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AUTHOR Holmberg, BorjeTITLE The Feasibility of a Theory of Teaching for Distance

Education and a Proposed Theory. ZIFF Papiere 60.INSTITUTION Fern'Jniversitat, Hagen (West Germany). Zentrales

Inst. fur Fernstudienforschung Arbsitsbereich.PUB DATE Oct 85NOTE 26p.PUB TYPE Reports Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; Comparative Analysis; *Distance

Education; *Educational Theories; EvaluationCriteria; Feasibility Studies; Foreign Countries;*Independent Study; Postsecondary Education; *ProgramEffectiveness; *Teaching Methods; *Theory PracticeRelationship; Validity

ABSTRACTThis paper begins by contrasting theories of teaching

(which are predictive) to theories of learning (which aredescriptive). It justifies the feasibility theory of distanceteaching by asserting that methods of distance teaching can affectthe pace and direction of learning; therefore, it should be feasibleto develop a theory of distance teaching. After a caution that it isimpossible to develop a theory of distance teaching that isuniversally applicable to all students, all conditions, and allsubject areas, a prescriptive theory of distance teaching isoutlined. The theory asserts that distance teaching will supportstudent motivation and promote learning pleasure and effectiveness ifit is provided in such a way that (1) students bEdieve that thesubject of study is relevant to their individua' needs, (2) studentsare made to feel a sense of rapport with the distance educationinstitution, (3) access to course content is facilitated, (4)learners are engaged in discussions and decisions, and (5) theprogram provides for real and simulated communication to and from thelearner. Eleven strategies that are favorable to distance teachingand thus fac'litative of distance learning are postulated. Theseinclude involving students in the selection and evaluation of coursegoals, using course materials that are characterized by aconversation style and highly readable, selecting instructional mediaon the basis of individual student needs and the requirements of thesubject area being studied, handling assignments quickly, makingassignments that require students to solve problems or makedecisions, and providing self-( exercises. The paper concludeswith 11 hypotheses that can be tested to assess the validity of theproposed theory. A 40-item reference list concludes the document.(MN)

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ZIFF PAPIERE 60THE FEASIBILITY OF A THEORYOF TEACHING FORDISTANCE EDUCATIONAND A PROPOSED THEORY

13Orje Holmberg

1 What basic characteristics distinguishing it from self-directed learning shoulddistance teaching have to be able effectively to help students to learn ?

2 What procedures and measures make pre-produced courses andnon-contiguous communication effective as teaching instruments?

3 Why are the basic characteristics and methods choscn effective?

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Herausgegeben von Helmut Fritscn

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SUMMARY

This paper discusses the theory concept as related to distance education.Epistemological questions of relevance in this context are looked into.Here belong induction vs deduction, positivism vs rationalism,causality vs indetermination, explanation vs technological deduct4onof predictions. Theory is taken to mean a set of hypotheses logicallyrelated to one another in explaining and predicting occurrences.

The concept of teaching is analysed in a similar way contrasting teachingregarded as a commoditiy to be transferred with approaches focusingattention on the development of the learner. Teaching is taken to meanfacilitation of learning.

Ine author develops for distance education a theory of teaching capableof generating testable hypotheses of the types 'If A, then B', 'The more(less) A, the more (less) B'. Some of these hypotheses have, in fact,already been tested. The theory claims to contribute an applicable generaloutline of effective teaching in distance education. It identifies suitableinitial behaviour (student participation in goal considerations, subsumptionunder existing cognitive structures), it prescribes essential pervasivecharacteristics of course materials implying clear recommendation forcourse-development work, and it specifies requirements for mediatedcommunication, all relying on personal approaches.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Dieses Papier enthalt eine Darstellung eines Theoriekonzepts am Beispieldes Fernstudiums. Epistemologische Fragen, die in diesem Zusammenhangwesentlich sind, werden untersucht, wie Induktion versus Deduktion,Positivismus versus Rationalismus, Kausalitat versus Indeterminismus,Erklarung versus technologische Schluffolgerungen aus Vorhersagen.Theorie wird v?rstanden als ein Set von Hypothesen, die in logischerRelation zueinander stehen und Ereignisse sowohi erklaren als auch vorher-sagen.

Das Konzept Lehreq wird in ahnlich'y Weise analysiert; der Ansatz, derLehren (Unterrichten) als Weitergeben von Lehrstoff betrachtet, wirdAnsatzen gegenUbergestellt, deren Aufmerksamkeit sich vo,viegend auf dieEntwicklung des Lerners konzentriert. Lehren wird primar aufgefaBt alsForderung des Lernens.

Der Autor entwickelt eine Lehrtheorie fUr das Fernstudium, die die AbleitungprUfbarer Hypothesen der Art "Falls A, dann B", "Je mehr (weniger) A, destomehr (weniger) B" ermoglicht. Einige dieser Hypothesen sind bereits Uber-prUft worden. Die Theorie soil einen praxisnahen allgemeinen Beitrag zueffektiver Fernlehre bieten. Sie zeigt geeignete Lehrmoglichkeiten fUrden Studienbeginn auf (LernzielUberlegungen unter Beteiligung der Studierenden,Subsumption unter vorhandene kognitive Strukturen), sie schreibt crundsatzlicherforderliche Charakteristika von Kursmaterialien vor unter Angabe klarerEmpfehlungen fUr die Kursentwicklung, und sie spezifiziert Erfordernisse fUrmediale Kommunikation, alles basierend auf personenbezogenen Ansatzen.

Inhaltsverzeichnis / Contents Seite/Page

The concepts of teaching, distance education

and theory 1

Theory and empirical data 2

The feasibility of a theory of teaching 4

The possible content of a theory of

teaching for distance education 6

Potentials and limitations of theories of

teaching for distance education 8

A suggested theory of teaching for

distance education 10

The function of the theory suggested 15

Debate required 17

References 18

TLe subject of this paper is a tricky one. A great number ofcon3iderations will have to influence the discussion. For thisand other reasons it seems to be useful to start by identifyingworking definitions of the concepts involved,

The concepts of teaching, distance education, and theory

It is quite common that both students and teachers regard'knowledge as a commodity which can be transferred, by the actof teaching, from one container to another or from one locationto another. Such people (among them no doubt a great many distanceeducators /B.H./) tend to express their view cf teaching as"imparting knowledge" or "conveying information "'(Fox 1983p. 152). There are several arguments against this rather primitiveview of teaching, as made clear by Fox in the paper quoted. Themain reason why I reject it is its implicit view of learners aspassive receivers, which cannot be a true picture. I regardteaching as facilitation of learning (cf. Rogers 1969) meant tolead to a goal of some kind (self-realisation, an examination,professional competence or some other goal). This definition isimportant to rid us of the well-grounded objection that teachingand learning are sometimes little related to each other. It hasrightly enough been said that when something has been learntin a teaching-learning situation, learning may have been causedby other influences than those of the teaching. When somethinghas been taught we do not know whether something has been learnt,and, in fact, if something has been learnt we do not automaticallyknow what; possibly something different from what was intendedby the teaching has been learnt (cf. Loser & Terhard 1977 p. 29).Teaching is an attempt - and sometimes a successful attempt - toTacilitate learning tov'ards some goal.

The concept of distance education is taken to cover the variousforms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous,

40immediate supervision of tutors present with their students inTi-eture rooms or on the same premises, but which, nevertheless,F4iiirit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutorialorganisation. Distance education is above all characterised bytwo constitutive elements, i.e. pre-produced learning materialsand mediated communication between students and a supportingorganisation with its tutors etc.

The theory concept is problematic. In scholarly literaturetheory is a term used to denote different concepts. It is

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frequently used to refer to any systematic ordering of ideasabout the phenomena of a field of inquiry (Gage 1963 p. 102)as, for instance, when reference is made to the theory ofdistance education. This (or simply the opposite of practice?)is also meant when chairs at, for instance, German universitiesare devoted to 'theory of education' (Theorie der Erziehung)or 'theory of the school' (Theo 'e der Schule). This vague useof the term theory can be rather confusing as in other scholarlycontexts a theory means a set of hypotheses logically relatedto one anothTFin explaining and predicting occurrences. TheEYpotheses are then of the types 'if A, then B' or 'the more A,the more/less B'. It is this last-mentioned use of the termtheory that is applied in this paper.

Theory and empirical data

Empirica' data can confirm, refute or leave unresolved hypothesesof this kind. The normal starting point is a so far unsolvedproblem, for instance that of the influence of varying frequen-cies of assignment submissiG, in distance education. Relevantdata are then traced, collect,1 and evaluated to help to solvethe problem.

Whether or not research intended to contribute to the solutionof a problem is based on a theory expressis verbis depends bothon the type of problem and on the 1-5FTTOSophy of the researchersconcerned. It is perfectly possibie to investigate a subjectarea without any formulated theory, with a view to finding theanswers to one or more questions. Experiments on teachingspecific contents by different methods and/or by means ofdifferent textbook approaches, different types of exercises,etc., may be and have been conducted without any explicitreference to a theory developed by the researchers (but naturallybased on the theories of the competing methods and the theor-etical position that causes the research). If, for instance, wewish to Lnow whether a certain curriculum content in a foreignlanguage is learnt more effectively by an imitative method orby a cognitive method, this problem can be investigated withoutthe backing of a theory indicating an expected answer. It ispossible, but not necessary, to hypothesise that one or theother of the methods 's the more effective of the two or toassume that there is ._ difference, the so-called null hypothesis.

Wherea_ in the heyday of positivism and behaviourism it wasconsidered acceptable to collect and evaluate data without anyclear theoretical background, which, in fact, meant an inductiveapproach, it is now much more common to insist that a theory toguide this study and make deductions possible must be developeubefore any empirical investigation is made. In Popper's spiritinduction has become something of a d"y word. Cf., however,Covill-Servo & Hein 1983 p. 306.

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What, then, is the logical background of this insistence on anexplicit theory preceding an empirical investigation? Is it aconsequence of a desire to define in advance what is worthwhile investigating and creating awareness in the scholar'smind of what is reasonable to expect? Or is it largely or incombination with the reasons referred to an attempt to makethe study deductive rather than inductive in character? Thoseadhering to Popper's epistemolosical principles will insistthat understanding and explanation require deductive theories.

I fear that in many cases in point here the distinction betweeninduction and deduction is rather illusory. The knowledge.ofnumerous instances of something happening, i.e. an inductiveprocess, may cause the development of a theory from which arededuced possibly refutable hypotheses, which are then triedempirically. This could, for instance, occur (and has occurred)after constantly recurring experiences of the learning-supportinginfluence of personal approaches in distance education.

The seal problem here would seem to be whether the basic obser-vations made by the researcher before the theory is worded havebeen subconsciously structured by his expectations cr generalthinking. This would not then be a case of induction proper.It is more doubtful if we have reason to postulate an implicittheory to the expected outcome of the study of two competingmethod:, or language learning. This seems to be a school exampleof an inductive study unless, which has been done, a theory isprovided from which a refutable answer is deduced. The empiricalstudy made can be identical in the two cases, however.

In the background of this game there is a complicated philo-sophical problem concerning what Bertrand Russell calls thevalidity of inference, i.e. of induction in the sense ofinferring general laws from particular instances: 'A vEry littleconsideration shows that, logically, the inference cannot bedemonstrative, but must be at best probable. It is not logicallyimpossible that my life may be one long dream ... If we are toreject this view, we must do so on the basis of an inductive oranalogical argument, which cannot give complete certainty

0 (Russell 1951 p. 278).

The powerful objections against the clear-cut positivistassumptions of the reliability of inductive conclusions thatPopper and his school of 'critical rationalists' have deliveredwould seem to make many scholars healthily wary of inductivemethous (Popper 1980 pp. 27-30, 254-265). The critical rationalistsare no doubt right in insisting that theories cannot be proved,that we must accept permanent uncertainty, and that theories tobe studied deductively must be empirically refutable rather thanconfirmable so that the non-refuted theory is simply consideredto have a higher degree of verisimilitude than its competingcounterpart. However, this does not fully do away with theseemingly artificial technical conversion of induction intodeduction described as a game above. On the other hand it does

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lead to attempts to briny order and cohesion into the many-sidedobservations and occurrences that are studied, and so it gives a

mighty stimulus to providing a framework of theory as thestarting point of research.

The feasibility of a theory of teaching

Against this background let us look at attempts made in relationto what can or should be expected of . deductive theory ofteaching. It is common practice to expect of such theories thatthey should inter alia

have internal consistency as logical systemsestablish functional relationships between the teaching andthe outcomes of learningshould be capable of generating specific hypotheses andpredictions (cf. Snow 1973 pp. 104-105)be expressed in such a way that research data capable ofpossibly refuting (falsifying) the theory can be collected.

Bruner refers to four major requirements of a theory of instruc-tion, namely:1. specifying experiences effectively implanting 'in the individual

a predisposition toward learning';2. defining 'optimal structure' conducive to 'simplifying

information', 'generating new propositions', 'increasincthe manipulability of a body of knowledge' and 'related tothe status and gifts of the learner';

3. specifying 'the most effective sequences in which to presentthe 1 iterials to be learned';

4. specifying 'the nature and pacing' of extrinsic and intrinsicreinforcement (in Bruner's terminology 'rewards and punish-ments')

(Bruner 1971 p. 40).

A theory of teaching of the type so far discussed is evidentlypredictive (technological) as opposed to a theory of learningwhich is descriptive in its attempts to explain how learningoccurs. This understanding of the theory concept only partiallyagrees with Popper's epistemological principles, according towhich the task of scholarship is on the one hand theoretical,to bring about explanation, on the other hand practical, toprovide for application or technology (Popper 1972 p. 49).A predictive theory stresses the practical aspects, techniquesand means more than explanation and thus does not meet Popper'srequirements. It is more in line with H.A. Simon's type ofnormative theory, which 'rests on contingent propositions like:If process X is to be efficacious for attaining goal Y, then it

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should have the properties A, B, C" (Simon 1973 p. 473). 1)

It would not seem to be very difficult to formulate a verygeneral series of recommendations assumed to some extent to meetBruner's requirements. However, as soon as we try to be morespecific the difficulties predominate over the possibilities.Each subject has its own character and within each subjectthere are several specialities. All these subject areas willhave their own requirements. Thus, for instance, specifying themost effective sequences as required by Bruner is one thing ina mathematical discipline and something quite different in a

foreign language or in the social sciences. The prospect oflisting all imaginable subject areas and for each of tnemspecifying conditions in accordance with the requirementsmentioned and co-ordinating these into a cohesive theory isintimidating, indeed. What is even worse, however, if a seriousattempt is really made to create such a comprehensive theory ofteaching, is the fact that human beings between them as well astheir conditions of life and learning are so different that itseems impossible to prescribe in any detail what the teachingshould be like that could meet the requirements mentioned byBruner.

There can be no doubt that a general theory of teaching of thiskind applicable to all kinds of and all individual students aswell as to all imaginable study areas and all frame factors isan impossibility. Hosford articulates this impossibility in twolaws: '(1) It is necessarily impossible to determine the absolutevalue of any instructional procedure by any experiment whatsoever;(2) it is necessarily impossible to determine an absolute set ofinstructional procedures Cat will be "best", for differentlearners, or for different learnings by one learner' (Hosford1973 pp. 87 and 114).

1) According to Popper the aim of the theoretician 'is to find explanatorytheories (if possible, true explanatory theories); that is to say,

theories which describe certain structural properties of the world, andwhich permit us to deduce, with the help of initial conditions, the..!ffects to be explained. .... My explanation of explanation has beenadopted by certain positivists or "instrumentalists" who saw in it anattempt to explain it away - as the assertion that explanatory theoriesare nothing but premises for deducing predictions. I therefore wish tomake it quite clear that I consider the theorist's interest in explanation

that is, in discovering explanatory theories - as irreducible to thepractical technological interest in the deduction of predictions. Thetheorist's interest in predictions, on the otner hand, is explicable asdue to his interest in the problem whether his theories are true; or inother words, as due to his interest in testing his theories - in tryingto find out whether they cannot be shown to be false' (Popper 1980 p. 61).

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If we attempt to develop a theory of teaching we must be muchmore modest than this. Education as a research area is, of course,concerned with human beings with personalities, hopes and willsof their own. If we are not determinists in the sense that wetotally reject the assumption that human will is in any respectfree, then it is impossible to postulate any automatic cause-effect principle in research aiming at optimising educationalmethods and procedures. Here theories usually have to be limitedto statements to the effect that if such and such a measure istaken under specific circumstances, then this is likely tofacilitate learning. This can be rewid into the semblance ofa nomological theory, i.e. one that is always and under allcircumstances applicable unless the validity is expressly limitedto specific circumstances: If x, then conditions making y possiblewill be created. The situation is somewhat different in generallearning theory and other descriptive rather than prescriptivestudies. It has been suggested that an agent's decision-scheme,i.e. set of attitudes to reality, problems and solutions,dictates what he will do if he acts rationally: when A, thenthe rational action will be B (Lessnoff 1974 p. 89 on Watkins''imperfect rationality').

This cautious conclusion is to be compared with Hosford'sappreciation of the influence of teaching. Starting out fromhis 'axiom' that 'change is the only absolute in education' hemodestly claims that 'instructional events affect the pace anddirection of change' (Hosford 1973 pp. 87 and 114). Change hereis deduced from the goal-orientation of teaching.

The possible content of a theory of teaching for distanceeducation

My preliminary assumption is that distance teaching can, likeHosford's general 'instructional events', affect the pace anddirection of learning. The content of a distance-study course,its general approach (for instance, authoritative statements offacts and 'correct' answers or solutions of problems vs problemsas directing and guiding the learning prc ess, i.e. the searchfor answers, with discussions of possibilities and encouragementof students' own contributions), the tuition provided (mainlycorrection or argumentative discussion of students' suggestions)are doubtless decisive for the direction of learning. The paceof learning is influenced by such things as the readability ofcourse materials, the frequency and turn-round time of submissionassignments, the media used, etc. It would not seem to bepresumptuous to go a little further. No doubt the retention ofwhat has been learnt can be influenced by teaching proceduresapplied to distance education (closeness to practice, enactivemethods and media, for instance the use of laboratory kits,exercises with comments, etc.). Further it goes without sayingthat the educational content of a pre-produced course is within

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the field of teaching influence in distance education. This isrelated to the view of teaching and learning embraced by coursedevelopers and tutors. Fox identifies four approaches or'basic "theories of teaching "'.There is the transfer theory whichtreats knowledge as a commodity to be transferred from onevessel to another. There is the shaping theory which treatsteaching as a process of shaping or moulding students to apredeterwined pattern. Thirdly, there is the travelling theorywhich treats a subject as a terrain to be explored with hillsto be climbed for better viewpoints with the teacher as thetravelling companion or expert guide. Finally, there is thegrowing theory which focusses more attention on the intellectualand emotional development of the learner. These theories arereflected by, and interact with, the views that students haveof the process of learning. Whichever theory a teacher uses tohelp him/her think about the process it will affect thestrategies she/he uses and it will colour his/her attitudesto students and to any training programme that she/he untertakes'(Fox 1983 p. 151).

Our view of what learning is influences teaching, which cannotbut influence the learning outcome in some way. If coursedevelopers consider knowledge to be a ready-made product ('acommodity to be transferred') their courses will bP ratherdifferent from those written by persons who favour problemsolving approaches. Monika Weirgartz has, on the basis of aconsistent view of learning as understanding and problem-solving,provided an in-depth analysis of some distance-study coursesfrom different parts of the world illustrating these differences(Weingartz 1980 and 1981), and Helmut Lehner has developed alearning theory bearing on this. He describes all learning asproblem-solving in the sense that it is composed of makingassumptions (i.e. developing hypotheses) and modifying theseas the learning progresses - an application of Popper'sepistemological principle of 'conjectures and refutations'. Thisleads Lehner to what (like Wagenschein ..nd others) he terms a'genetic learning approach' (Lehner 1978 and 1979). Startingout from problems instead of from the comprehensive systemsthat the knowledge amassed through the centuries constitute

40(for instance, when studying gravitation asking the questionsof Aristotle and Galileo in the way Einstein & Infeld do insteadof starting by learning the solutions found) favours geneticlearning (Lehner 1978 pp. 76-77). Weingartz's theoreticalapproach is linked with Lehner's and has led her to study currentpractice in distance education. To judge from her study, muchremains to be done to improve problem-solving learning indistance study, where on the whole the 'ready-made system'presentation dominates, although guidance in far-reachingproblem-solving occurs in some courses.

There can be no question of our universally preferring one typeof learning or one of Fox's types of teaching only. The targetgroups, the study objectives, the academic levels and similar

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considerations vary, and so must the teaching/learningapproaches. Even those who accept Lehner's learning theory,according to which learning is problem solving, will recognisethe need for different procedures related to types of teachingand learning. In university study problem-solving approachesincluding critical use of sources and the application of Fox'sgrowing theory are usually appropriate. It is more questionableif they are applicable to, for example, a postman's learningof lists of post offices along railway lines by heart (eventhough this is also a kind ofproblem solving according toLehner, the problem being how best to commit the items tomemory). Between these extremes there are vast numbers ofteaching/learning situations with specific requirements.

These considerations (content, direction InJ pace of learning,retention, types of teaching and learning) and no doubt a greatmany others are relevant to any theory of teaching for distanceeducation. When below in agreement with my view of teachingas facilitation of learning - I ,efer to certain teachingfactors as favourable to learning, the implication is that theyare taken to favour the ease a:" speed of learning as well asits quality and retention.

Potentials and limitations of theories of teaching for distanceeducation

As shown above it seems impossible to develop a theory of teachinguniversally applicable to all students, all conditions and allsubject areas. It is very proper to give up the atte-lit tocreate theorieL of this kind. The question is if this meansthat we must also do without less exacting theories of teachingfor distance education. It is certainly the safe approach asanyone trying to formulate any theory of this type lays himself/heself open to easily moti..ated attacks. Per definitionem acrude theory attempt of the type possibly within reach must bevery general and leave many considerations out of account. Thechoice of considerations mu't the! be to some extent idiosyncraticand unlike v to be universal. acrepted. Nevertheless I willtry to frmu late a kind of theory generating hypotheses whichseem tL ..nerally relevant and decisive for teaching at adistant

A general problem is if we can at all postulate cause-effectrelationships when as in distance education and all kinds ofeducation human beings are concerned. In my view this is notpossible except as explained above in my reference to thesemblance of a nomological theory. This means that a theoryof teaching for distance education can include no otherhypotheses than those stating that if teaching characterisedin a particular way is applied, then this is likely to (or: willin most cases) facilitate learning.

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A theory of distance educatior may be expected to indicate andexplain the consequences of the various procedures and mediaapplied to 3rget groups of various kinds and to various framefactors. While, as apparent from the above, I regard it asimpossible to develop a theory covering all imaginable cases ofthis kind, something can no doubt be done in this direction.

It is important to make clear what type or types of distanceeducation a theory is focused on. Michael Moore has clarifiedimportant differences of degree in his analysis of the conceptof distance. He describes distance in an educational programmeas 'a function of dialogue and structure'. 'Dialogue is theextent to which interaction between learners and teacher ispossible'. Structure is the planned course presentation. 'To theextent that a program "consists of pre - produced parts, at leastin the form of particularized plans listing item, by ,item theknowledge and skills to be covered by the Prograel) theprogramme may not be responsive to learners' idiosyncracies, andstructure is said to be high (Moore 1977 pp. 18-19). The highestdegree of distance occurs when an person studies without anysupport at all, which Moore describes as programmes with nodialogue and no structure and exemplifies by i ''ependent reading

study programmes of the 'self-directed' kind (Moore 1977 p. 38).

A theoretical approach to distance education can start out fromvario,.:s points on the continuum described, for instance from a

comparison with face- to -fac teaching with its high degree ofdialogue (cf. Peters 1973) and from systems making ample use ofsupplementary face-to-face sessions. My approach will be fromthe other end of the continuum, investigating 'pure' distanceeducation, i.e. teaching exclusively at a distance, which is inany case the basis of distance education. My questions are:1 What basic characteristics distinguishing it from self-

directed learning should distance teaching have to be ableeffectively to help students to learn?

2 What procedures and measures make pre-produced courses andnon-contiguous communication effective as teaching instruments?

3 Why are the basic characteristics and methods chosen effective?

From here it will, of course, be possible to probe into typesof distance education of various kinds, which, however, willnot be done in this paper. However, attempts to develop typologiesof distance education of relevance also in this context havebeen made (El Bushra 1973, Holmbe y 1981).

1) A quotation from Holmberg 1969 p. 60.

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A suggested theory of teaching for distance education

Against this background and with the reservations mentioned inmind I describe my theory of teaching for distance educationlike this:

General background assumptions areo that the core of teaching is interaction between the teachinj

and learning parties; it is assumed that simulated interactionthrough subject-matter presentation in pre-produced coursescan take over part of the interaction by causing students toconsider different views, approaches and solutions andgenerally interact with a course

o that emotional involvement in the study and feelings ofpersonal relation between the teaching and learning partiesarc likely to contribute to learning pleasure

o that learning pleasure supports student motivationo that participation in decision-making concerning the study

is favourable to student motivationo that strong student motivation facilitates learningo that a friendly, personal tone and easy access to the subject

matter contribute to learning pleasure, support studentmotivation and thus facilitate learning from the presentationsof pre-produced courses, i.e. from teaching in the form ofone-way traffic simulating interaction as well as fromdidactic communication in the form of two-way traffic betweenthe teaching and lea-ning parties.

o that the effectiveness of teaching is demonstrated bystudents' learning of what has been taught.

The first six of these assumptions, though used deductively,could be described as being based on inductive observations.The uncertain distinction between deduction and inductiondiscussed above would seem to apply. Whatever their provenance,the assumptions constitute the basis of what I consider to beessential teaching principles for distance education. Thus I

formulate my prescriptive teaching theory as follows:

Distan,-ct?aching will support student motivation, promotelearning pleasure and effectivenessif it is provided in a wayfelt to make the study relevant to the individual learnerand his/her needscreating feelings of rapport between the learner and thedistance-education institution (its tutors, counsellorsetc.)facilitating access to course contentengaging the learner in activities, discussions anddec'sions; andgen,,rally catering for helpful real and simulated communi-cation to (...nd from the learner.

This general theory of mine seems to have explanatory value in

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relating teaching effectiveness to the impact of feelings ofbelonging and cooperation as well as to the actual exchange ofquestions, answers and arguments in mediated communications. Itis a communication theory which causes me to identify asfavourable to teaching, i.e. facilitation of learning:

1 P. presentation of course goals or objectives engaging thestudent in the evaluation of their relevance and, if at allpossible, in their selection

2 a course structure carefully based on required earlierlearning making sub-sumptions in Ausubel's sense') possibleand more or less a matter of course

3 pre-produced course materials characterised by a conversationalstyle with invitations to an exchange of views and withattempts to involve the student emotionally

4 a style of presentation that is easily accessible; a highdegree of readability of printed course materials

III5 graphical and typugrapnical presentations facilitating accessto printed courses and selection of relevant subject matters

6 a choice of media, sequencing and other principles for coursepresentation adapted to student needs and to the requiremensof subject areas studied, e.g. those of operations on know-ledge and operations with knowledge (Chang et al., pp. 14-16)

7 communication facilities (in writing, on the telephone and/orby audio tape) constantly open to students for questions andexchanges of opinions with tutors and counsellors

8 frequent submission of assignments requiring students to solveproblems, evaluate texts or recordings

9 friendly, helpful and extensive tutor comments on assignmentssubmitted with suggestions expressed in a way to promotepersonal rapport between student and tutor; the same approachIIIshould characterise computer-marked and computer-commentedassignments

10 quick handling of assignments so that students need not waitfor more than a week to have their work returned withcorrections and comments

1) C. Ausubel's guiding principle: 'If I had to reduce all 'f educationalpsychology to just one principle, I would say this: The most Important singlefactor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertainthis and teach him accordingly' (Ausubel 1968 before the Preface).

1 6

11 self-checking exercises in pre-prodtced courses through whichstudents are induced to practice skills (in, for instance,foreign lang,lages, mathematics, statistics); not only modelanswers should be provided, but also extensive commentsbased on course writers' experience of likely errors andmisunderstandings.

It would, of course, be possible to specify each of these state-ments in more detail (for instance a plan for discussion contri-butions to be compared with the course writer's suggestions inthe seventh and ninth statements) and also to add any number ofcharacteristics likely to promote learning. I have limited mystatements to those above as they seem to be fairly universallyacceptable (even though they may not be really accented). Othersmight like to add supplementary face-to-face sessions, andpersonally I think students' individual pacing with the right tosubmit assignments at any time (regardless of prescribed orsuggested timetables) would be favourable. I consciously omitthese and other controversial characteristics which can, butneed not, belong to the statements specifying the theory.

While this is admittedly a leaky theory, does it meet therequirements specified above under 'The feasibility of a theoryof teaching'? I think so. It is true that it is not and cannotie - nomological, i.e. deterministic, its background can, inspite of its deductive form, be interpreted as inductive, andit no doubt has too much of an instrumentalist character to meetPopperian requirements all reservations discussed above asit is a normative theory. However, it is not devoid of explana-tory power: it does, in fact, indicate essential characteristicsof effective distance education referring successful applicationsto personal relevance, feelings of rapport, student influenceand helpful communication. The theory would seem to be logicallyconsistent and it does establish functional relationshipsbetween teaching and expected outcomes of learning. As co therequirements that it should be capable of generating hypothesesand predictions and be expressed in such d way that research datacapable of possibly falsifying the theory can be collected, letus look at each statement in turn:

ad 1) An empirical study of alternative presentations of goals/objectives, one simply prescribing them, the other invitingstudents to discuss their relevance and, possibly, toinfluence their selection, could be made by providing twogroups of students, selected at random among students ofequal standard, with alternative versions. The attitudesof the students could be measured immediately after thepresentation of objectives and after course completion;then course completion and achievement levels could alsobe compared. The hypothesis could be worded like this:

If students are engaged in the evaluation of the relevanceof suggested study objectives (and/or are given theopportunity to influence their selection), then their

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attitudes to the study will be more favourable and theirachievements will be better than if objectives are simplyprescribed (The more ..., the better ...).

It would also be possible to test similar hypothesesbased on the more radical suggestions for student autonomymade by LjosR & Sandvold 1983.

ad 2) A reference to Ausubel's studies here should be sufficient.

ad 3) This statement has been empirically studied and givensome statistical support on the basis of four hypotheses:

- The stronger the characteristics of guided didacticconversation, the stronger the students' feelings ofpersonal relationship between 4)em and the supportingorganisation.

The stronger the students' feelings that the supportingorganisation is iiterested in making the study matterpersonally relevant to them, the greater their personalinvolvenment.

The stronger the students' feelings of personal relationsto the supporting organisation and of being personallyinvolved with the study matter, the stronger themotivation and the more effective the learning.

The more independent and scholarly experienced thestudents, the le,s relevant the characteristics ofguided didactic conversation.

(Holmberg, Schuemer & Obermeier 1982)

ad 4) The relevant hypotheses here would be:

The more easily accessible the preproduced course,(the more readable the texts), the better the outcomeof learning.

Among studies of this kind, necessarily operationalisingthe readability concept to make its influence testable,should be mentioned Langer, Schulz von Thun & Tausch 1974.

ad 5) It would be possible to operationalise Waller's conceptof access structure (Waller 1977a and b) and test thehypothesis that

if access-structure measures such as headlines, graphicsand other typographical means are applied, then thelearning outcome is improved in relation to the studyof the same text without this access structure.

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An empirical study could easily be arranged comparingtwo matched groups. Doerfert 1980 has studied thisproblem theoretically and empirically from the pointsof view of distance education.

ad 6) Hypotheses for individual principles, media and targetgroups can be formulated and tested empirically; thisis the weakest of the eleven statements as in itself itimplies no prediction, but merely indicates thatpredictions may be tested by empirical studies ofindividual principles or media under specific circumstances.

ad 7) The hypothesis that

if communication facilities of the kind described areprovided, students will be more motivated and moresuccessful than if left to themselves

could easily be tested, but seems to be too generallyaccepted among those concerned with helping students and

IIItoo little interesting to those satisfied with informationdissemination to have made anybody undertake this study.

ad 8) John BRRth's empirical investigation of this subjectimplied testing eleven hypotheses concerning differencescaused by varying degrees of submission frequency withregard to study mseverance, attitudes, achievementsand study time (Bth 1980).

ad 9) The hypotheses here would be:

If tutor comments are expressed in a personal style andare ostensibly based on a wish to be helpful (a matterof formulation), then studerts will be more satisfiedwith their study and the learning outcomes will bebetter than if the tutor comments consist of factualstatements only.

This hypothesis is evidently empirically testable. III

ad 10) This statement has been empirically tested and has beengiven remarkably strong research support (Rekkedal 1983).

ad 11) It would be feasible to test the hypothesis that

if a course contains self-checking exercises of thetype mentioned, its students will be more succesfulthan matching students taking the same course withoutthese exercises.

An empirical study by BRRth of the possibility ofreplacing considerable nu loers of submission assignments

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by self-checking exercises seems to indicate that exercisesof the latter type wlth model answers and comments have nosmall potentials (Bn(th 1980 p. 152).

The function of the theory suggested

The statements made about what facilitates learning in distanceeducation can thus if the criteria listed above in concurrencewith Bruner, Simon, Snow and others are accepted be called atheory. With my definition of teaching it is a theory ofteaching. As such, has it anything to convey or is it, becauseof its openness and lack of detailed prescriptions for everypossible situation, merely an empty truism?

If a truism, the theory would be generally accepted. It is mostunlikely that it should be considered indisputably correct andto the point. In common practice there is implicit evidence tothe contrary: Many courses for distance education are developedin a handbook style entirely contrary to statements 1 and 3. Itis exceptional rather than the rule that a participativeapproach as presented in statement 1 is applied. Some distance-education organisations pay little attention to the accessibilityof their courses, whether readability is meant as in statement 4or typographical facilitation is meant as in statement 5. Alsostatement 6, in spite of its meagre content prescribesprinciples frequently not adhered to. The medium or media arerarely chosen on the basis of students' needs and more often inrelation to tradition or availability (e.g. TV time to beshared between faculties and subjects).

Even greater deviations from the theory are apparent when thecommunication aspect is considered. Many distance educators payscant attention to (and many probably do not recognise) therequirements of statements 7 and 8, whereas lip-service is oftenpaid to statement 9. Statement 10 clearly differs both fromprevalent theory and practice (in spite of remarkably univocalresearch support!), whereas statement 11 is probably more inaccordance with common notions and practice than the otherstatements.

It is uncertain to what extent statement 2 with its adherenceto Ausubel is usually accepted. Nominally the identification ofentrance qualifications may be interpreted as acceptance, butmay also be nothing but a concession to the requirements offormal educational systems. There is, on the other hand, nothingin statement 2, in spite of its reference to Ausubel, thecognitivist, that constitutes a rejection of behaviouristapproaches. While I do not recognise the claims of behaviourism,my theory need not necessarily clash with modified behavicuristthinking. A behaviourist teaching/learning situation may, forexample, be appropriate in the specific training of postmenreferred to above.

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The theory suggested is apparently not entirely devoid ofcontent although - and this must be admitted without anyreservation is does not offer solutions to very specificteaching problems in distance education. It does not prescribesteps to be taken in the teaching of individual subjects atspecified levels or with special types of studcnts and itcontains to taxonomy for media selection or st-ucturing measures.This, in my view, reflects not only a realistic appreciation ofwhat is possible, but also a humane approach to what is desirable.

As evident from my earlier writings on theory (Holmberg 1978,1982, 1985 Chapter 2, etc.) I favour a liberal approach allowingthe individual as much freedom in teaching and learning aspossible and above all advocate far-reaching learner autonomy(in the spirit of Moore 1983, for instance). Independently ofthe feasibility problems this makes me reluctant to try toprescribe detailed procedures and it influences my theory as itis technological and predictive in character. The realisationthat no two individuals are alike, that needs, preferences andcapabilities of students and the requirements of subjects andlevels vary very much indeed causes me to find it desirablethat a technological theory of teaching should avoid attemptsat step-to-step prescriptions for a number of specific situationsas this would be tantamount to trying to mould all students inone form (cf. Fales & Burge 1984). Thus I think such a theoryof teaching should limit itself to assumedly widely generalisablerecommendations. At the same time it should be borne in mindthat a theory of teaching can foresee merely what is likely tofacilitate learning, not what will under all circumstances causelearning.

What does the proposed theory contribute then? I believe itprovides n applicable general outline of effective teaching indistance education. It identifies suitable initial behaviour(student participation in goal considerations, subsumption underexisting cognitive structures), it prescribes essential pervasivecharacteristics of course materials implying clear recommendationfor course-development work, and it specifies requirements formediated communication, all relying on personal approaches.

These prescriptive aspects agree and largely coincide With myattempted theory of the guided didactic conversation." Itimplies that the character of good distance education resemblesthat of a guided conversation aiming at learning and that thepresence of the typical traits of such a conversation facilitateslearning. The distance-study course and the non-contiguouscommunication typical of distance education are seen as the

1) This theory, the testing of which is fully reported in Holmberg, Schuemer& Obermeier 1982, is summarised in Sewart, Keegan & Holmberg (1983)pp. 114-122.

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instruments of a conversation-like interaction between thestudent on the one hand and the tutor and/or counsellor of thesupporting organisation administering the study on the other.There is constant interaction ('conversation') between studentsand their supporting organisation (authors, tutors, counsellors),simulated through the students' interaction with the pre-producedcourses and real through the written and/or telephone interactionwith their tutors and counsellors. It is my contention that thistheoretical approach together with the theory of teaching fordistance education attempter! above has something to say aboutthe general character of well-functioning distance education,its ethos and underlying philosophy.

Debate required

In the interest of both the practical application and theacademic discipline of distance education it would seem to bevaluable if its theories of teaching were to be furtherdiscussed. Alternative theories unrelated to or rejecting mine

as well as attempts to elaborate on the attempt made abovewould be welcome contributions to the debate.

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