)

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 321 350 EA 021 942

TITLE Union Involvement in Knowledge/Skill Development,Data-Search Number 5. What Research Says AboutSeries.

:3STITUTION National Education Association, Washington, D.C.PUB DATE Aug 86NOTE 32p.

PUB TYPE Reports - Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Apprenticeships; Elementary Secondary Education;

*Government Role; *Job Training; *On the JobTraining; *Teachers; *Unions

IDENTIFIERS *Bureau of Apprenticeship and Trai-ing

ABSTRACT

In the current educational reform climate, teachertraining is being intensely scrutinized by policy makers, the generalpublic, and teachers clamoring for increased training in thepractical aspects of teaching. This booklet examines the labororganization's role in its members' job-related training. Althoughunions have historically played a major role in their members'knowledge and skill development, no comprehensive or authoritativeinformation sources on training programs with union involvementexist. The study summarized here attempts to rectify this situationby examining apprenticeship programs conducted under the auspices ofthe Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT), the Department ofLabor agency responsible for the administration and technical supportof programs meeting federal standards. Journeyman upgrading programsare also investigated, along with the Air Line Pilots Association'sinvolvement in training and evaluation. Study results indicate thatunion training programs and union involvement in issues aroundtraining serve to further the collective interests of individualunions' members. Apprenticeship and other training programs helpunions: (1) define their respective crafts; (2) adapt to tradechanges; (3) ensure maximum employability of their members; (4)ensure workers' skill consistency; and (5) tie increases incompensation to increases in skills. Intermediary government agenciesdo not necessarily eliminate unions' training and evaluation role,but instead define areas of union involvement. (39 references)(MLH)

* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *

* from the original document. *

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Foreword

In the current climate of educational reform,teacher training is being subjected to intense scruti-ny. Policy makers, members of the general public ,and teachers themselves are clamoring for in-creased training in the practical aspects of teaching.

At issue here is the role a labor organization canor should play hi the job-related training of itsmembers While unions have historically played amajor role in the knowledge and skill developmentof their members, no comprehensive or authorita-tive source of information on trhining programswith union involvement existed at the time thisstudy was initiated.

This study examines contemporary job-relatedtraining programs with union involvement. Pro-grams are analyzed with respect to the ways theyserve to further the interests of the labor organiza-tions themselves. It is our hope that this study willprovide material and insights for the considerationof possible NEA roles with respect to on-the-jobteacher training along with the potential advantagessuch involvement might hold for the organization.

This study uses available documents on Depart-ment of Labor-approved programs, union constitu-tions, Business Roundtable publications, bulletinsfrom the Department of Labor's Bureau of Appren-ticeship and Training, and interviews with officialsfrom the AFL-CIO and international unions.

We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of IPDand Affiliate Services in reviewing and respondingto earlier drafts of this paper.

August 1986

UNION INVOLVEMENTIN KNOWLEDGE/SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Number 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 5

FURTHERING THE COLLECTIVE INTERESTS OF UNION MEMBERSAND SOCIETY 6

APPRENTICESHIP 8

JOURNEYMAN UPGRADING 23

THE BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION TRADES UNION 24

TRAINING AND EVALUATION UNDER GOVERNMENT AUSPICES:THE ALPA EXAMPLE 29

REFERENCES 30

INTRODUCTION

Our inquiry begins with the study of apprentice-ship programs conducted under the auspices of theBureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT). BATis the Department of Labor agency responsible forthe administration and technical support of programsmeeting federal standards. Programs recognized byBAT are the most important source of skilled work-ers in the United States. The issues of definition,number of participants, principal unions, programorganization, union and government regulation, ap-prentice evaluation, funding, objectives, and the per-centage of journeymen going through apprenticeshipprograms are taken up in this section.

Second, journeyman upgrading programs are in-vestigated. A shortage of information on this subjecthas precluded more than a brief note on it.

The critical importance of apprenticeship andjourneymr^, upgrading programs in the building andconstruction trades unions cannot be understood outof the context of contemporary developments in theU.S. construction industry (specifically the growthof the open shop movement).

For this reason, a brief discussion of how con-struction unions operate is included together with anoverview of the open shop movement in the con-struction industry.

Third, we discuss the involvement of the Air LinePilots Association in training and evaluation. TheALPA example is important because it illustratesunion training involvement in an industry heavilyregulated by the federal government. Our brief ex-amination attempts to point out that while stringentfederal regulations do not preclude union involve-ment, they dame the areas in which unions are al-lowed to exercise their authority.

The principal findings from our investigation ofunion involvement in training and evaluation are pre-sented in the beginning of this volume. The extent towhich these conclusions are related to the occi.?a-tional conditions of education professionals is left forfuture studies to determine.

711MIIV AIMMMN, 5

FURTHERING THE COLLECTIVE INTERESTS OFUNION MEMBERS AND SOCIETY

This study indicates that union training programsand union involvement in issues around trainingserve to further the collective interests of the mem-bers of individual unions. Our conclusions are notedbelow.

Apprenticeship and other training programs giveunions the opportunity to control the labor market.This stems from unions' control over admission intojoint training programs and the absence of other pro-grams which are capable of turning out skilledcraftsmen. If non-union employers manage to pro-duce an adequate supply of non-union jour-neyworkers, they will undercut the power of the es-tablished trade unions much more than they alreadyhave. For our purposes, however, the critical pointis that control over training can serve to secure con-trol over labor market conditions.

Apprenticeship and other training programs pro-vide unions with the opportunity to define their re-spective crafts. In defining ski' 1, unions define thecontent of their members' woems. This becomes veryimportant when occupational boundaries are underattack or in the process of change.

Apprenticeship and other training programs areone means by which unions can adapt to changes intheir respective trades. In order to protect their posi-tions in the labor market (and hence their wagestructures), union., must keep their members ap-prised of changes in their respective trades. In train-ing programs, union members are kept abreast offlanges in their trades.

Apprenticeship programs are one way for unionsto insure the maximum employability of their mem-bers. Because union members learn the full range ofskills they need to know in order to work in theirchosen trades, they can be employed in a much wid-er range of tasks than their non-union counterparts.

Apprenticeship and other training programs en-sure the consistency of workers' skills for individualoccupations. In consonance with this, apprenticeslearn skills that are easily transferable from one re-gion to another and one project to another.

Apprenticeship programs underline the principlethat increases in compensation should be tied to in-

6

creases in skills. Apprentices are paid less than jour-neymen because they are not as proficient as jour-neymen in their crafts.

Rather than union involvement in training andevaluation undermining the strength of the union, theAFL-CIO Building and Construction Trades Depart-ment sees training as "one of the principal tools tocombat the open shop."

In some instances, apprenticeship and otherunion-sponsored training programs serve to createsupport for the union and union-sponsored trainingamong managers. Construction trades managers andcontractors ha"e come through apprenticeship pro-grams occasionally. This suggests that apprentice-ship programs offer some managers their first train-ing in the customs and practices of the constructionindustry.

Concerning federal government involvement, in-termediary government agencies do not necessarilyeliminate the role of unions in training and evaiaa-tion, but instead define the areas in which unionsmay be involved.

Further, government regulation of apprenticetraining programs permits a great deal of local dis-cretion. While national standards are promulgatedfor individual trades, local administration of nationalstandards and the adaptation cif national standards forlocal use keeps national standards relevant to localneeds. The lesson in this instance is that nationalstandards must be flexible enough to permit some de-gree of local adaptation and interpretation. Thistakes on special importance in the context of at-tempts to introduce national standards for teachercertification.

From the standpoint of society, union involvementin skill development prevents "dilution of thetrade." When dilution of the trade occurs, it is not atemporary phenomenon. It results in the permanentelimination of skills insofar as fewer and fewercraftsmen are available to teach the full range ofskills contained in the craft. For example, only a fewpeople remain that are capable of carving stone. Inanother vein, compare the tilework in Washington'sMetro system with the tilework in New York's sub-way system. There are few tileworkers left who can

do the kind of work found in New York's subwayplatforms or in the enormous tile mural in the AFLCIO lobby. This is a loss to society, not just to thetrade. This results in the restriction of the kind ofconstrvction and architecture we are capable of as asociety.

The initial conclusions drawn from this study arepotentially applicable to education professionals atthe present time. The extent of applicability, how-ever, cannot be determined without additional dis-cussion and debate

7

APPRENTICESHIP

Definition

Apprenticeship is formal training in a skill orcraft. Apprenticeship programs combine on-the-jobtraining with related classroom instruction. Since ap-prentices are actually employed while being trained,apprenticeship is distinguished from vocational edu-cation.

According to the U.S. Department of Labor, anapprenticeship program constitutes an effectivemethod of training workers under the following con-ditions:

On the job

For a specific length of time

At predetermined rates of training pay

For a specified range of skills

In one particular occupation

With stated hours of related technical instruction

Under a written agreement between the programsponsor and apprentice (BAT, Setting Up, p. 3A).

Federal and state apprenticeship agencies current-ly recognize over 800 occupations as apprenticeable.

Government Regulation

The modern form of apprenticeship programsdates from 1937 and the passage of the National Ap-prenticeship Act. The Act mandated regular stan-dards and goals for employers, unions, and appren-tices.

Under the National Apprenticehsip Act, the U.S.Secretary of Labor is authorized and directed to"formulate and promote the furtherance of laborstandards necessary to safeguard the welfare of theapprentices, to extend the application of such stan-dards by encouraging the inclusion thereof in con-tracts of apprenticeship, to bring together employersand labor for the formulation of programs of appren-ticeship, to cooperate with State agencies engaged inthe formulation and promotion of standards of ap-

8

prenticeship, and to cooperate with the Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare."

Programs registered with the U.S. Department ofLabor are regulated under 29 CFR 29 (Labor Stan-dards for the Registration of Apprenticeship Pro-grams) and 29 CFR 30 (Equal Employment Oppor-tunities in Apprenticeship and Training) of the Codeof Federal Regulations.

Title 29, Part 29 contains information on criteriafor apprenticeable occupations, standards of appren-ticeship, and content guidelines for apprenticeshipagreements. These guidelines are shown below.

According to 29 CFR 29.4, an apprenticeable oc-cupation is one that:

Is customarily learned in a practical way througha structured, systematic program of supervisedon-the-job training.

Is clearly identified and commonly recognizedthroughout an industry.

Involves manual, mechanical, or technical skillsand knowledge that require a minimum of 2,000hours of on-the-job work experience.

Requires related instruction to supplement the on-the-job training. Such instruction may be given ina classroom, through correspondence courses,self-study, or other means of approved instruction(BAT, Pitional Apprenticeship Programs, p. 4).

According to 29 CFR 29.5, apprenticeship pro-grams must contain the following standards in orderto be recognized by the Department of Labor:

The program is an organized, written plan em-bodying the terms and conditions of employment,training, and supervision of one or more appren-tices in the apprenticeable occupaton and sub-scribed to by a sponsor who has undertaken tocarry out the apprentice training program.

The program standards contain the equal opportu-nity pledge prescribed in 29 CFR 30.3(b) and,when applicable, an affirmative action plan in ac-cordance with 29 CFR 30.4, a selection methodauthorized in 29 CFR 30.5, or similar require-

9

ments expressed in a State Plan for Equal Employ-ment Opportunity in Aprenticeship adopted pursuantto 29 CFR Part 30 and provisions concerning thefollowing:

The employment and training of the apprenticein a skilled trade;A term of apprenticeship, not less than 2,000hours work experience, consistent with trainingrequirements established by industry practices;An outline of work processes in which the ap-prentice will receive supervised work experi-ence and training on the job, and the allocationof the approximate time to be spent in each ma-jor process;Provision for organized, related and supple-mental instruction in technical subjects relatedto the trade. A minimum of 144 hours for eachyear of apprenticeship is recommended;A progressively increasing schedule of wagesto be paid the apprentice consistent with theskill acquired;Periodic review and evaluation of the appren-tice's progress in job performance and relatedinstruction; and the maintenance of appropriateprogress records;The numeric ratio of apprentices to journeymenconsistent with proper supervision, training,safety, and continuity of employment and appli-cable provisions in collective bargaining agree-ments, except where such ratios are expresslyprohibited by the collective bargaining agree-ments;A probationary period reasonable in relation tothe full apprenticeship term, with full creditgiven for such period toward completion of ap-prenticeship;Adequate and safe equipment and facilities fortraining and supervision, and safety training forapprentices on the job and in related instruc-tion;The minimum qualifications required by asponsor for persons entering the apprenticeshipprogram, with an eligible starting age not lessthan 16 years;

The placement of an apprentice under a writtenapprenticeship agreement as required by theState apprenticeship law and regulation, or theBureau where no such State law or regulationexists;The granting of advanced standing or credit forpreviously acquired experience, training, orskills for all applicants equally, with commen-surate wages for any progression step so grant-ed;Transfer of employer's training obligationwhen the employer is unable to fulfill his obli-gation under the apprenticeship agreement toanother employer under the same program withconsent of the apprentice and apprenticeshipcommittee or program sponsor;Assurance of qualified training personnel andadequate supervision on the job;Recognition for successful completion of ap-prenticeship evidenced by a appropriate certifi-cate;Identification of the registration agency;Provision for the registration, cancellation, andderegistration of the program; and requirementfor the prompt submission of any modificationor amendment thereto;Provision for registration of apprenticeshipagreements, modifications, and amendments;notice to the registration office of persons whohave successfully completed apprenticeshipprograms; and notice of cancellations, suspen-sions and terminations of apprenticeship agree-ments and clauses thereof;Authority for the termination of an apprentice-ship agreement during the probationary periodby either party without stated cause;A statement that the program will be conduct-ed, rerated and administered in corionnity withapplicable provisions of 29 CFR 30, as amend-ed, or a State EEO in apprenticeship planadopted pursuant to 29 CFR Part 30 and ap-proved by the Department;Name and address of the appropriate authorityunder the program to receive, process andmake disposition of complaints;

10

9

Recording and maintenance of all records con-cerning apprenticeship as may be required bythe Bureau or recognized State ApprenticeshipAgency and other applicable law.

According to 29 CFR 29.6, the apprenticeshipagreement shall contain explicitly or by reference:

Names and signatures of the contracting partiesand the signature of a parent or guardian if the ap-prentice is a minor.

The date of birth of the apprentice.

Name and address of the program sponsor andregistratien agency.

A statement of the trade or craft in which the ap-prentice is to be trained, and the beginning dateand term (duration) of apprenticeship.

A statement showing (1) the number of hours tobe spent by the apprentice in work on the job;(2) the number of hours to be spent in related andsupplemental instruction which is recommended tobe not less than 144 hours per year.

A statement setting forth a schedule of work pro-cesses in the trade or industry divisions in whichthe apprentice is to be trained and the approximatetime to be spent at each process.

A statement of the graduated scale of wages to bepaid the apprentice and whether or not the re-quired school time shall be compensated.

Statements providing (1) For a specific period ofprobation during which the apprenticeship agree-ment may be canceled at the request of either par-ty; (2) That after the probationary period, theagreement may be canceled by the apprentice orterminated by the sponsor for good cause.

A reference incorporating as part of the agree-ment the standards of the apprenticeship programas it exists on the date of the agreement and as itmay be amended during the period of the agree-ment.

A statement that the apprentice will be accordedequal opportunity in all phases of apprenticeship

employment and training without discriminationbecause of race, color, religion, national origin,or sex.

Name and address of the appropriate authority, ifany, designated under the program to receive,process and make disposition of controversies ordifferences arising out of the apprenticeshipagreement when the controversies or differencescannot be adjusted locally or resolved in accor-dance with the established trade procedure or ap-plicable collective bargaining provisions.

Title 29, Part 30 establishes policies and proce-dures to promote equality of opportunity in appren-ticeship programs registered with the U.S. Depart-ment of Labor or with recognized state agencies. 29CFR 30 prohibits discrimination based on race, col-or, religion, national origin, or sex.

The National Apprenticeship Act of 1937 estab-lished an Office of Training Services within the De-partment of Labor and gave it responsibility for theadministration of the Act. In 1956, the Office ofTraining Services was reorganized and named theBureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT) (Busi-ness Roundtable, Government Limitations, p. 3).

BAT is responsible for providing service to exist-ing apprenticeship programs and technical assistanceto organizations who would like to establish an ap-prenticeship program. The Bureau works very close-ly with State Apprenticeship Councils (SAC) and lo-cal educational systems to deliver support services atthe national, state, and local levels.

In 31 jurisdictions, states have promulgated theirown regulations concerning apprenticeship pro-grams. In these states, apprenticeship programs areadministered and supported by State ApprenticeshipCouncils (SACs). As noted above, SACs workclosely with BAT in administering and supportingapprenticeship programs.

Although state regulations govern apprenticeshipprograms in some instances, programs are expectedto conform to 29 CFR 29 and 29 CFR 30 in order torecognized by BAT.

1011

Jurisdictions with State Apprenticeship Councils

ArizonaCaliforniaColoradoConnecticutDelawareFloridaHawaiiKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaineMarylandMassachusettsMontk laNevada

New HampshireNew MexicoNew YorkNorth CarolinaOhioOregonPennsylvaniaRhode IslandVermontVirginiaWashingtonWisconsinDistrict of ColumbiaPuerto RicoVirgin Islands

The Significance of BAT Approval

Programs registered with BAT are thus requiredto meet both training and administration standardspromulgated by the Department of Labor. Whenunions and companies have collective bargainingagreements, both must approve an apprenticeshipprogram.

Recognition by BAT is important for several rea-sons. First, under the 1931 Davis-Bacon Act, theDepartment of Labor sets prevailing wage rates onfederally financed or federally assisted projects. Thelatter account for at least one-third of all construc-tion (Business Roundtable, Government Limitations,p. 1). Examples of federal financing include tax-ex-empt Industrial Development Bonds (IDBs) and Ur-ban Development Action Grants (UDAGs).

While federal financing may be only a fraction ofa project's total financing, all construction jobs onthe project must be paid at the prevailing wage rate.Generally speaking, the prevailing wage rate tends tobe the union journeyman rate. Apprentice rates (thatis, rates lower than prevailing rates) in these in-stances are approved only for those registered inBAT-approved programs. All other work must bepaid at the journeyman rate.

Second, BAT approval lends credibility to an ap-prentice's background, providing formal recognition

12

that the apprentice has received rigorous, systematicinstruction in a particular craft.

Third, BAT administration and support of appren-ticeship programs serves to ensure employers thatwell-trained workers will be available to performskilled jobs.

Fourth, for some BAT-approved programs. ap-prentices are eligible for veteran's benefits.

Number of Apprentices

According to a BAT staff member, there areroughly 300,000 civilian and military apprentices en-rolled in BAT apprenticeship programs. Approxi-mately 260,000 are civilian and 40,000 are military.(Military apprenticeship programs constitute a grow-ing segment of total programs).

Approximately 50,000 civilians register each yearfor BAT-approved programs. There is no authorita-tive source of information on how many registeredapprentices graduate each year.

Because apprenticeship is actual employment, thenumber of apprentices in BAT programs at a particu-lar time is contingent upon economic conditions inspecific industries.

Participants

Seventy national industry standards sponsored byindustry groups currently exist. The vast majority ofindustry groups with apprenticeship programs arecovered by collective bargaining agreements. Thismeans that apprenticeship programs must be jointlyadministered by both management and labor.

A BAT staff member queried for purposes of thisinvestigation noted, "The largest and most success-ful programs are those administered by joint mana-gement/labor committees." All told, 80 to 90 per-cent of all apprentices come through programsjointly administered by management and labor.

Because the purpose of this report is to look atunion involvement in skill development, all subse-quent comments about apprenticeship programs willrefer to jointly administered programs unless other-wise indicated.

According to the training director of a major in-ternational union, approximately 30 internationalunions have apprenticeship programs. Two-thirds ofall registered apprentices are in programs in whichbuilding and construction trade unions participate.Although construction unions have historically hadthe largest programs and the greatest involvement inapprenticeship training, industriai, maritime, andprofessional/technical unions also provide some ap-prenticeship training to their members. A partial listof all unions participating in apprenticeship pro-grams is provided below.

Asbestos Workers, International Association ofHeat and Frost Insulators and

Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple-ment Workers of America International Union,United

Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builder s, Blacksmiths,Forgers and Helpers, International Brotherhood of

Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, InternationalUnion of

Carpenter: and Joiners of America, United Broth-erhood of

Electrical Workers, International Brotherhood of

Electronics. 'Electrical, 1 e,chnical, Salaried, andMachine Nv....ers, International Union of

Fire Fighters, International Association of

Glass Workers Union, American Flint

Graphic Communications International Union

Iron Workers, International Association ofBridge, Structural and Ornamental

Machinists and Aerospace Workers, InternationalAssociation of

Operating Engineers, International Union of

Painters and Allied Trades of the United Statesand Canada, International Brotherhood of

Pattern Makers League of North America

°lasterers' and Cement Masons' International As-sbliation of the United States and Canada, Opera-tive

Plumb:ng and Pipe Fitting Industry of the UnitedStates, 0 liked Association of Journeymen and Ap-prentices 01 the

Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied Workers,United Union of

Sheet Metal Workers International Association

Steelworkers of America, United

Tile, Marble, Terrazzo, Finishers, Shopworkersand Granite Cutters International Union

Two building trades unions, the InternationalUnion of Elevator Constructors and the Laborers'International Union of North America have trainingprograms, but not apprenticeship prcgrams.

Program Organization

In the Building and Construction Trades, the in-ternational union and its corresponding contractorassociation(s) or industry association(s) form a Na-tional Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee.The committee is composed of an equal number ofmembers from management and labor.

The Joint Committee is responsible for the formu-lation and development of National Appren*iceshipStandards for specific industries. In developing Na-tional Standards, the Committee cooperates with theBureau of Apprenticeship and Try. aing. BAT regis-ters the individual programs and determines theirconformity with its equal employment opportunityregulations for apprenticeship programs.

As noted above, the management group involvedin individual Joint Committees changes with the industry for which standards are promulgated. A listof some of the industry/labor groups follows.

12

13

Industry/Labor Groups

Labor

international Union of BricklayersAllied Craftsmen

United Brtherhood of Carpentersand Joiners of America

International Brotherhood ofElectrical Workers

International Union of OperatingEngineers

United Association of Journeymenand Apprentices of the Plumbingand Pipefitting Industry of theUnited States and Canada

Management

Mason ContractorsAssociation ofAmerica

Associated GeneralContractors ofAmerica

National GeneralContractors Associ-ation of America

National Associa-tion of ElectricalContractors

Associated GeneralContractors ofAmerica

National Associa-tion of Plumbingand Heating Con-tractors

Mechanical Con-tractors Associationof America

When unions are involved in different industries,the groups representing management on the jointcommittees change. For glazing and glasswork, theJoint Committee has representatives from the follow-ing groups:

Management

International Brotherhood of Management repro-Painters and Allied Trades senting the glass

industry

However, for Painting, Decorating, and DrywallFinishing, the Joint Committee is composed of thefollowing members:

Labor Management

International Brotherhood ofPainters and Allied Trades

Painting and Deco-rating Contractorsof America

Association of Walland Ceiling Indus-tries International

Similarly, for Plastering, the Joint Committee iscomposed of the following members:

Labor Management

Operative Plasterers' and CementMason's International Associationof the United States and Canada

Association of Walland Ceiling Indus-tries International

However, for Cement, Masonry, Asphalt, andComposion Trades, the Joint Committee is com-posed of the following members:

Labor Management

Operative Plasterers' and CementInternational Association of theUnited States and Canada

Associated GeneralMasons' Contrac-tors of Ameri..a

American Societyof ConcreteConstruction

The National Standards promulgated by the Na-tional Joint Committee are used as guidelines by lo-cal unions and local contractor associations for set-ting up local Joint Apprenticeship Committees andadministering apprenticeship programs. in most con-struction unions' apprenticeship programs, the na-tional unions and national associations have localcounterparts. For example, the International Brother-hood of Electrical Workers and the National Associ-ation of Electrical Contractors each have organiza-tions at the local level. There is thus a relativelysmooth line of communication from the national lev-el to the local level.

1413

Additionally, the organizations represented at thenational level are the same organizations that negoti-ate wage agreements at the local level. The alloca-tion of training funds (which will be taken up in asubsequent section) are negotiated in collective bar-Tuning agreements by the same organizations whose

National Contractors' Association 1

members form the local apprenticeship committee.Apprenticeship programs have government, indus-

try, and labor components. While program organiza-tions vary slightly, an idea of their basic structurecan be obtained from Figure 1.

Figure 1

International Union

Local Contractors'Associations

National Joint Apprenticeshipand Training Committee

Bureau of Apprenticeshipand Training

U.S. Department of Labor

LOCALJointJoint Labor-Management Apprenticeship

CommitteeII

ILocal Unions

State ApprenticeshipCouncils

Cooperating Agencies:Local SchoolsState and Local Employment Services

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15

The organization of apprenticeship programs forindustrial unions diverges from the organization pre-sented above in one important aspect. Industrialunions prepare National Standards for their respec-tive trades in cooperation with the Burma of Ap-prenticeship and Training. The Standards allow forthe formation of Joint Apprenticeship Committeeswith employers with which tht international unionhas a collective bargaining relationship. Building andconstruction trades unions negotiate with contractorassociations rather than individual employers. Thispermits the establishment of a natione joint commit-tee for apprenticeship and training. Because industri-al unions negotiate with a large number of individualemployers, no such industry-wide committee is pos-sible. Joint committees involving honconstructiontrade unions would therefore have representativesfrom the individual employer and the union.

The information presented in this section is an il-lustration of the way apprenticeship programs aresupposed to work. In reality, unions have a greatdeal more responsibility than the .vrogr. 4S' organi-zation would indicate. A former staff member of amajor construction union questioned for this projectindicated that in his former union, the apprenticeshipcommittee of the local union had contri over thefollowing factors:

Who gets into the program

The length of the training period

The training material to be used

The content of the apprenticeship program

The number of people who will be adm".ted.

He further indicated that in many unions, localsenjoyed the same land of de facto autonomy theyhad in his union.

National Apprenticeship andTraining Standards

While National Standards for particular crafts aredeveloped by National Joint Committees or interna-tional unions, apprenticeship programs are adminis-

tered on a local level. National Standards, whosegeneral guidelines are established by the federal reg-ulations cited earlier, ensure a degree of consistencyacross individual localities.

The Secretary of Labor has recommended that ap-prenticeship programs include the following mini-mum standards in accordance with 29 CFR and 30.

The minimum starting age of apprentices shouldbe at least 16.

Everyone above the minimum starting age shouldhave full and fair opportunity to apply for appren-ticeship.

Selection of apprentices should be on the basis ofqualifications alone.

A minimum of 144 hours of classroom and relatedinstruction in technical subjects related to thetrade.

A progressively increasing schedule of wages.

Proper supervision of on-the-job training with ad-equate training facilities.

Periodic evaluation of the apprentice's progress,both in job performance and related instruction.

The maintenance of appropriate records.

Employee-employer cooperation.

Recognition for successful completions.

Nondiscrimination in all phases of apprenticeship(BAT, Setting Up, p. 8).

In actuality, National Standards are much morecomprehensive than this, covering virtually everyphase of training -red administration. In the Depart-ment of Labor guide to setting up apprenticeshipprograms, the following provisions regarding train-ing are recommended for inclusion:

Occupations: The program should specify whichoccupation or job types will be covered by it.

Work processes: The primary on-the-job workprocesses in which apprentices receive instruc-tion. Work processes are contained in a schedulewhich graduates tasks according to skill and com-plexity.

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15

Allocation of work training time: The relative dif-ficulty and importance of each work processshould be used to determine the amount of train-ing required before the apprentice becomes profi-cient.

Terms of apprenticeship: This is well recognizedin most traditionally apprenticeable occupations.If it is now known, derive the time by adding upthe total time required for all work processes.

Related classroom instruction: A minimum of 144hours per year of related classroom instruction.The minimum is predicated on 2 hours per nighttwice a week during a 36-week school year.

The following administrative provisions are sug-gested for BAT apprenticeship programs:

Apprentice qualifications: Qualifications to enterthe program must be clear, objective, and stressequal opportunity.

Ratio of apprentices to journeymen: The ratioshould be based on the facilities available for em-ploying and training apprentices as well as futureemployment opportunities. A ratio of more than 1apprentice to 3 skilled workers is seldom effec-tive.

Apprentice wages: Apprentice wages should beexpressed or arrived at by a common method. TheDepartment cf Labor recommends a progressivelyincreasing schedule of wages with increases every6 months. Increases should be scheduled through-out the apprenticeship to provide both a monetaryincentive and reward for progress on the job. Ap-prentices receiving only a percentage of journey-men wages is predicated on the greater skill andproductivity of the skilled craftsworker.

Apprenticeship agreement: Programs should pro-vide for the signing of an agreement between theapventice and the employer for registration withthe appropriate state or federal apprenticeshipagency. The agreement should include: home ad-dress and birthday of the apprentice, name of theemployer, terms of apprenticeship, wage sched-ule, length of probationary period, an outline of

the work process schedule, number of hours peryear the apprentice agrees to chases, thesubjects of related instruction, the name of theschool, special provisions such as credit for previ-ous experience, and the signatures of the employ-er and apprentice. Where a joint committee exists,the agreement would be subject to its approval.

Apprenticeship committee: Responsibilities of theapprenticeship committee might include the gener-al supervision of the program, selection and en-rollment of apprentices, arranging for their em-ployment with the employer, keeping theemployer and union informed of the apprentices'progress, arranging the employment of appren-tices with the employer (if more than one employ-er is involved), and checking and evaluating theperformance of individual apprentices.

Credit for previous experience: Programs shouldcontain a provision on credit for previous experi-ence in the occupation or related trade experience.Department of Labor guidelines specify languageappropriate for this provision.

Certificate of completion: Program standards usu-ally include a provision stating that each appren-tice shall be awarded a Certificate of Completionupon completion of apprenticeship training. In thecase of registered programs, certificates are avail-able either from the State Apprenticeship Councilor the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training.(BAT, Setting Up, pp. 9-16).

In addition, National Standards contain guidelinesfor the adaptation of National Standards for local useand information on federal laws and regulations af-fecting the employment of apprentices.

Because of the importance accorded evaluationand examination practices in apprenticeship pro-grams, they will be taken up separately. A samplingof the specifications of individual programs will beprovided.

The term of apprenticeship generally varies fromtwo to four years. In several instances, however,terms exceed four years.

Apprentices' starting wage rates are based upon a

1617

percentage of journeyman wage rates (often around50 percent) and increased at regular intervals to thecompletion of apprenticeship. These vary from 500hours to 6 months by most sets of Standards. ForCleaner, Caulker, and Pointer Apprentices, the wageschedule (which typifies many apprentice wageschedules) is as follows:

Numberof Hours

Percent ofJourneyman's Rate

0-500 50

501-1,000 55

1,001-1,500 65

1,501-2,000 70

2,001-2,500 80

BAT, National Standards for Bricklaying, p. 21

The Local Joint Committee is empowered to giveapprentices credit for previous experience and ad-vance them accordingly.

When a ratio of apprentices to journeymen is notspecified by National Standards, it may be deter-mined by local bargaining agreements or local prac-tice,. Union constitutions often specify appropriateratios for indiviudal crafts. Apprentice/journeymanratios vary by both craft and un; Ratios (appren-tices to journeymen) range from 1:3 to 1:10.

Local committees are entrusted with the develop-ment of local standards which may cover a scheduleof work experience on the job, provision for relatedsupplemental instruction, provision for reviewing ortesting the apprentices' progress both on the job andin related instruction, a progressively increasingschedule of wages for apprentices, the method of se-lecting apprenticeship applicants, provisions for theadjustment of complaints and the procedure for pro-viding apprentices with certificates of completion.Local committees are expected to determine the needfor apprentices in individual areas; establish whetheremployers for whom apprentices are working haveadequate facilities and are performing the required

construction operations; place each apprentice underagreement, assure that apprentices are receiving thenecessary on-the-job experience and related technicalinstruction; report of the program; notify the regis-tration agency of all terminations, cancellations, andcompletions of apprenticeship; and supervise the en-forcement of all provisions of the standards.

The work schedule varies according to the tradeclassification. Individual unions may have one ormore work schedules depending upon the number oftrade classifications they are concerned with. Car-penters offer apprenticeship programs for carpen-ters, millwrights, cabinetmakers, piledrivers, interi-or systems installers, and floor and wall coveringcraftsmen. Similarly, the International Union of Op-erating Engineers offers programs for UniversalEquipment Operators, Plant Equipment Operators,and Heavy Duty Repairers.

A sample work schedule for Cleaner, Pointer, andCaulker Apprentices (International Union of Brick-layers and Allied Craftsmen) is reproduced below.

Approximate Hours

Cleaning 1,000(1) Use, care, and maintenance of tools

and equipment(2) Sandblasting(3) Grinding(4) Chemical washing(5) Etching(6) Pressure cleaning

Pointing 250(1) Mixing mortar(2) Tuck pointing and striking joints(3) Dry packing

Caulking 1,125(1) Use, care, and maintenance of tools

and equipment(2) Mixing and applying primers(3) Mixing and applying sealants

(a) Oil base(b) Butyls(c) Neoprenes(d) Acrylics

18

17

(e) Polysulfides(t) Urethanes(g) Silicones

(4) Masking(5) Waterproofing

Scaffolding and rigging(1) Swinging states(2) Single basket

Total: 2,500

(National Standards, pp. 21-22)

Apprenticeship Programs andUnion Constitutions

125

In addition to national standards, the constitutionsof all building and construction trades unions partici-pating in joint apprenticeship programs as well as theconstitutions of some industrial unions spell out spe-cific guidelines for their apprenticeship programs.Without going into any great detail, the constitutionsof unions participating in apprenticeship programsare likely to specify one or more of the following as-pects of local apprenticeship programs:

The time required to complete an apprenticeshipprogram;

Whether or not an examination is required toreach journeyman status;

Ratio of apprentices to journeymen;

Supervision;

Number of people on local/district council ap-prenticeship committee;

Composition and selection of local/district com-mittee;

Training standards;

Minimum age for apprentices;

Supervision of apprentices;

Initiation fee;

Wages paid apprentices.

It can be safely assumed that the articles of unionconstitutions which cover apprenticeship programs

18

are incorporated into the national standards pro-grams approved by the Bureau of Apprenticeshipand Training.

Evaluation

Many National Standards call for the periodicevaluation of apprentices. Samples of the languagecontained in various National Standards is givenhere.

Internotionel Union of Operating Engineers

Periodic Evaluation of Apprentices. It shall be theresponsibility of the local joint committee to evaluatethese records at periodic intervals and ascertain theprogress of apprentices both on the job and in relatedinstruction. Any shortcomings in the training of anapprentice will call for immediate corrective actionby the joint committee. Upon completion of their ap-prenticeship terms, apprentices shall be required topass an examination attesting to the satisfactory com-pletion of their training (BAT, National Standardsfor Operating Engineers, p. 7).

laternotionel Brotherhood of Electrical Workers

Advancement of Apprentices. At the end of each1,000 hour period of employment, the Committeeshall examine the progress of the apprentice on thejob and in related instruction. Action must be takenon each apprentice to approve advancement, extendpresent rating for a specified probationary period, orcancel his indenture (National Joint Committee forthe Electrical Industry, p. 12).

bternstiond Brotherhood of carpenters andJoiners of America

Periodic Evaluation. Shortly before the expiration ofeach 6-month period, the local joint apprenticeshipcommittee shall evaluate the progress of all appren-tices reflective both of their progress on the job andtheir progress in the related training experience(BAT, National Standards for Carpentry, p. 8)

11

Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons'International Association

Supervision and Evaluation. A recording systemshall be prepared on each apprentice, recordinghours of work in the skill categories. The apprenticeshall be graded as to progress. The contractor shalldesignate a particular person, who may be the super-intendent, foreman, or plasterer, to be responsiblefor the apprentices. This person shall be required tosign the apprentice report (BAT, National Standardsfor Plastering, p. 8).

Apprentices completing their course of instructionare given a certificate of completion. Receipt of thecertificate is often contingent upon the passage of anexamination.

Besides the formal evaluation procedure stipulatedabove, one might make the claim that apprentices re-ceive frequent evaluation in the form of comments,criticisms, suggestions, and advice from the journey-man supervising their work.

Competency-Based ApprenticeshipPrograms

Virtually all BAT-approved programs are time-based. That is, apprentices are advanced after re-ceiving a specified number of hours of on-the-jobtraining and related classroom instruction and dem-onstrating comprehension of the required material.This facet of BAT programs disturbs open shop ad-vocates, because it adds considerably to the expenseof training programs.

Recently, some unions have made tentative foraysinto competency-based programs. Ostensibly, "com-petency-based" programs differ from "time-based"apprenticeship programs, because apprentices canqualify for advanced standing after demonstratingthey have a particular level of skills. Examples ofcompetency-based programs in the union sector arethe Communications Workers of America's Commu-nications Technician Training Program (CTTP) andthe Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of Ameri-ca's Performance Evaluated Training System(PETS).

The Communications Technician Training Pro-gram was CWA's one-time venture in training andcertification. Through job analysis and consultationswith workers and employers, CWA formulated a setof competencies for three employee levels (Commu-nications Technician I, II, and Upon passing anexamination, employees could become certified ateach level for the following trade classifications:Protective Signal Installer/Maintainer; Station/PBX/PABX/Installer/Maintainer; C.A.T.V. Installer/Maintainer; and, Splicer (Cable/fiber optics).

Interestingly enough, in the National Apprentice-ship and Training Standards CWA issued for thepurposes of the program, each level of each tradeclassification specified an approximate number ofhours involved in the work process for each tradeclassification.

Given that most apprenticeship programs offercredit for previous experience and that the CTTP re-quires journeyman supervision for an "approxi-mate" number of hours on individual work tasks,the CTTP did not diverge in any significant wayfrom time-based programs.

The CITP program lasted only one year. Howev-er, it's not possible to tell whether it was disbandedbecause it didn't work very well or whether internalunion politics leJ to its demise. CTTP was part of anarea that was absorbed in a training/retraining pro-gram which was set up in the CWA's last contractwith the Bell system. The new program (unlikeCTTP) is geared toward retraining in the event oflayoffs and accommodating workers who wish tochange job tracks.

Workers covered by the CTTP were in CWA'sCommunications Division (interconnects, cable TV)and were not Bell employees (i.e., the two trainingprograms had different target groups). A CWA staffmember who had been associated with the project re-vealed that only about 250 to 300 people receivedCTTP training. This was about 75 to 86 percent ofthe total number of applicants requesting training.

The Carpenters have established a PerformanceEvaluated Training System (PETS), which uses pho-tographs of particular skills and work processes. Anapprentice studies these slides, which provide step-

19

20

by-step illustrations, and then works on a project.For guidance, the apprentice refers back to theslides. An instructor answers questions, and moni-tors the accuracy of procedures used by the appren-tice. The completed project is evaluated to determineif the skill level required for the specific process hasbeen reached. The apprentice continues to work onprojects, and must complete at least 52 of the 60"blocks" (which represent skills or work tasks).PETS was inaugurated in 1977 through 10 pilot pro-jects. ("Brotherhood," 1981).

The program continues to exist, although no pub-lished accounts specify the number of locals whichhave implemented PETS.

Funding

The funding of apprenticeship programs is ar-ranged through collective bargaining agreements.Contractor associations/employers agree to set asidea specific cents-per-hour charge for each hourworked by union members in order to fund trainingprograms.

In 1982, the Business Roundtable requested theConstruction Labor Research Council to determinethe extent of available training funds in the unionsector. CLRC monitors 3100 collective bargainingagreements in the construction industry. Monitoredagreements cover about 85 percent of all union con-struction workers. CLRC found 74 percent of moni-tored agreements contained provisions for the fund-ing of apprentice training programs. Charges in theagreements ranged from two cents-per-hour to over50 cents-per-hour. The national average for all ap-prentice training charges in monitored contracts(weighted in proportion to members covered) was$0.09/hour.

Assuming an active workforce of 1,605,000 in1981 (out of a total building trades membership of2,778,000) and as 40 hour week for each activemember, the Business Roundtable estimate that $230million was available for apprentice training in jointprograms for the year (Business Roundtable, Train-ing Problems, p. 14).

so

The bulk of the cost of training programs is con-tained in start-up costs. Start-up costs include thetraining center and training materials. Once a pro-gram is underway, maintenance costs are amply pro-vided for by employer contributions.

Enormous initial investment costs make it verydifficult for non-union employers to start new pro-grams in the open shop sector of the construction in-dustry.

The training funds for use in defraying the cost ofapprenticeship or other training programs to whichemployers contribute are authorized under the La-bor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of1959. Training funds are established in the form of atrust with an equal number of management and labortrustees.

Trust agreements must stipulate that (1) The trust-eeship is a nonprofit organization; (2) No part of thenet earnings will inure to any private or individualmember; (3) In the event of dissolution of the trust,the accrued monies and other assets will be disposedof in a predetermined manner (they can be appor-tioned to those who paid into the fund, donated to acharitable or educational organization, or contributedto the labor organization).

Trainiqg funds are considered tax exempt by theInternal Revenue Service under section 501(c)5 ofthe Internal Revenue Code of 1954. Employer con-tributions to the training trust fund are deductible asordinary and necessary expenses in the conduct of abusiness under 162(a) of the Internal Revenue Code.

Objectives of Apprenticeship Programs

Unions do not always indicate what their motiva-tions or objectives are with respect to apprenticeshipprograms. Consequently, what follows is not neces-sarily reflective of the views of a majority of unions.The following statements of unions have been in-cluded here because they have a bearing on the pur-pose of peer assistance in training any' ^valuation inthe trade union context.

One of the most common themes running throughunion statements about their apprenticeship programs

20

21

is that apprenticeship programs help unions come toterms with changes in their respective trades. In a197l letter to all local unions in the U.S. (includedin National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsof the Electrical Contracting Industry), the Interna-tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers' presidentnoted:

The Electrial Contracting Indust." is continuallychanging. Technological advances dictate installa-tion procedures and techniques, which calls for peri-odic review of our training programs. Your Broth-erhood has participated in the development of theseNational Apprenticeship Standards and III securingapproval of the U.S. Department of Labor. (Nation-al Joint Committee for the Electrical Industry, p.My

In the introduction to its Apprenticeship PolicyManual, the International Association of Machinistsand Aerospace Workers' president and officerspointed out:

Apprenticeship is the oldest and moat traditionalmethod of on-the-job training in industry, and justas the apprenticeship systems developed and ex-panded during the Industrial Revolution, we believethere is a role and need for apprenticeship in our in-dustries as we enter the technological Revolution(International Association of Machinists and Aero-sp,ce Workers', p. 1).

Secondly, apprenticeship helps unions with mem-bership in declining industries retrain their membersfor employment in more promising jobs. In the 1975letter submitting the UAW's National ApprenticeshipStandards to the Bureau of Apprenticeship Standardsto the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, Doug-las Fraser (then president of the UAW) stated:

It is imperative that, regardless of economic fluctua-tions, we continue to seek and develop solutions tothe problems which face workers when technologi-cal changes affect their personal work careers andlivelihoods (United Auto Workers, p. 2)

Thirdly, apprenticeship is the means by whichbuilding and construction trades unions regulate thesupply of workers in a particular industry. Through

apprenticeship programs, building trades unions areactive agents in the labor market for their particulartrades. Contractors, when speaking about apprentice-ship programs, tend to focus on the ability of theprograms to provide an adequate supply of trainedworkers to meet their needs.

If too many apprentices are admitted at one time,there will eventually be too many journeymen for lo-cal conditions. Conversely, if too few apprenticesare admitted (as dictated by local economic condi-tions), a shortage of skilled craftsmen will ensue.

To the extent that local contractors' associationsleave apprenticeship training in the hands of localunions, they expect to have adequate supplies ofskilled tradesmen when they need them. This mightbe viewed as an implicit contract.

Fourthly, apprenticeship training (when conduct-ed in confornety with National Standards for a spe-cific trade) ensures uniformity and consistency in theskill levels of a union's journeymen, regardless ofthe particular region in which they happen to be.National Standards are sometimes adapted to localrequirements, but the skills and work processes cov-ered in apprenticeship programs are designed to betransferable from one locale to another.

The Extent of Apprenticeship Training

Many journeyworkers have not achieved theirstanding in their trades through apprenticeship. De-partment of Labor estimates for selected trades re-veal that the percentage of journeyworkers complet-ing apprentice programs range from 25 percent onthe low end to over 60 percent on the high end. (SeeTable 1.)

One former trade union staff member, questionedabout the high proportion of craft union membersnot receiving apprenticeship training, replied that itis true that many people reach journeyworker statuswithout first going through apprenticeship training.

If a formerly non-union contractor becomesunionized, the people who have previously workedfor the contractors are often given cards if they havethe requisite skills and experience. If everybody is

required to complete apprenticeship training, itwould not be possible to organize non-union places.

In other instances, people do get their cardsthrough connections. Even in these situations, thesystem does not support unskilled people. Contrac-tors can refuse to accept workers sent from the unionhiring hall ii they are not satisfied with their work.A person lacking the necessary skills would mostlikely be known to his or her fellow workers andwould therefore not be sent to do work for whichthey were unqualified.

22 ,'

Table 1

PERCENTAGE OF JOURNEYWORKERSCOMPLETING APPRENTICESHIP PROGRAMS

BY CRAFT

1975 1964

Bricklayers 61%Plumbers & pipefitters 61 55%Sheet metal workers 57 71Electricians 56 73Carpenters 39 31Ironworkers 25

SOURCE: Figures provided in Business Roundtable. Govern-ment Limitations on Training Innwatiom. Report D-2. New York: Business Roundtable, 1982

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4)

JOURNEYMAN UPGRADING

Almost every union with an apprenticeship pro-gram has a journeyman upgrading program. Upgrad-ing programs apprise journeyworkers of changes intheir respective trades.

The program conducted by the InternationalBrotherhood of Electrical Workers began in the1950's when the growth of electronics necessitated awhole new range of skills. Today, plumbers requireadditionaI training because of changing materials.For example, there are no cast iron pipes anymore.

Less formal than apprenticeship programs, jour-

neyworkers in upgrading programs might get ti cardin the mail telling them to report to the training cen-ter on specific a day to learn about a specific subject.Their attendance in these instances is optional. Ap-prentices, on the other hand, must attend instructionsessions.

Funding for journeyman upgrading programscomes from a separate cents-per-hour charge negoti-ated in collective bargaining agreements. Upgradingfunds are separate from apprenticeship funds.

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1

THE BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTIONTRADES UNIONS 0

This section examines the building and construc-tion trades unions. This examination is necessary be-cause of these unions' impressive presence in thearea of apprenticeship, their unique status under theNational Labor Relations Act, and the key role ap-prenticeship programs play in maintaining eachunion's strength.

In recent years, the building trades unions havesuffered enormously from the growth of non-unionfirms employing workers at low wage rates. In orderto fully appreciate the pivotal role of apprenticeshipprograms in these unions, it has been necessary toprovide a discussion of the non-union (open shop)sector and its relationship to the unionized sector ofconstruction.

How They Operate

About 95 percent of construction works coveredby local agreements between local unions and localcontractors' associations. Most of these associationsare trade specific. For example, IBEW locals haveagreements with local branches of the National As-sociation of Electrical Contractors (NECA). Plumberlocals have agreements with the local branches of theMechanical Association.

Several unions (Operating Engineers, Laborers,Carpenters, and Cement Masons) sign directly withthe general contractors. However, much of the gen-eral contractor's work today is shifting to construc-tion management.

Union members work for specific contractors, butthe relationship is more fluid than it is in the case ofindustrial unions. When a job is finished and thecontractor does not have a job lined up or cannothire all of the workers from the previous job, work-ers go to the hiring halls of their unions.

Local contractors expect unions to maintain an ad-equate supply of skilled craftsmen. Manpower has tocome first from the hiring hall as specified by collec-tive bargaining agreements.

Unlike other unions, construction unions are al-lowed to sign pre-hire agreements. This means thatconstruction projects can be unionized before anyoneis hired to work on them. For example, if a contract

24

is let to a union contractor, the work will be per-formed by union workers under the terms of theagreement between the contractor's association andthe local union.

Agreements between local unions and local con-tractor associations cannot be superseded by any au-thority other than the Building and ConstructionTrades Department of the AFL-CIO. In some in-stances, local unions and representatives of theBuilding and Construction Trades Department nego-tiate project agreements with the developers of spe-cific contracts. Project agreements, specific to indi-vidual construction projects, supersede localagreements. Because project agreements involve anumber of unions, their successful negotiation is de-pendent upon the cooperation of individual buildingand construction trades unions.

On Jan-my 30, 1979, the Building and Construc-tion Trades Department's (AFL-CIO) GoverningBoard of Presidents initiated new procedures forgranting project agreements. Although such agree-ments had been historically negotiated only for ma-jor industrial and powerhouse facilities, competitivepressures had necessitated their expansion to all fac-ets of the construction industry.

Since 1979, cooperation among unions resulted in229 granted or pending project agreements, employ-ing over 107,000 workers. Construction dollar vol-ume on construction projects covered by projectagreements exceeds S41 billion dollars. (AFL-CIO,p. 297)

The Open Shop Movement

Non-union firms have historically performed asubstantial amount of light and residential construc-tion. Until recently, however, construction unionshad a virtual monopoly on heavy construction pro-jects. Union contractors and unioa hiring halls werethe only place where skilled laborers could be foundin sufficient quantity to perform the large and com-plex construction tasks required by particular pro-jects.

About ten years ago, non-union firms began to getinvolved in heavy construction. People around the

building trades unions indicate that the BusinessRoundtable was intimately involved in the recent in-cursions of open shop contractors in heavy construc-tion. The Business Roundtable succeeded in organiz-ing major clients of construction firms, who wereencouraged to use non-union contractors. Often-times, only non-union firms were allowed to bid onprojects in "invitation only" bidding. This forced anumber of large union contractors to set up non-union subsidiaries to secare contracts. Firms that didthis are described as "double-breasted."

The umbrella organization for non-union con-struction firms is the Associated Building Contrac-tors (ABC) organization. While its origins predatethe recent growth spurt in open shop construction,both ABC and its member shops have experiencedrapid growth from the developments of the lastdecade.0 ABC shops are also called merit shops becausethey espouse the "low bid gets the project" princi-ple. ABC shops flourish in open as well as invitationonly bidding processes because they are not com-pelled to pay union wages (except in the case of fed-erally financed construction projects).

The rise of merit shops has forced some unionizedgeneral contractors to hire non-union subcontractorsin a limited number of cases in order to competewith ABC shops. However, this only applies tounions not signing with the general contractors.

The subcontracting clause in collective bargainingagreements with locals signing with general contrac-tors prohibits the general contractor from subcontracting out work to any non-union subcontractorthat does the work of a union with which they havean agreement.

This means that all the work done by Carpenters,Operating Engineers, Laborers, and Cement Masonscannot be subcontracted to non-union firms. Generalcontractors sometimes get around this by acting inthe capacity of construction managers for the own-ers. On the other hand, the work performed by Elec-trical Workes, Plasterers and Plumbers can be sub-contracted to non-union firms whether or not thegeneral contractor is acting as construction manager.

The Hi4ory and Extent of Training in theOpen Shop Sector

The training capabilities of open shop contractorshave not grown apace with the open shop share ofthe construction market. The first formal ABC openshop apprentice program (nonjoint) was started inBaltimore and approved in 1959 by the State Ap-prenticeship Council. BAT recognition of any ABCprogram did not occur until 1970.

By mid-1982, approximately half of ABC's 72chapters offered a total of 170 separate training pro-grams. Total enrollment in ABC programs at thattime was about 5,000. Annual funding of all pro-grams totals $2 million

The largest and most comprehensive open shoptraining programs are offered by five industrial con-tractors, operating in the southeastern and southwest-ern United States. Because of the highly specializednature of the training, none of these training pro-grams have received BAT approval. Yearly enroll-ment in these programs averages 12,000. Approxi-mately $8-9 million annually is spent on training bythe contractors.

The bulk of open shop training programs coverfour trades. These are: carpentry, electrical work,plumbing, and sheet metal. Ironworking, bricklay-ing, and cement finishing are covered by fewer thana third of open shop programs. Electrical apprenticesaccount for over half of the total number of partici-pants in ABC programs. Plumbing, carpentry, andsheet metal account for 20 percent, 15 percent, and10 percent respectively of total apprentices in ABCprograms. The majority are geared to training ap-prentices for commercial and light industrial work, asignificant market segment for ABC contractors.

ABC programs which deviate from governmentrequirements of 144 classroom hours and 2,000 jobsite hours per year and take 1 ass than the customary3 to 4 years to complete generally fail to gain BATor SAC approval.

Unlike union programs which often have theirown training centers, ABC programs use vocationalschools, high schools, junior colleges, universities,

.......... 252R

contractors' shops, and leased or rented trainingspace (Business Roundtable, Training Problems, pp.8-11).

As is apparent from this discussion, ABC and oth-er open shop training programs can only supply asmall fraction of the skilled labor required by theopen shop sector. (See Table 2) In part, the inade-quate training capability of the open shop sectorstems from its inability to obtain sufficient funding

from open shop contractors. Unlike the union sector,funding in the open shop sector is voluntary.

Unrelated to this difficulty, but no less significant,is the problem of excessively specialized and frage-mented training programs in the open shop sector.The latter charge, leveled at open shop programs bytheir pro-union critics, implies workers trained inopen shop programs are not as well trained as work-ers in the union sector.

Table 2

APPRENTICES IN SELECTED JOINT AND NONJOINT PROGRAMS-1978 U.S. TOTALS

Joint Nonjoint Total % Nonjoint

Bricklayers 6,768 650 7,418 9Carpenters 31,191 3,438 34,629 10Cement masons 2,513 88 2,501 3Electricians 19,330 6,887 26,217 26Floor coverers 1,230 80 1,310 6Glaziers 903 98 1,001 10Insulation workers 1,807 196 2,003 10Lathers 1,210 41 1,251 3Operating engineers 4,997 143 5,14'j 3Painters 5,381 205 5,586 4Pipefitters 8,261 403 8,664 5Pipe and steamfitters 916 14 930 2Plasterers 1,171 5 1,186 1

Plumbers 10,588 4,913 15,501 32Roofers 4,184 228 4,412 5Sheetmetal 6,707 1,125 7,832 14Sprinklerfitters 1,76 183 1,944 9Structuralsteel 6,671 97 6,768 1

Drywalltapers 1,206 147 1,353 11Linemen 1,624 114 1,738 7

TOTAL 118,419 19,065 137,484 14

SOURCE: Busineu Roundtable. Training Problems in Open Siop CORStruction. New York: BusinessRoundtable, 1982.

2726

The Problems of Training in theOpen Shop Sector

In the 30th Anniversary Report of the AFL-CIOExecutive Council, the Building and ConstructionTrades Department reported that apprenticeship is"one of the strongest tools building trades affiliateshave in countering the open shop movement" (AFL-

p. 299).When questioned about this, a staff member at the

Washington Building Trades Council noted, "One ofthe biggest selling points the building trades havenow is the skill level of their members. ABC work-ers are not as well trained."

The non-union operations have their own ap-proach to training. Unlike apprenticeship programsconducted by construction unions, apprentices learnhighly specialized skills that cut across several dif-ferent crafts. They might learn some carpentry,welding, and plumbing in the same apprenticeshipprogram. An ABC craftsman might aptly be de-scribed as a "jack-of-all-trades, master of none."Training is geared to getting people capable of get-ting the job done, not to training skilled craftsmen.

This is called task training by open shop advo-cates. A Business Roundtable report on training inthe construction industry justifies task training as fol-lows:

Like many other industries, construction has become in-creasingly specialized. Training of workers merely to ac-complish specialized tasks has, in many instances, pro` ato be more efficient End economical for specific projectsthan the broader training offered by traditional apprentice-ship programs (Goverment Limitatiots, p. 6, emphasisadded).

Open shop contractors have an instrumentalistproach to training their workforce. Their preoccupa-tion is with producing trainees with the level of skillrequired to complete a project. This means concen-tration on specialized tasks. The Business Roundta-ble report continues:

The broad knowledge and abilities learned more slowlythrough traditional apprenticeship are not required by ev-ery member of the workforce (p. 6, emphasis added).

28

For this and other reasons, construction unionscharge that craftsmen trained in the open shop sectorare less employable than those trained in the unionsector upon completion of a project.

In addition to the narrow perspective open shopcontractors have with regard to training, the qualityof training in the open shop sector is byinadequate funding. The union sector of the con-struction industry is distinguished by broad financialsupport for training programs, which comes fromcents-per-hour charges negotiated in collective bar-gaining agreements.

Business Roundtable estimates indicate the totalamount of funding for union apprenticeship pro-grams in 1981 was in e e neighborhood of $230 mil-lion. By contrast, only about $11-12 million werespent on training in the open shop sector from thesame period. (Training Problems, p. 14). The inabil-ity of the open shop sector to provide adequate fund-ing for training programs and its Mstorical difficultyin setting up industry-wide training programs is theAchilles heel of the open shop movement. BusinessRoundtable encouragement notwithstanding, theharsh reality is that it is often not cost effective forABC contractors to invest in training programs andfacilities, given the large initial investment require-ments.

To remedy the problem of inconsistency amongprograms, the Merit Shop Foundation (via contractswith several midwestern universities) is in the pro-cess of developing training curricula for 21 trades.Support for the Foundation's Wheels of Learningprograms comes from ABC members for the mostpart (Training Problems, p. 13).

To the extent that training practices in the openshop sector grow, individual crafts will suffer "dilu-tion" (a depression of the overall skill levels). Ap-prenticeship in the union sector ensures the continu-ity of the craft and simultaneously serves to buttressthe position of construction unions in the labor mar-ket. In contrast to ABC shops, construction unionshave a vested interest in creating a pool of highlyskilled craftsmen. Theh reputations and, to somedegree, the wages they command are dependent

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upon their continued ability to provide trainedcraftworkers to local contractors.

Davis- Bacon, BAT, and theOpen Shop Movement

Under Davis-Bacon, apprentice rates, on federallyfinance 1 projects are approve.: only for those regis-tered in BAT-approved programs. All other workersmust be paid at the journeyman rate. Task-orientedopen shop programs, which offer highly specialized

training and relatively short courses of instructionalmost invariably fail to meet with BAT app7oval.

This means that all employees of open shop con-tractors on federally financed projects are requiredto lx compensated at the journeyman rate. Openshop contractors are thus put in less competitive po-sitions in these instances. Unless open shop contrac-tors and their client advocates succeed in changingthe pertinent laws and regulations, they will beforced to set up training programs at substantial costin order to make inroads in this sector of the con-struction market.

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TRAINING AND EVALUATION UNDERGOVERNMENT AUSPICES: THE ALPA EXAMPLE

The Air Line Pilots Association is involved intraining and evaluation in an industry heavily regu-lated by the faders; government. As we attempt topoint out, federal regulations do not preclude unioninvolvement in triil,ning, but serve to define areas inwhich the unicn is involved.

Check Airmen

Check Airmen are pilots who have been givenspecial training and authorization by the FAA to giveother pilots proficiency checks and check rides.They are authorized agents of the FAA. Thesechecks occur throughout the active careers of airlinepilots. Check airmen may be members of ALPAwhen they are administering checks to other pilots.

Training Pilots

For some air carriers, initial training is given bytraining pilots of a carrier (under FAA regulations).For example, United Airlines has a large training

center in Denver. The trainers are pilots. Both train-ing pilots and trainees in these instances are mem-bers of ALFA.

Not all carriers have this system, however. Insome cases, training is subcontracted to companieswhich specialize in training.

Safety Committees

In the above examples, pilots act under FAA aus-pices. Under union auspices, there exists an exten-sive structure of safety committees, comprised ofworking pilots. Committees exist in such areas astraining, aircraft certification, and all-weather fly-ing.

The training committee's jobs are to be aware ofFAA regulations on training, to deal with problemsor gaps in the regulatory framework, and to dealwith problems in the way training is conducted atparticular locations. The training committee passeson information about training to other pilots and theairlines themselves.

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American Flint Glass Workers Union, International Con-stitution, Adopted by the Ninety-Fourth InternationalConvention in Bal Harbour, Florida, June 13-24, 1984and effective and in full force on and after September1, 1983.

AFL-CIO. 30th Anniversary Report of the ExecutiveCouncil. Washington, D.C.: AFL-CIO, 1985.

"Apprentices." Clux,:4",e Occupation Brief 53. Morovia,New York: Chronicle Guidance Publications, Septem-ber 1980. 6 pp.

The Army Apprenticeship Program. Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.

"Brotherhood Maintained in Apprenticeship with PETS."The Carpenter 4 (April 1981): 2-3.

Business Roundtable, Construction Training through Vo-cational Education. Report D-3. New York: BusinessRoundtable, 1982.- Craft Training in Open Shop Construction. NewYork: Business Roundtable.

- First and Second Level Supervisory Training.Report AS-4. New York: Business Roundtable, 1982._ Government limitations on Training Innova-tions. Report D-2. New York: Business Roundtable,1982.

Training Problems in Open Shop Construction.Report D-4. New York: Business Roundtable, 1982.

"Equal Employment Opportunity in Apprenticeship andTraining." Federal Register, May 12, 1978, pp.20760-20772.

Graphic Communications International Union, Constitu-tion and Laws.

International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators andAsbeLtos Workers. Constitution and By -Laws, Adoptedby the 24th Convention in Las Vegas, Nevada, August,1982.

International Association of Machinists and AerospaceWorkers, Apprenticeship Policy Manual. Washington,D.C.: International Association of Machinists andAerospace Workers

International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron ShopBuilders, Blacksmith, Forgers and Helpers. Constitu-tion, Revised and Adopted at the Twenty -Fifth Con-solidated Convention in Vancouver, British Columbia,August 8-12, 1977.

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REFERENCES

International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades,Constitution and Laws Governing Subordinate Bodies,1980.

International Union of Bricklayers and Craftsmen. Consti-tution, Rules of Order and Codes, Ameaded at the1981 Convention.

International Union of Operating Engineers. Constitution.

National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee forThe Electrical Industry, National Apprenticeship andTraining Standard for the Electrical Construction In-dairy. Washington, D.C.: National Joint Apprentice-ship and Training Committee, 1971.

Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' InternationalAssociation. Constitution, Revised and Adopted at the43rd Convention in Las Vegas, Nevada, August 18-22,1975.

Sheet Metal Workers' International Association. Constitu-tion and Ritual, Revised and amended by the Thirty-fifth General Convention, St. Louis, Missouri, July 31-August 4, 1978.

Tile, Marble, Terrazzo, Finishers, Shopworkers, andGranite Cutters International Union. Constitution andBy-Laws, Revised by the Las Vegas, Nevada Conven-tion, August 23-26, 1982.

United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of Ameri-ca. Constitution and Laws, Amended January 1, 1982.

United States Department of Labor, Employment andTraining Administration, Bureau of Apprenticeship andTraining, National Apprenticeship Program. Washing-ton, D.C.: Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training,1977._ National Apprenticeship and Training Standards

for Bricklaying. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Appren-ticeship and Training, 1977._ . National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor Carpentry. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Appren-ticeship and Training, 1979._ National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor Cement Masonry, Asphaslt, and Composition Trad-er. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Apprenticeship andTraining, 1976._. National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor the CWA. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Apprentice-ship and Training, 1982.

_. National Apprenticeship and ?Mining Standardsfor Glaziers and Glassworkers, Washington, D.C. Bu-reau of Apprenticeship and Training, 1982.

National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor the Gm ?hie t,-ts International Union. Washington,D.C. Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, 1975._ National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor the IUE, Washington, D.C. Bureau of Apprentice-ship and Training, 1981._ National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor Painting and Drywall Finishing. Washington, D.C.Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, 1982.

_. National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor Plastering. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Appren-ticeship and Training, 1982.

_. National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor Signs, Display, and Allied Workers Industry. Wash-

ington, D.C. Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training,1982._ National Apprenticeship for Operating Engi-neers. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Apprenticeshipand Training, 1978._ National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor Plumbing and Steamfuting-Pipefitting. Washington,D.C. Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, 1977._ National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor the Retail Meatcutting Inaiatry. Washington, D.C.Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, 1982.

____ National Apprenticeship and Training Standardsfor the UAW. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Apprentice-ship and Training, 1977.

Setting up an Apprenticeship Program Washing-ton, D.C. Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training,1984.

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