978-79; .'each school collected the second,year data. ,The researchteam provided consultation and assistance regarding theanalysis and interpretatibm of fhe d a an regarding theplanning and implementation of the rel improvementactivities.

1979-80: The cycle of activities ot 1978-79 was repeated, except that 'major improvement activitiesiere planned and implemented.

1980-81: The cycle of activities of 197940 was repeated, and thelast data on stu