DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 371 994 SO 024 035

TITLE Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: Guidelinesfor School Redesign and Reform.

INSTITUTION American Psychological Association, Washington,D.C.

SPONS AGENCY Mid-Continent Regional Educational Lab., Inc., KansasCity, Mo.

PUB DATE Jan 93NOTE 19p.; Produced by the Presidential Task Force on

Psychology in Education.PUB TYPE Reports Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Cognitive Processes; *Educational Change;

Educational Policy; *Educational Principles;Elementary Secondary Education; Higher Education;*Individual Development; Parent School Relationship;Policy Formation; School Community Relationship;Student Attitudes; *Student Motivation; *ThinkingSkills

ABSTRACTCertain guiding principles emerged from a century of

research on teaching and learning. Many of those principles arisefrom research and practice in various areas of psychology.Learner-centered psychological principles and a systems perspectivefor incorporating them are necessary components of a new design forschooling. Among metacognitive and cognitive factors that influenceschooling are the nature of the learning process itself, the goals ofthe learning process, the construction of knowledge, and higher orderthinking. Student motivation is the most significant affective factorinfluencing schooling. Developmental constraints and opportunitiesprovide another source of the factors affecting schooling. Social andindividual factors also enter into the equation. Such factors andothers have implications for school reform and redesign. Allcontribute to the effectiveness of instruction, curriculum,assessment, instructional management, teacher education, and parentaland community involvement. Any improvement in education mustencompass a program of learner centered assessment that requires highstandards for each student and for each goal, individually negotiatedby student and teacher. (SG)

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Learner-centeredpsychological principles:

Guidelines for schoolredesign and reform

produced by the

Preshientiall Task Force on Psychology in EducationAmerican Psychological Association

supported by the

American Psychological Associationand the

Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory

AtiMM.11101=1-MAN.

SOREN"

January 1993

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2

'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISM ERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

DL1--

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

Foreword

T she Learner-Centered Psychological Principleswere developed in a collaborative partner-hip between the American Psychological

Association (APA) and the Mid-continent Re-gional Educational Laboratory (McREL). Thework of this partnership was carried out by theAPA President's Task Force on Psychology inEducation (PsyEd), which was established in1990 by the APA Board of Directors and thethen APA president-elect, Charles D.

Spielberger. Frank Farley, Nadine M. Lambert,and Barbara L. McCombs have served withSpielberger as the PsyEd Task Force co-chairs.C. Larry Hutchins, Executive Director ofMcREL, was the principal educational consult-ant to the task force.

Barbara L. McCombs, Director of Motiva-tion and Human Development at McREL,developed the initial draft and subsequent re-visions of the Principles document. She wasassisted in revising and refining the Principlesby the co-chairs and other members of thePsyEd Task Force, who included Cynthia G.Baum, Henry C. Ellis, Jaws J. Gallagher,Wayne H. Holtzman, Howard M. Knoff, HaroldF. O'Neil, Jr., Sylvia A. Rosenfield, and Tho-mas J. Shuell.

The initial draft of the Principles was pre-pared in March of 1991. Circulation of the firstand subsequent drafts to a wide range of psy-chologists, educators, and professionals in vari-ous scientific disciplines has resulted in thisfinal revision. Although we received very fa-vorable comments from almost everyone whoresponded with suggestions for revision, somereviewers noted that the language was some-what technical and suggested that the docu-ment would be improved by simplifying thepresentation to make it more readily accessiblefor use by teachers and other professionals. Thetask force is now in the process of creating a

"user friendly" version with less technical lan-guage for nonpsychologists.

We are very grateful to the following col-leagues, who have contributed significantly tothe Principles by their comments and sugges-tions for revisions of earlier drafts: Larry A.Alferink, Harry P Bahrick, David C. Berliner,Emmanuel M. Bernstein, Fran C. Blumberg,Barbara L. Bonner, James P Connell, Eric L.Dlugokinski, Darwin P Hunt, Beau F. Jones,Lewis P Lipsitt, Herrnine H. Marshall, AdahB. Maurer, Diane McGuini. s, Roger C. Mills,Clark E. Moustakas, David N. Perkins, LouisaH. Pierson, Donald K. Pumroy, D. Scott Rid-ley, Jerome D. Stiller, C. E. Walker, Claire E.Weinstein, Jo Sue Whisler, Merlin C. Wittrock,and Philip G. Zimbardo. The task force extendsits special thanks to Martin E. Ford, Chair ofthe Psychological Studies in Education Pro-gram at Stanford University, for his significantcontribution to the editing of this draft and toScott G. Paris, Professor of DevelopmentalPsychology at the University of Michigan, fordeveloping some of the learner-centered prin-ciples of assessment that are included as partof the final section of this document.

In addition tc the contributions of psycholo-gists and edu-ators just noted, we have receivedfavorable com.nents from representatives of awide range of professional groups. We are grate-ful to the following in-lividuals and organiza-tions for their feedback:

Ronald S . Brandt, Executive Editor, Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Develop-ment (ASCD);

Bonnie J. Brunkhorst, Retiring President, Na-tional Science Teachers Association(NSTA);

Rodger W Bybee, Acting Director, InnovativeScience Education, Biological Sciences Cur-riculum Study (BSCS);

Joan Walsh Cassedy, Executive Secretary, Soci-ety of Toxicology;

Pat Cox, Project Director, Regional Laboratoryfor Educational Improvement (REI) of theNortheast and Islands;

Robert E. Fathrnan, Chairman, National Coali-tion to Abolish Corporal Punishment inSchools (NCACPS);

Shirley M. Frye, Past President, National Coun-cil of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM);

Gary D. Fullerton, President, American Asso-ciation of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM);

John A. Gans, Executive Vice President, Ameri-can Pharmaceutical Association (APhA);

Christopher G. A. Harrison, Chairman, Ameri-can Geophysical Union, AGU);

Willis D. Hawley, American Association of Col-leges for Teacher Education (AACTE);

James D. Hennes, Curriculum and Evaluation,Colorado Department of Education;

Rosalie S. Humphrey, President Elect, AmericanSchool Counselor Association (ASCA);

C. Larry Hutchins, Executive Director, Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory(McREL), Colorado;

Louis A. Iozzi, Dean, Academic and StudentAffairs, Rutgers University;

Michael J. Jackson, Executive Director, Federa-tion of American Societies for Experimen-tal Biology (FASEB);

Mechelle R. LaWarre, President, APhA Acad-emy of Students of Pharmacy, AmericanPharmaceutical Association (AphA);

Leon M. Lederman, Chairman of Board of Di-rectors, American Association for the Ad-vancement of Science (AAAS), andDirector Emeritus, Fermi National Accel-erator Laboratory (Fermilab);

James E Marran, Co-Chair of the Teaching andLearning Task Force of the National Coun-cil for the Social Studies (NCSS);

Margit E. McGuire, President, National Coun-cil for the Social Studies (NCSS);

Patricia J. McWethy, Executive Director, Na-tional Association of Biology Teachers(NABT);

E. Gerald Meyer, President, American Instituteof Chemists (AIC);

Arvem Moore, President, National Head StartAssociation (NHSA);

Richard Nicholson, Executive Officer, AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Sci-ence (AAAS);

Nancy S. Perry, President, American SchoolCounselor Association (ASCA);

Terrence K. Quinn, Principal and Member of theBoaid of Education of the City of New York;

Samuel G. Sava, Executive Director, NationalAssociation of Elementary School Principals(NAESP);

George W Sledge, Associate Dean and Direc-tor, Academic Affairs, College of Agricul-tural and Life Sciences, University ofWiscc,nsin-Madison;

Carol E. Smith, Senior Director, Professional Is-sues, American Association of Colleges forTeacher Education (AACTE);

Marilyn M. Smith, Executive Director, NationalAssociation for the Education of Young Chil-dren (NAEYC) ;

Philip M. Smith, Executive Officer, National Re-search Council (NRC);

Dennis Sparks, Executive Director, NationalStaff Development Council (NSDC);

Richard W Tfaxler, Chair, Education Commit-tee, Society for Industrial Microbiology(SIM);

Carl E. Trim..., Executive Director, AmericanAssociation of Colleges of Pharmacy(AACP);

Sylvia A. Ware, Director, Education Division,American Chemical Society (ACS);

Gary D. Watts, Senior Director, National Edu-

cation Association (NEA); andEllen C. Weaver, Chair, Education Committee,

American Society of Plant Physiologists

(ASPP).

Although the Principles have received exten-sive review, we view this as an evolving docu-

ment and welcome further commentsconcerning possible omissions or areas that

require consideration in future revisions. Inaddition, we would like to learn about specific

applications and ways in which you have foundthese principles to be useful to your own work

or programs. Please send your comments toOffice of Psychology in Education, EducationDirectorate, American Psychological Associa-tion, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC

20002-4242.

Preamble

A.

merican education is broadly viewed as asystem in crisis. To overcome this crisis, the

i..... nation's president has set forth ambitiousgoals for education, and many efforts are un-der way to redesign and reformour educationalsystem. The American Psychological Associa-tion (APA) is committed to making a uniquecontribution to these efforts. We focus atten-tion on learner-centered principles that canprovide the foundation for improving the qual-ity of teaching and learning in America'sschools.

The principles contained in this document,many of them already implemented in exem-

plary classrooms, represent both an ideal visionand cumulative experience that will continueto evolve through research. Our objective is toprovide useful information consistent with re-search generated by psychologists and educa-tors in the areas of learning, motivation, andhuman development. Use of these principlesin reforming education will serve shared goals:educational excellence, with a focus on theindividual learner.

Conversely, educational reform efforts thatdo not take these principles into account willsurely fail.

Background

Tshroughout its history, psychology has pro-vided vital information for the design ofchooling based on theory and research on

human nature, learning, and development.Research in psychology relevant to educationhas never been more productive than duringthe past 10 years. Advances in our understand-ing of thinking, memory, and cognitive andmotivational processes can directly contributeto improvements in teaching, learning, and thewhole enterprise of schooling. At the sametime, educators concerned with the growingproblems of school dropout, low levels of aca-demic achievement, and other indicators ofschool failure are arguing for more learner- cen-tered models of schooling. Such models attendto the diversity among students and use it toenrich learning and produce results within thecontext of current school reform.

The following principles, which are consis-tent with more than a century of research onteaching and learning, are widely shared andimplicitly recognized in many excellent pro-grams found in today's schools. They also in-tegrate research and practice in various areasof psychology, including clinical, developmen-tal, experimental, social, organizational, com-munity, educational, and school psychology, aswell as in education, sociology, anthropology,and philosophy. In addition, these principlesreflect conventional and scientific wisdom:They comprise not only those systematicallyresearched and evolving learner-centered prin-ciples that can lead to effective schooling butalso principles that can lead to positive mentalhealth and more effective functioning of our

nation's children, their teachers, and the sys-tems that serve them.

Learner-centered psychological principlesand a systems perspective for incorporatingthem are necessary components of a new de-sign for schooling. The systems perspectivemust focus on human functions at multiplelevels of the educational system (learning,teaching, evaluating, and managing). From thisperspective, educational practice will improveonly when the educational system is redesignedwith the primary focus on the learner. Psycholo-gists, in collaboration with educators, can helpdecide how best to apply sound psychologicalprinciples in the redesign of America's schools.A new and exciting vision of schooling, andpsychology's role in this vision, can thenemerge.

Our immediate goal in offering theselearner-centered psychological principles is toprovide guidelines that can contribute to cur-rent educational reform and school redesignefforts and thus help meet the nation's educa-tional goals. Through dialogue with concernedgroups of educators, researchers, and policymakers, these principles can evolve further tocontribute not only to a new design forAmerica's schools, but also to a society com-mitted to lifelong learning, healthy humandevelopment, and productivity. In developingthese principles, psychologytogether withother disciplinescan offer a unique contri-bution to the betterment of America's schoolsand the enhancement of the nation's vitalhuman resources.

Learner-centered psychological principles

T che following 12 psychological principlespertain to the learner and the learning pro-ess. They focus on psychological factors

that at e primarily inte) nal to the learner whilerecognizing external environment or contex-tual factors that interact with these internal fac-tors. These principles also attempt to dealholistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they must beunderstood as an organized set of principles and

not be treated in isolation. The first 10 prin-ciples subdivide into those referring tometacognitive and cognitive, affective, developmen-

tal, and social factors and issues. Two final prin-ciples cut across the prior principles and focuson what psychologists know about individual dif-ferences. Finally, the principles are intended toapply to all learners, beginning with pre-schoolers.

Metacognitiveand cognitivefactors

Principle 1 The nature of the laming process. Learn-

ing is a natural process of pursuing personally meaningful goals,

and it is active, volitional, ond internally mediated; it is a pro-

cess of discovering and constructing meaning from information

and experience, filtered through the learner's unique perceptions,

thoughts, and feelings.

Students have a natural inclination to learnand pursue personally relevant learning goals.They are capable of assuming personal respon-sibility for learningmonitoring, checking forunderstanding, and becoming active, self-di-rected learnersin an environment that takespast learning into account, ties new learningto personal goals, and actively engages studentsin their own learning process. In meaningful lifesituations, even very young children naturallyengag, n self-directed learning activities topursue personal goals. During the learning pro-cess, individuals create their own meanings andinterpretations on the basis of previously exist-ing understandings and beliefs.

Principle 2 Goals of the learning process. The learner

seeks to create meaningful, coherent representations of knowl-

edge regardless of the quantity and quality of data available.

Learners generate integrated, commonsenserepresentations and explanation.; for evenpoorly understood or communicated facts,concepts, principles, or theories. Learning pro-

cesses operate holistically in the sense thatinternally consistent understandings emergethat may or may not be valid from an objec-tive, externally oriented perspective. As learn-ers internalize values and meanings within adiscipline, however, they can refine their con-ceptions by filling in gaps, resolving inconsis-tencies, and revising prior conceptions.

Principle 3 The ccestnidion of knowledge.% learner

links new information with existing and future-oriented knowl-

edge in uniquely meaningful ways.

Given that backgrounds and experiences ofindividuals can differ dramatically, and giventhat the mind works to link information mean-ingfully and holistically, learners organize in-formation in ways that are uniquely meaningfulto them. A goal in formal education is to haveall learners create shared understandings andconceptions regarding fundamental knowledgeand skills that define and lead to valued learn-ing outcomes. In these situations, teachers canassist learners in acquiring and integratingknowledge (e.g., by teaching them strategies forconstructing meaning, organizing content, ac-cessing prior knowledge, relating new knowl-edge to general themes or principles, storing orpracticing what they have learned, and visual-izing future uses for the knowledge).

Principle 4 Higher-order thinking. Higher-order strate-

gies for "thinking about thinking"----for overseeing and moni-

torMg mental operationsfacirrtate creative and critical thinking

and the development of expertise.

During early to middle childhood, learnersbecome capable of a metacognitive or execu-tive level of thinking about their own thinkingthat includes self-awareness, self-inquiry ordialogue, self-monitoring, and self-regulation of

the processes and contents of thoughts, knowl-edge structures, and memories. Learners'awareness of their personal agency or controlover thinking and learning processes promoteshigher levels of commitment, persistence, andinvolvement in learning. To foster this self-awareness of agency, learners need settingswhere their personal interests, values, and goalsare respected and accommodated.

Principle 5 Motivational influences on horning. The

depth and breadth of information processed, and what and how

much is learned and remembered, are influenced by (a) self-

awareness and beliefs about personal control, competence,and

abiLity (b) clarity and saliency of personal values, interests, and

goals; (c) personal expectations for success or failure; (d) af-

fect, emotion, and general states of mind; and (e) the resulting

motivation to learn.

The rich internal world of beliefs, goals,e-nectations, and feelings can enhance or in-terfere with learners' quality of thinking andinformation processing. The relationshipamong thoughts, mood, and behavior under-lies individuals' psychological health and abilityto learn. Learners' interpretations or cognitiveconstructions of reality can impede positivemotivation, learning, and performance, as cannegative thoughts and feelings. Conversely,positive learning experiences can help reversenegative thoughts and feelings and enhancestudent motivation to learn.

Principle 6 intrinsic motivation to horn. Individuals

are naturally curious and enjoy learning, but intense negative

cognitions and emotions (e.g., feeling insecure, worrying about

failure, being selkonscious Of shy, and fearing corporal punish-

ment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) thwart this enthusiasm.

Educators must support and develop stu-dents' natural curiosity or intrinsic motivation

Y.,

to learn, rather than "fixing them" or drivingthem by fear of corporal punishment or exces-sive punishments of any kind. Also, both posi-tive interpersonal support and instruction inself-control strategies can offset factors thatinterfere with optimal learningfactors suchas low self-awareness; negative beliefs; lack oflearning goals; negative expectations for suc-cess; and anxiety, insecurity, or pressure.

Principle 7 Characteristics of motivation-enhanc-

ing horning tasks. Curiosity, creativity, and higher-order

thinking are stimulated by relevant, authentic learning tasks of

optimal difficulty and novelty for each student.

Positive affect, creativity, and flexible andinsightful thinking are promoted in contextsthat learners perceive as personally relevantand meaningful. For example, students needopportunities to make choices in line w;.,h theirinterests and to have the freedom to change

course of learning in light of self-awareness,discovery, or insights. Projects that are compa-rable to real-world situations in complexity andduration elicit students' higher-order thinkingskills and creativity. In addition, curiosity isenhanced when students can work on person-ally relevant learning tasks of optimal difficultyand novelty.

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Affectivefactors

Developmentalfactors

Principle 8 Developmental constraints and oppor-

tunities. Individuals progress through stages of physical, intel .

lectual, emotional, and social development that are a function

of unique genetic and environmental Wars.

Children learn best when material is appro-priate to their developmental level and is pre -sented in an enjoyable and interesting way,while challenging their intellectual, emotional,physical, and social development. Unique en,vironmental factors (e.g., the quality of lan-guage interactions between adult and child and

parental involvement in the child's schooling)can influence development in each area. Anoveremphasis on developmental readiness,however, may preclude learners from demon-strating that they are more capable intellectu-ally than schools, teachers, or parents allowthem to show. Awareness and understandingof developmental differences of children withspecial emotional, physical or intellectual dis-abilities as well as special abilities can greatlyfacilitate efforts to create optimal contexts forlearning.

Personal andsocial factors

Principle 9 Sodal and cultural diversity. Learning is

facilitated by social interactions and communication with others

in flexible, diverse (in age, culture, family background, etc.),

and adaptive instructional settings.

Learning is facilitated when the learner hasan opportunity to interact with various stu-dents representing different cultural and fam-ily backgrounds, interests, and values. Learningsettings that allow for and respect diversityencourage flexible thinking as well as socialcompetence and moral development. In suchsettings, individuals have an opportunity forperspective taking and reflective thinking,thereby leading to insights and breakthroughsto new knowledge.

Principle 10 Social acceptance, self-esteem, and

laming. Looming and self-esteem ore heightened when indi-

viduals are in respectful and caring relationships with others who

see their potenfiol, genuinely appreciate their unique talents, and

accept them as individuals.

Quality personal relationships give the in-dividual access to higher-order, healthier lev-els of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Teachers'(or other significant adults') states of mind,stability, trust, and caring are preconditions forestablishing a sense of belonging, self-respect,self-acceptance, and positive climate for learn-ing. Healthier levels of thinking are those thatare less self-conscious, insecure, irrational, andself-deprecating. Self-esteem and learning aremutually reinforcing.

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Pried* 11 intlivirlool differences in homing. Al-

though basic principles of learning, motivation, and effeclive

instruction apply to all learners (regardless of ethnkity, race, gen-

der, physical ability, religion, or socioeconomic status), learners

have different capabilities and preferences for learning mode and

strategies. These differences are a function of environment (what

is learned and communicated in different cultures or other social

groups) and heredity (what occurs naturally as a funciion of

genes).

The same basic principles of learning, moti-vation, and effective instruction apply to alllearners. However, individuals are born withand develop unique capabilities and talents andhave acquired through learning and social ac-culturation different preferences for how theylike to learn and the pace at which they learn.Also, student differences and curricular andenvironmental conditions are key factors thatgreatly affect learning outcomes. Understand-ing and valuing cultural differences and thecultural contexts in which learners developenhances the possibilities for desigr,.ng and

implementing learning environments that areoptimal for all students.

Principle 12 Cognitive filters. Personal bergs, thoughts,

and understandings resulting from prior learning and interpreto-

fans become the individual's basis for constructing reality and

interpreting life experiences.

Unique cognitive constructions form a ba-sis for 1 eliefs and attitudes about others. Indi-viduals then operate out of these "separaterealities" as if they were true for everyone, of-ten leading to misunderstandings and conflict.Awareness and understanding of these phe-nomena allow greater choice in what one be-lieves and more control over the degree towhich one's beliefs influence one's actions andenable one to see and take into account oth-ers' points of view. The cognitive, emotional,and social development of a child and the waythat child interprets life experiences are a prod-uct of prior schooling, home, culture, and com-munity factors.

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Individualdifferences

Implications for school redesign and reform

1.1

he foregoing principles have implicationsfor educational practice in the areas of in-struction, curriculum, assessment, instruc-

tional management, teacher education, parentand community roles, and educational policy.Some of these implications are listed in the

following sections to provide examples that areconsistent with the learner-centered principles.They are intended to stimulate further think-ing, discussion, and elaboration of ideas towarddeveloping new designs for education.

Instruction Effective instruction

+ Involves students in their own learning, withopportunities for teacher and peer interactionsthat engage students' natural curiosity andopportunities for personal reflection and self-study;

Encourages students to link prior knowledgewith new information by providing multipleways of presenting information (e.g., auditory,visual, and kinesthetic).-c Attends to the content of curriculum do-mains and to generalized and domain-specificprocesses that facilitate the acquisition and in-tegration of knowledge in these domains; and4. Includes constructive and informative feed-back regarding the learner's instructional ap-proach and products, as well as sufficientopportunities to practice applying new knowl-edge and skills to developmentally appropriatelevels of mastery.

Offers opportunities for acquiring and prac-ticing various learning strategies in differentcontent domains to help students develop andeffectively use their minds while learning;

+ Encourages problem solving, planning, com-plex decision making, debates, group discus-sions, and other strategies that enhance thedevelopmentof higher-order thinking and useof metacognitive strategies;

Helps students understand and respect in-dividual differences by learning principles ofthinking and psychological functioning andhow these operate in building attitudes andbelief systems about others;

Enables learners to plan future directionsand apply what they learn;4. Maintains fair, consistent, and caring policiesthat respect the individual by focusing on indi-vidual mastery ane .00perative teamwork ratherthan on competitive derformance goals; and

F.nsures that all students have experiencewith (a) teachers interested in their area ofinstruction, (b) teachers who respect and valuethem as individuals, (c) positive role modelingand mentoring, (d) constructive and regularevaluations, (e) optimistic teacher expecta-tions, and (f) use of questioning skills to activelyinvolve them in learning.

Curriculum Effective curricula

+ Attend to affect and mood as well as cogni-tion and thinking in all learning activities andexperiences, thereby totally engaging thelearner;4 Include assessments from students andteachers to check for student understanding ofthe subject matter, including implications andapplications of knowledge.

4. Have an affective and cognitive richnessthat helps students generate positive thoughtsand feelings of excitement and interest;4. Help students engage in higher-order think-ing and practice metacognitive strategies, in-cluding reflective self-awareness and goal setting;4, Help students to be more aware of their ownpsychological functioning and how it relates totheir own learning;

2

4. Include authentic (relevant to the realworld) tasks and assessments that help studentsintegrate information and performance acrosssubject matter disciplines while allowing stu-dents to choose levels of difficulty for challengeor novelty;4. Are developmentally appropriate to the in-tellectual, emotional, physical, and social. char-acteristics of the individual;4. Help students increase awareness and under-standing of how thought processes operate toproduce separate, self-confirming realities so that

they can better understand different individuals,as well as different social and religious groups;

Encourage students to see positive qualitiesin all groups of learners, regardless of race, sex,culture, physical ability, or other individualdifferences; and4- Include activities that promote empathy andunderstanding, respect for individual differ-ences, and valuing of different perspectives,including materials from a multicultural per-spective.

Effective assessment

+ Is integrated with instruction to continuelearning progress and is authentic in contentand performance requirements;O Measures personal progress and achieve-ment, rather than comparing an individual'sperformance with the performance of others,and fosters personal learning goals;+ Redefines success; Indards should be basednot on competition, but on self-selected orcollaborative learning goals that promote self-generated solutions;

Enables students to make various choices,including the types ofproducts for demonstrat-ing achievement of educational standards;4. Measures sl..ident growth and allows for thehighest levels of performance on developmen-tally appropriate standards; standards are for-mulated in such a way that every student hasan opportunity to excel at something; and

Promotes students' self-reflection on theirgrowth by providing opportunities for self-as-sessment and thoughtful feedback on learningprogress.

Assessment

Effective schools and classrooms

4. Accommodate mentoring and make timeand physical space and facilities for students topursue their learning goals and activities;4. Are prepared to present materials at differ-ent developmental levels to children of thesame age;4. Encourage cooperation and respect for di-versity and individual differences and discour-age practices that are not inclusive of alllearners;

Accommodate differences in intelligenceand special talents in the artistic, musical, spa-tial, physical, and social domains;

Provide alternative technologies or paths tolearning for students with special needs (e.g.,total communication systems for hearing im-pairments, Braille systems for visual impair-ments, argumentative communication formultiple impairments) and teachers qualifiedto use them;O Provide support systems for students andteachers to deal constructively with expecta-tions to master challenging curricula and ex-hibit quality performance (e.g., throughindividual attention and support groups); and

Meet the needs of the whole child (emo-tional, intellectual, social, physical) by provid-

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Instructionalmanagement

;ng integrated physical health, mental health,and social services in addition to academicservices.

Effective learning environments

+ Encourage student choice in areas such astopics of learning, types of projects on whichto work and whether to learn independentlyor in groups;+ Are flexible in matching individual studentneeds with variations in instructional formatand processes, including content, organization,strategies, and social settings;+ Emphasize respect and acceptance of differ-ences and discourage stigmatizing practicessuch as labeling, ability grouping, or grade levelretention;

Include the flexible and creative use ofcross-age and peer-tutoring models. Effectivecurricula avoid grade-level materials that arctoo easy for fast-learning students and too dif-ficult for slow-learning students; and

+ Foster quality adult-student relationshipsbased on understanding and mutual respect;such relationships reciprocally reduce levels ofstress and insecurity in teachers and students.+ Are conducive to quiet, reflective thoughtand to cooperative social interaction;

Support students in developing ideas throughstudent- centeled projects and activities that pro-mote student choice and responsibility;+ Attend to meaningful performance contexts(e.g., apprenticeship settings) wherein knowl-edge can be anchored to meaningful priorknowledge and experience;+ Are warm, comfortable, and supportive;they help minimize students' insecurities andpromote a sense of belonging;

Provide high standards and optimistic ex-pectations for all students, while respectingcultural diversity, developmental variations,and other individual differences; and

Provide for an appropriate diversity of abili-ties, ages, cultures, and other individual differ-ences in grouping students.

Effective teacher education programs+ Include standards for teacher and staff se-lection that attend to attitudes and beliefs thatreflect the teacher's orientation to differentstudent groups.

Are based on the preceding principles oflearner-centered instruction in both pre- andin-service programs.+ Offer strategies for establishing positive cli-mates for learning, including ways to handleand reverse negative thoughts and moods, inteachers and students, that interfere withteaching and learning.

Help teachers see how their own attitudesand motivation for teaching and learning af-fect student motivation and learning in theclassroom.

Provide the knowledge base about the cog-nitive, emotional, and motivational processes

tk

that affect learning so that teachers can pro-mote higher-order thinking and learning pro-cesses.+ Include information about general anddomain-specific metacognitive strategies andhow they can most effectively be taught to stu-dents of differing abilities and backgrounds.

Encourage teachers to "think out loud"during explanations as a strategy for makingproblem solving explicit and transparent, thusmodeling metacognitive thinking and teach-ing strategies for their sttyl-nts.+ Provide information about intellectual,emotional, physical, and social characteristicsof children at various development levels, aswell as methods for assessing and accommoc'ing developmental and intellectual differenck...,in learning ability.

1 4

. Emphasize ways to actively involve studentsin the learning process and to elicit the mate-rial or solutions from the students themselvesin a way that is non-threatening and that willspark students' creative thinking.. Focus on strategies for diagnosing and en-couraging students' use of self-directed moti-vational and learning processes.

Help teachers understand how each studentlearns best and to relate subject matter to eachsi:udent's interests in a manner that triggers thestudent's curiosity and innate interest in learn-ing.4. Include information on how to engage stu-dents' excitement and intrinsic interest inlearning in a way that bypasses students' self-consciousness, concern about self-image, orneed to prove themselves and without relyingon external rewards that undermine natural in-terest in learning.+ Help teachers understand how to continu-ally demonstrate respect and caring for students

in the classroom while maintaining an orga-nized classroom in an authoritative (as opposedto authoritarian) manner.

Include stress management training thatemphasizes principles of mind-emotion-behav-ior relationships and how to provide socio-emotional support.. Include strategies for selecting curricula thatprovide appropriate levels of cognitive com-plexity and authenticity for students at differ-ent levels of development and ability.+ Help teachers become more aware of (a) theneed to relate instructional content and pro-cesses to the cultural contexts of their studentsand (b) the differences that cultures impose onpublic displays of volunteering information,asking questions, asking for help, discussingpersonal concerns in public, and a host of othercultural values and constraints that can enrichthe classroom when recognized or lead to chaosand misattributions when ignored.

+ Effective school systems will be designedthrough collaboration of students, teachers,counselors, administrators, parents, and com-munity members. Once a new vision is gener-ated, staff development is the place to start.

Effective school systems work closely withfamilies and subcultures in aiding studentlearning. Schooling is just one of many forcesinfluencing the learning of individuals. Other

dimensions of proven influence are the family,peer groups, and the subcultures with whichindividuals identify.+ Effective school management provides stu-dents, teachers, and parents with input into andresponsibility for curriculum, rules of discipline,and other policies and practices that provide asecure and supportive climate for students andteachers.

ilParent andcommunity

involvemeni

The learner-centered principles cannot betreated in isolation when deriving policy im-plications. Taken together, these principlesdescribe a new view of the learner, the learn-ing process, and implications for instruction.It is this broader view of the whole learner andimplications for instructionincluding teach-ing, learning, and assessmentthat allows for

a learner-centered, systems perspective in de -riving policy implications.

Policies should

+ Recognize that learning can only be as en-riching as the teacher's ability to foster it andthe system's commitment to meeting the lear-ner's needs. Teachers cannot automatically be

Policyimplicationsfor learner-

centered schoolredesign

assumed capable of facilitating learning andgrowth without ongoing administrative effortsto support teachers' self-development in intel-lectual, emotional, social, and behavioral ar-eas. Thus, policy must address ways to ensurethe reciprocal empowerment of both teachersand students such that teachers feel sufficientlysupported and valued and can, in turn, em-power their students.

Allow for the construction of a learningenvironment that adapts to individual learnerneeds, avoiding overly rigid and reductionisticdefinitions of the curriculum, specification ofobjectives, and schedules for when and wherelearning occurs. Definitions and regulations ofwhat, when, and for how long topics are to bestudied and what resources are used should bedrawn in a way that maximizes the flexibilityand choice students and teachers have to or-ganize learning to meet the needs of individualchildren.0 Reflect the need for learners to integrate andorganize knowledge in personally meaningfulways. Curriculum and assessment processesshould encourage learners to see the connec-tions between what they are asked to learn andwhat they already know, how information be-ing learned relates to other subjects and disci-plines, and how the knowledge is used andconnects with real world situationsthat is,situations that are not academically abstractedfrom natural phenomena and experiences.Policies should facilitate the organization oflearning tasks around problem situations thatintegrate low- and high-literacy skills such asthinking about thinking and creative and criti-cal thinking.O Encourage the organization of sNuences orhierarchies of learning tasks so thar assessmentof progress reflects the growth of the learner'sskills and knowledge, not the matching of con-tent rigidly tied to age lr grade.

Acknowledge the roles that personal beliefsabout self, personal expectations about learn-

ing, and other cognitive constructions can playin learning and self-development. Further-more, policies should acknowledge the impor-tance of affective and cognitive developmentand give students the opportunity to increasetheir understanding of their psychological func-tioning (e.g., using psychological personnel toassist students in self-development).O Encourage the creation of instructional set-tings that cross the full range of social media-tion contexts needed for learning (e.g., workingalone, working with others, and working withother groups as a member of a team. Regula-tions and resources should be flexible and en-courage this variety of settings; policies thatpromote only one perspective, such as indi-vidual isolation or competition among stu-dents, should be avoided.O Acknowledge the diversity found in theUnited States among individual students' in-terests, cultural backgrounds, motivations, andabilities. The American school program needsto be diverse in character, structure, and intentto adequately meet the needs of the full rangeof these learners. Using single programs, stan-dards, and learning goals for all learners ignoresthe fact and value of diversity.O Facilitate the interaction of psychology withother disciplines such that concerns relative tothe psychological health and functioning oflearners are considered. Interactions amongdisciplines and their embodiment in fundingand service provider agencies can mutuallyenhance the knowledge base and attention tothe needs of the whole (emotional, intellectual,social, and physical).O Enable schools to provide services for all ofa child's needs and for all children, allowingschools to be the locus of services with connec-tions to other service providers. Mechanismsfor facilitating school-community linkagesshould be considered and promoted, as well asschool-family and school-business linkages.

16

Applying the learner-centered principlesand their implications to issues in th.e assessmentof student achievement

\)Vithin the current national debate on

what methods should be used to assessstudent progress toward national educa-

tional goals, one important area in which toapply the learner-centered principles is studentassessment. A central assumption is that to im-prove educational outcomes for all learners,one has to create a learner-centered assessmentsystem that requires high standards for each stu-dent for each goal, individually negotiated bythe student and the teacher. Also, a classroominstructional program is needed that helps stu-dents to achieve learner-centered standards.Assessments can be based on a variety of evi-dence about student achievement, whichmight include folios, projects, and performance.The critical difference between (a) a learner-centered assessment system based on goals and(b) standards established by the local commu-nity and implemented by teachers is that by in-volving learners in the process, only thelearner-centered system promises consider-ation of the diversity of the nation's communi-ties and school children in the redesign ofschools. In this context, assessments are prod-uctsways students have chosen to demon-strate their developing competencies andachievement of learning standards.

Assessing student performance on a task heor she is not interested in or cannot see thepurpose of amounts to assessing boring curricu-lum and what it elicits from a student; it doesnot assess learning. The starting point needs tobe good pedagogy and sound educational theo-ries. The learner-centered perspective consid-ers the learner's thoughts and feelings aboutlearning and schooling. It emphasizes that stu-dents learn because something is meaningfulto them, not because they must perform sometask. Learning and performance are not thesame, and they need to be distinguished in newassessment systems. The bottom. line is that

students need to be consulted and involved in thedesign of assessment systems that serve them bet-ter. They will learn and perform better if theysee schools as relevant places in which to spendtime in and if they can choose their goals andthe products they will make to demonstratetheir development and achievement.

Emerging learner-centered principles of assessnentThe following principles of assessment can

be derived from the foregoing learner-centeredprinciples.1 . The fundamental purpose of any educa-tional assessment of students should be to pro-mote meaningful learning.2. The design of standards of excellence andassessment systems should be negotiated by theparticipantsincluding parents, teachers, ad-ministrators, and studentsin districts andstates to ensure commitment and ownershipamong primary stakeholders.3. Assessment should elicit students' genuineeffort, motivation, and commitment to thegoals of assessment and foster self-appraisal andself-regulated learning.4. The strategies, skills, and knowledge re-quired to excel on academic assessments shouldbe the same as those required to master thecurriculum on a daily basis.5. Assessments should be based on authenticand meaningful tasks that are aligned with theregular curriculum and instruction provided inthe classroom.6. Assessment should provide credibility andlegitimacy to a broad range of talents and ac-complishments of students across the curricu-lum.7. A single national test of academic achieve-ment should be avoided because it cannot dojustice to the diversity of students' accomplish-ments in this heterogeneous and multiculturalsociety.

8. Assessments should be fair and equitable toall students regardless of prior achievement,gender, race, language, or cultural background.9. All assessments should provide for periodicreview and revision among the participants andconsumers of assessment information.1 0. Assessment should occur continuously inclassrooms in order to provide longitudinalevidence of individual growth.1 1 . Assessments should measure students'motivation, attitudes, and affective reactionsabout the curriculum as well as their cognitiveskills, strategies, and knowledge.

1 2. Assessments should include exhibits,portfolios, and performances to demonstrateachievement in addition to traditional paper-and-pencil tests.1 3. The results of assessment should provideclear, comprehensible, and immediate feedbackto the participants.1 4. Assessments need to provide for multipleplausible responses and growth in understand-ing through errors.1 5. Assessment needs to allow for creative andself-determining constructions and expressionsof knowledge rather than focusing on prede-termined problem-and-answer sets.

Fourth revision, dated January, 1993, of a proposal from theAPA Task Force on Psychology in Education and the Mid-continent Regional Education Laboratoty (McREL). This andsubsequent revisions were based on input from a wide circu-lation of each draft among psychologists and educators. Sincethis project was begun, we have learned of other work onlearning principles by Art Combs. While different in empha-sis and detail, there is a congruence with regard to majorfactors that are essential to learning.