DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 262 438 CS 505 065

TITLE Elementary Language Arts: Strategies for Teaching andLearning.

INSTITUTION Ohio State Dept. of Education, Columbus.SPONS AGENCY Department of Education, Washington, DC.PUB DATE 82NOTE 63p.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner)

(051) Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (ForTeachers) (052)

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.Childrens Literature; Classroom Environment;Cognitive Processes; *Curriculum Development;Elementary Education; English Instruction; InserviceTeacher Education; Instructional Materials;*Integrated Curriculum; *Language Acquisition;*Language Arts; Language Skills; Listening Skills;Models; Reading Instruction; Reading Skills; SpeechSkills; Teaching Methods; Writing Instruction;Writing Skills

ABSTRACTIntended for use as an inservice tool for elementary

school teachers and as an independent study tool, this guide providesa framework for designing language experiences in the classroom.Following an introduction, the first section of the guide deals withlanguage as communication, as thought, and as a series ofinterrelated skills. Three questions language arts teachers must askthemselves are posed: whether they give receptive and expressiveskills equal time, whether inner thought can occur without language,and whether teachers interrelate the language arts. The secondsection explores creating an environment for language, and isorganized around the essential areas of language teaching. Thesection includes three languaga arts teaching frameworks, ways ofproviding for interaction between the different language arts, andtwo suggested models for enriching the context for language learning.The third section deals with designing language experiences in theareas of listening, oral expression, dramatization, writtenexpression, literature as a base for critical reading, and aframework for teaching reading using children's literature. Inaddition to the resource lists in each skill area, a selected list ofwritings in language arts is included in a bibliography. (HTH)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original document. *

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STRATEGIESFOR TEACHINGAND LEARNING

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OHIO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONCOLUMBUS

OHIO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Franklin B. WalterSuperintendent of Public Instruction

Irene G. Bandy G. Robert BowersAssistant Superintendents of Public Instruction

James W. MillerDirectorDivision ofEducational Services

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Nancy A. EberhartAssociate Director

Office ofInservice Education

Special recognition to:Lorita T Myles

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

Richard C Glowacki, Toledo, PresidentWayne E. Shaffer, Bryan, Vice-President

Jean E. Bender, AkronWallace E. Blake, ZanesvillePaul Brickner. Willoughby

Jack C. Hunter, YoungstownVirginia E. Jacobs, Lima

Robert H. Johnson, SpringfieldMary R. Lindner, Cincinnati

William E. Moore, WoodsfieldSue Ann Norton, WestervillePaul F. Pfeiffer, Massillon

Edwin C. Price, Jr., CincinnatiChester A. Roush, Kettering

Anthony J. Russo, Mayfield VillageLucy Russo, Cleveland

Steven Schecter, Cleveland HeightsPatricia Smith, WorthingtonSally R Southard, OxfordJo Thatcher, PortsmouthKaren L Worley, Elyria

1982 Ohio D4partthent ut hill, .111,0i

I united reprodut 1Lor per t111101`

Ili( Ohio I)eportrn.It of [Au( anon hereh -fir vNs

permission to teat hers to reoroduc e ilik, ,1 thishonk 101 lkl'h his or her crude t,also grafitvd to tea. her leaders III ()kir, such n.reprodu( e «)ple, of afG part of this ho 'or 11,i' inteacher framing Km,lies Ato; further revo1.., holt isprolla»ted without pertnisstoh of the Oh.p Departmew of Education

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The malt of the Ohio Department of Fdu,ationexpresscs appres kition to the classroom teachers and super isms fortheir critique of the draft edition in terms of content. format, and practicalit.

Margaret BlosserElementary SupervisorCarrollton Exempted Village

Carol BridingerTeacher, Grade 6Allen East Middle SchoolAllen County Schools

Doris Dangler CrumpAdministratorLorain City Schools

Carol EbertsTeacher, Grade 1Hamden ElementaryVinton County Local Schools

Olivia GaytkoLanguage Arts-Grades 5,6Willis SchoolCarrollton Exempted Village

Hazel L. GibbonyAssociate Professor EmeritusThe Ohio State University

Gayle HaywoodTeacher, Grade 2Dayton City Schools

Dorothy Keith JacksonPrincipal, Superior F.O.C.A S.East Cleveland City Schools

George K. LawsonElementary SupervisorScioto County Schools

JoAnn McCraleyLanguage Arts-Grade 8All Saints Consolidated SchoolDiocese of Steubenville

Monalea MirageReading TeacherSuperior F.O.C.A.S.East Cleveland City Schools

Carl E. MoylerSecondary SupervisorDayton City Schools

Patricia MuncyReading SupervisorWayne County Schools

Dorothy L. PageElementary CoordinatorAllen County Schools

Sister Anne RutledgeCoordinatorDiocese of Steubenville

Carolyn SalibaSecondary Reading CoordinatorFranklin Local'Muskingum County Schools

Mary Ann SimmonsDirector/ Elementary EducationVinton County !..ocal Schools

Cathy SkiverTeacher, Grade 1Wheelersburg LocalScioto County Schools

Donald SniderPrincipalHuber Ridge ElementaryWesterville City Schools

Mary Ann TitusTeacher, Grade 3Huber Ridge ElementaryWesterville City Schools

Myrtle WhiteTeacher, Grade 6Meister Road ElementaryLorain City Schools

James R. WhitemanSupervisorFulton County Schools

JoAnne WinfieldTeacher, Grade 4Archbold Area LocalFulton County Schools

Ann B. WoodCurriculum SupervisorMuskingum County Schools

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FOREWORD

Helping students to communicate effectively hasalways been a top educational objective. Since the"arty years of public education when the "3 R's" werethe only curriculum, two of those three were skills ofcommunication. Reading and writing continue to beregarded as high priont, items for successful oentation into adult life.

The tools of language include more than justreading and writing. They enable students to becomemore attentive listeners, to speak with greater clarity,to write creatively and effectively and to read criticallyThe close interrelationships of these major skill areasof the language arts are the foLas of this inservvepublic-anon.

Elementary Language Arts: Strategies forTeaching and Learning provides a framework fordesigning language experiences in the classroom.Concepts, goals, interrelationships with otherlanguage skills, essential experiences, examples ofclassroom activities, evaluation techniques and use-ful resources are offered in each skill area. In addition,there is a review of the present trends in language artsresearch and a section on creating an environment for!anguage.

The emphasis on student and teacher interaction,ai id upun ennvhng the contexts for language learningshould provide additional strategies for teaching andan improved understanding of the learning process.

Franklin B. WalterSuperintendent of Public Instruction

ELEMENTARY LANGUAGE ARTS:STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNINGUsing This Publication

Elementary Language Arts. Strategies forTeaching and Learning was designed for use as aninsert ice tool ix:ft classroom tea-*ers and as anindependent studs tool It is intended as a Quidellne forsuic :risen. ice and not as a compre-ensive course ofstudy The n)pk_s nresented are th ise that should heco. sIdeted when pianni, g elementar, language artspri

Section I: Understanding Our Language posesthree questions that should be considered by allteachers ot the language arts.

Section II: Creating an Environment for Lan-guage ,s organized around the essent al areas of lan-guage teaching. Current writers in the :Rid are drawnupon to provide a support base for teachers andaornnistrators whey preparing a rat,unale for theirlanguage arts program E.camples are 7:resented fromthree writers in the !Rid of language ars The frame-works they suggest are presented in t'-e subsectionsot part ll At the close of this section t. yt() -nodels of theintegration ot language skills into the general cum

culum are presented with pages that can be made intotransparency overlays.

Section III: Designing Language Experiences isdivided Into the major elements that constitute a lan-guage arts program The five areas of listening, oralexpression, dramatization, writ ten expression andthe reading of literature for children are developed in asimilar format, One part of that format is a frameworkfor teach .rig that consists of a concept, goals, inter-relationships with other language arts skills, essentialexperiences. examples of student activities,evaluation suggestions and a selected list ofresources

Again, these are not intended to be a comprehensiveLollectior it interrelationships, experiences andactivities 'Put a listing ot those that are consideredessential [nLlude when developing any languagearts program

Bibliography: In addition to the resource lists in eachskill area, a selected list of writings in language arts areincluded here

This key mil be found throughout this book as a cue that a parti-cular segmert might serve as a useful inservice topic. When all thekey" areas are put together they become the framework for the

inservice use of this publication. Some may be adapted as overheadtransparencies while others might serve as topics for discussionsor as handouts All pages of this publication may be duplicated forinservice use

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ELEMENTARY LANGUAGE ARTS:STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNINGTable of Contents

INTRODUCTION 5

I. UNDERSTANDING OUR LANGUAGE 6Language Is Communication 6Language Is Thought 7

Language Is Interrelated 7

11. CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR LANGUAGE 8Developing the Framework 8A Language Experience Approach 9A Structure (or Teaching 9A Theory of Discourse 9

Providing for Interaction 10Verbal and Nonverbal Signals 10Importance of Questioning 12

Enriching the Context for Language Learning 15Two Suggested Models 16

A Spontaneous Occurrence 18A Planned Project 21

III. DESIGNING LANGUAGE EXPERIENCES 24

Listening 25Early Experiences in Listening 25Kinds of Listening 26A Framewoi k for Teaching: Listening 27Oral Expression 28Strategies for Classroom Discusssion 29Kinds of Oral Expression Experiences 31A Framework for Teaching: Oral Expression 32Dramatization 33Kinds of Dramatic Presentation 34A Framework for Teaching. Dramatization 35

Written Expression 36Stages in the Process of Writing 37The Tools of Wining 38

Handwriting 38Spelling 39Grammar, Usage, Punctuation, Capitalization 41

Forms of Written Communication 43A Framework for Teaching: Written Expression 44

Reading: Literature for Children 46Literature as a Base tor Critical Reading 46

Forms of Literature 47Elements of Fiction 47Literary Devices 48

Experiencing Literature 49A Framework for Teaching: Reading Children's Literature 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY 51

ELEMENTARY LANGUAGE ARTS:STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNINGIntroduction

All educators are concerned that children learn tocommunicate their thoughts and feelings effectively.From kinder garten to the upper elementary schoollevels the oral and written language skills are stressedand rightly so. Facility with one's language is essentialto achievement in all content areas. Children havealready acquired considerable ability to use theirlanguage before they begin first grade although theyare not yet aware of the rules of the language. Theteacher's role at the primary level then becomes oneof helping children utilize their natural languageabilities in relating to the language of the school. Theteacher needs to be sensitive to the child's attempts tolearn the English language system and to recognizewhen progress is being made.

Most children have acquired much of their ability tocommunicate prior to their school years and have

done so without benefit of direct teaching. They havelearned naturally through listening, imitating andpracticing the words required to communicate theirdesires and needs. Research studies have foundthat this natural approach to learning andimproving language skills is most effective. Inview of these findings, teachers might begin toexamine their own attitudes toward languagearts teaching, their relationships with students,and the interaction and involvement in theclassroom that require and produce languageskill.

This publication will be concerned with such interaction and involvement, as well as the strong inter-relationship among the components of languageteaching.

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5

I. UNDERSTANDING OUR LANGUAGE

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Language Is Communication:Do We Give Receptive and Expressive Skills Equal Time?The primary purpose of language is communication.The teacher's concern is that students learn toexpress themselves effectively and to comprehendthe information they receive. Speaking and writing arethe major forms of expression. Dramatics, nonverbalcommunication, handwriting, spelling, grammar andusage are necessary components. The receptive skillsinclude listening and reading, with literature contri-buting as a source of both information and enjoyment.Observation might also be Included, since visual dis-crimination skills play a vital part in reading. Anunderstanding of gestures, posture and facial expres-sion clearly plays an important function in receivinginformation and interpreting feelings.

The teacher who has a command of our languagesystem and its interrelationships can convey tostudents the idea that the expressive and recep-tive skills are mutually reinforcing. Improvementin listening aids speaking. Reading, writing, listeningand speaking are all positively related. The studies ofWalter Loban, one of the significant researchers ofchildren's language, verifies these interrelationshipsamong the language arts.

Language Arts Skills(As discussed in this publication)

Receptive Expressive

Listening SpeakingObserving DramatizingReading Writing

Children's Literature HandwritingSpellingGrammarUsagePunctuationCapitalization

Communication takes place in many contexts,and teachers who provide common experiencesfor their students may find these a profitable wayto begin the process. When students experience anevent together, such as a field trip, working on a pro-ject, or hearing a story, they will see objects and hearterms presented in a meaningful context that canserve as a base for future language experiences. At alater time the students can use their experiences andthe language acquired to discuss or record the pastevent in a meaningful way Classroom projects inwhich the receptive and expressive skills arerelated within the context of a natural give andtake of ideas will help children extend theirunderstanding of the language skills.

11.oban. Walter, The Language of Elementary School Children.Champaign. Illinois. National Council of Teachers of English,1963. p. 89.

Three levels of communication have been identifiedby James Smith. To the "experiential" and "verbal"levels he has added a "conceptual" level at whichstudents generalize past expenences and integratethem with new events.2

Paul Anderson also believes that communicationinvolves more than just words and that teaching is notjust telling. He would have the skills of language usedthroughout the day and suggests that planned instruc-tion of certain skill areas is essential to their develop-ment.3

Perhaps the five points for the dynamic teaching oflanguage arts made by Hennings best summarize thecomprehensiveness of the communication skills:1. Drawing together speaking, writing, reading,

thinking and listening into integrated, communication- centered experiences

2, Providing for children's direct involvement inlanguage activities

3. Using varied instructional techniques that com-bine interaction with independent learning

4. Placing literature experiences at the nucleus oflanguage arts activity

5. Using linguistic understanding as a theoreticalbase for the language arts.4

The term "representational" is used by M.A.K.Halliday to identify the communication function oflanguage. He says the teachers' conceptions oflanguage must address the many models orfunctions of the child's language if the child's needsare to be met adequately. Prior to school alllanguage has had meaning for the child because itwas used for familiar and specific functions. How-ever, many children encounter difficultieswhen they enter school, where the language isused in a context unrelated to their formerexperiences with language. "In order to betaught successfully," says Halliday, "it is necessaryto know how to use language to learn: and also,how to use language to participate as an individualin the learning situation,"5

The language experience approach recommended byRoach Van Allen teaches communication anddevelops the curriculum around three strands: exper-iencing communication, studying communication,and relating communication of others to self.6

Smith, lifIteS C'etItil)e TVIA hitt9 of the Linguine Arts in theFement).\, S. ;lout. Boston Allyn & Bacon. Int . 1973

Andervm, P.a.a Longtiugt. Skit(, u7 Lernoitun, Ed.a anon. 2ndedition, Neo. York Macmillan Company. 1972

.1.1eniangs DOTtAK4. CO, MUM. ItUti 1Ct AtIt,)?7, Chicago Randbt. Nally Co legs Publishing Corapms,, 1976

I M A K , Exptorcitionsa,therwit 10,...,ot Language, London Eduard Arnold, 1973 p 18

R Var. Lungoage Expertencesm Crropmint«Mon, RostonHoughton Mifflin Company. 1976 p 3

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Language Is Thought: Can We Think Without Language?If total communication deals both with language ascommunication and as a medium of thought, moreattention must be paid to self-expression and to theindividualization of the curriculums Experiencedteachers know how greatly children differ in languageability and that these individual differences or needsmust be met in some systematic way. Classroomexperiences, therefore, must include opportunitiesfor children to use their language in practical andexpressive ways and also provide for direct teachingof the skills which need additional development orreinforcement.

The views of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky must beconsidered in any review of language and thought, forboth have provided significant information upon

which differing theories of language learning havebeen based. Piaget sees language in young children asseparate from the child's cognitive development,though both grow closer and function almostsimultaneously as the child matures.8 Vygotsky'sphilosophy differs from Piaget's in that he viewslanguage learning and cognitive learning as a singleprocess. That is, thought cannot take place withoutwords. He believes that silent or inner speech occurswith thought?

Those who follow Piaget, therefore, view languagelearning as only one of several kinds of learningoffered to children. Educators following Vygotsky'sposition consider language learning as necessary forall other learning to take place.

Language Is Interrelated: Do We Provide for Interrelationships?If language is the ability to express oneself in severaldifferent modes (speaking, writing, acting, gesturing)and the ability to receive from others in differentmodes (by listening, reading and observing), the inter-actions of these modes seem quite natural. In order tolisten, someone must speak; to speak, there must bethought or desire to express and inform. In order toread, someone must write; to write, there must beknowledge of words and their functions as well as skillin reproducing them (spelling, handwriting). Finally, toobserve there must be something to see. These skillsare naturally reinforcing and occur in almost a devel-opmental sequence, although they occursimultaneously as well.

Listening helps the young child learn that words havespecific meaning. Gradually the child attempts toreproduce those words that gain attention, food. orinformation and that identify objects and people.Later the child becomes aware that print on paper iscomposed of words that can be read and also writtendown for others to read. The child a3 continuallyrefining each of these areas as new and vanedexperiences and conditions are encountered.

Not only are the language skills closely related infunction, they are mutually beneficial orreinforcing. Reading, for example, offers a model ofcorrect spelling and sentence formation, as well asword meaning, in a context that will in turn helpchildren become more skillful in writing and speaking.Children who listen to good speech models will bemore apt to improve their own speech. Children whoare made aware of changes in stress or pitch, forexample, will have a greater understanding of theeffect of such changes on the meanings of words.Children will tend to use vocabulary correctly inspeaking or in writing when that vocabulary has beenencountered in the reading of books, in listening tostories read aloud, or in conversation. Attempts havebeen made to teach each of these skills separately, butit is difficult to separate the language skills, since they

'Ibid.10

rarely function independently. At the elementaryschool level, where many classrooms are self-contained, the integration of the language arts skillscan occur rather easily. Within a departmentalizedorganizational structure, integration does not typi-cally occur as frequently. The emphasis on contentand the shorter period of time with a group of studentsare both factors. Closer communication amongteachers of the content areas and the language artsteachers would be a helpful first step to integration.Discussion of ways to integrate language skills into thetotal curriculum might follow. For example,vocabulary encountered when reading technicalmaterials, discussion techniques, study skills neededfor library research, oral and written reportingtechniques, recording observations of experiments,and practice in listening for specific purposes are alltopics that can be integrated into the daily schedulesof departmentalized classrooms. Teachers who areaware of these relationships will find ways to relate allthe receptive and expressive skills.

The skills of observing, speaking, listening, readingand writing can be applied to almost every aspect ofthe daily elementary curriculum. In this way, theybecome the tools for learning content as well as themeans of learning about language. Theteaching/learning situation that accommodates thisdual role will undoubtedly be more satisfying andsuccessful for teachers. Working with children in real-life situations creates interest and satisfies immediateneeds. Children, at the same time, see language functioning in ways that are relevant and useful.

Examples of this close Interrelationship will be offeredthroughout this publication. For clarity, however,each major element will also be considered separately.Just as the teacher directly instructs in specific skillareas to improve basic understandings, there is a needto present each facet of the language arts separately inorder to show its unique contribution to the totalprogram.

,Piaget, Jean, The Language and Thought of the Child. Cleveland:World Publishing Company, 1969.

9Vygotsky, Lev S., Thought and Language. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1962.

II. CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR LANGUAGE

Children have acquired a significant amount of skill inproducing and using language prior to their schoolyears. Their skills are reflected in their ability to speakin reasonably wellconstructed sentences and with anadequate vocabulary and to listen with moderatecomprehension to most utterances they hear. Manychildren have learned something about the formationof letters and can even write their own namesChildren's television programs in recent years havecertainly furthered chiidren's understanding of lettersand numerals and captions on pictures. The emphasison reading stories on children's television programs, inthe home, and in public libraries has created arenewed interest in books and a desire to read. Thisaids in developing a readiness for reading in the earlyyears of formal schooling and into a habit of reading asthe child matures. An atmosphere of eagerness andcuriosity is created in many children for all aspects oflanguage. Children who participate in good listening,speaking, reading and writing experiences learn to usetheir language skillfully.

Developing the FrameworkIn creating a supportive language environment in aschool setting then, it would seem appropriate for theclassroom teacher to establish a program in whichlanguage can be used throughout the day in a widevariety of experiences and activities. The moreclosely these activities resemble real-life experi-ences the more readily they will be accepted bychildren as relevant and useful and thereforeworthy of their time and effort. Such a teaching/learning environment is appropriate for all ages andnot Just for children entering the elementary schoolprogram. We must capitalize on the tremendousamount of language facility children bring to theschool environment and establish in ourclassroom an atmosphere that will encouragecontinued progress in language learning.

A Summary of Frameworks for TeachingLanguage ArtsROACH VAN ALLEN - A LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH

interaction is the keyIII sensitivity to environment

self-confidence in language usagechild's own language is basis for instruction

CHARLES CALLITRI - A STRUCTURE FOR TEACHING LANGUAGE ARTS

autistic stage - language used for self onlycommunicative stage - need to shareanalytic stage attention to errors

1111 esthetic stage - accomplishments motivate further experience

JAMES MOFFETT - A THEORY OF DISCOURSE

physical distance between speaker and audience"I-I" - inner speech"I-You" - conversation"I-You" - dialogue at a distance"I-It" - publication for unknown audience

levels of abstraction of subject matterwhat is happening - perception of eventwhat happened - memory of past eventwhat happens - classification, generalizationwhat may happen - hypothesizing, conceptualizing

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The chart on the preceding page summarizes thethree frameworks that follow. This additionalinformation is given for those who wish toexplore the concepts in greater detail.A language experience approach. The followingconceptual framework suggested by Roach Van Allenseems an appropriate way to begin developing thebroad base for effective language instruction:

The basis of chtliiimfs oral and written expression is thk.nsensitivity to their environment both within the ctasstoom and mthu %odd at large

Freedom in self expression oral and wr.(iel, leads io hellOintlden4. in atf language usage in .uding grammar,

tlat(1011. ainflig:t1,70.41. and spelling

A chunk)) flow ot lacgt..age develops In chdren mlaged inproglions ot instruction tNised on pyr...twa; ',pattern..., andmvaringtut

Imera, tion. the only pr,. c ss through lath,. n .anguage trialtIreh.pr',n,Aftted through Ifw tiumerousa, i.i * expvrteric v.,.

Ivytt

lit1;1M3 PI, 44 the language as or. the haws forr.icng tioh > high degrek . -.dependent e ni1.kr14 and reading

A structure for teaching. In developing a structurefor teaching the language arts, Charles Callitn offers apattern that illustrates the need for teachers who aresensitive to the students' motives when involved inlanguage learning. His structure consists of fouraspects: autistic, communicative, analytic, andesthetic. A brief description of these will set the stagefor the suggested program that follows and to gain anunderstanding of the child's beha..ior when usinglanguage/

The autistic stage is similar to what Piaget calledego-centricity and is not related to the term used todescribe a withdrawn, uncommunicative child.Students use language only for themselves to enjoya listening experience, to read for their own pleasure,to look at something of interest, or to write their pri-vate feelings and ideas. These experiences are not tobe shared or "graded" by anyone else. This stage provides an opportunity for the teacher to involvestudents in becoming more aware of self, inbroadening their perceptive abilities and in enjoyingwhat they are doing with language.

In the communication stage, the students need toshare with someone else those feelings and thoughtsenjoyed previously by themselves. It is at this pointthat the teacher aids the communication process, butonly when spelling or punctuation, for example,interfere with a written message that the studentswant to share. This preserves the focus on meantng,which is the reason for communicating.

Wien, it Van. Language Experiences to Communication, BostonHoughlonMifflin, 1976. pp 55.57.

2Callitri, Charles, "A Structure for Teaching the Lariaua3e Arts,"Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 35, 1965.

It is at the analytic stage that messages, oral orwritten, are subject to correction ai.d evaluation.Students who have derived pleasure from the autisticexperience and presented ideas at the communicativestage can more readily be led to see the necessity foranalysis of their language. As students communicatewith wider audiences they can be helped to see thenecessity for using the conventions of language(spelling, punctuation, grammar) that are understoodby most people. At this stage the teacher introducesthe study of form and style and teaches them deduc.tively. Errors that can restrict communication orinhibit appreciation such as incorrect spelling orillegible handwriting are analyzed and corrected.Students. then, feel better about themselves as theirwork improves.

The esthetic stage is a synthesis of the first three and itleaves the student with a feeling of accomplishment,which in turn provides the motivation for additionalwork with language experiences. The stages arecumulative and overlap of necessity, as the variety oflanguage experiences cannot be separated soprecisely.

The understanding developed between students andteacher is extremely important in this approach. Theteacher who asks children to give an opinion cannotthen mark an opinion wrong. Illogical and unjustifiedopinions may be questioned, of course. The teacherwho asks students to use correct style and form, how.ever, can reject the product if it fails to meet theassignment standard. Then the teacher can analyzethe errors and help students in their efforts to improvetheir writing.

A theory of discourse. Another structure that hasbeen widely accepted is that of James Moffett'sstudent-centered language arts curriculum. Moffetthas developed a theory of discourse that follows thebasic theories of child development. It closely parallelsPiaget's theory of cognitive development and Callitri'sfour motives for language. Moffett believes that theteaching and learning process must be broughttogether to produce real education, meshing thestructure of the subject with the structure of thestudent.

Moffett's theory of discourse is determined by (1) thephysical distance between the speaker and hisaudience that he calls rhetorical distance and (2) thelevel of abstraction of the subject matter) Heidentifies the physical communication betweenspeaker and audience as the determiner of the type ofdiscourse The first is "I I" or the inner speech we alluse daily as we "talk to ourselves" about our thoughtsor rehearse silently what we plan to do or say at a later

`Moffett, James, Temhing the UniLerse ot Discourse, BostonHoughton Mifflin Company. 1968. (Chapter 2 Kinds and Ordersof Discourse)

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10 time. The second is "!.You" which is an outer vocali-zation or conversation. It is usually informal andfriendly and consists of the speaker telling someoneelse what happened. A third type of distance is also "I-You" but the speaker and listener or listeners areremoved in time and space, so letter writing isnecessary. Correspondence is dialogue-at-adistance.The audience is known to the writer or speaker andsome response is expected. The fourth stage ofrhetorical distance is "1-1t" in which the speaker andaudience are unknown to each other. Formal writingrequires that vocabulary, style and logic must beused so that anybody in the audience canunderstand. We might think of this as publication.

When describing the levels of abstraction of thesubject matter Moffett uses four verb tenses whichindicate when events occur, What is happening ishow we perceive things as they happen and mightoccur in conversation, writing a letter or dramatiza-tion. What happened is when the speaker must relyon memory and is sharing an incident that occurredpreviously, as in reporting or in story telling. Classi-fication and generalization occur when the speaker isrelating what happens and might occur as a studentis explaining an historical event. When the speaker orwriter is relating what may happen, hypothesizing,theorizing and conceptualizing take place such as inargument or persuasion or when describing a scienceexperiment.

The levels of abstraction are found at every stage ofrhetorical distance, and students should beencouraged to work with all levels to understand thedifferences that will occur in word choice, punctua-tion, sentence structure, grammar, paragraphing andorganization. Children know intuitively that theyspeak differently to different people or audiences.Moffett's theory merely organizes this natural under-standing into a developmental sequence for teachingand learning.

Providing for InteractionIn his conceptual framework Roach Van Allen hasstated that interaction is the only process throughwhich language matures, and that it is promotedthrough the use of numerous activities, experiences,and devices. If students bring to the school environ-ment language skills that they have acquired before&tending school, then daily experiences in refiningand extending those skills through interaction withtheir teachers and their peers is justified, DouglasBarnes has said, "A school by its very nat tire is a placewhere communication goes on: that is what it isfor."4 He also states that language must enter into thecurriculum in two ways: (1) as the communicationsystem of the classroom in which the learner is moreor less passive and (2) as a means of learning in whichthe learner is an active participant in the making ofmeaning''Barnes, Douglas. Prom Communication to Curriculum, New

York: Penguin Books, 1976. p.14,51bid. p.31.

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Both teachers and children are constantly inter-preting each others' actions, talk, and nonverbalsignals. How the teacher establishes relationships inthe classroom and provides opportunities for inter-action will often be a greater incentive to the student'sparticipation in school work than will intelligence orself-confidence.

There is another type of interaction needed in thelanguage-learning process and that is interaction withthe content of the curriculum itself. Many experiencesare needed before students are able to link their every-day knowledge gained outside the school with theknowledge presented in the classroom.

In order to function in the classroom children mustfeel secure. To feel secure, children need some senseof control of their learning strategies and their abilityto.predict. if teachers permit children to interact withnew content, materials, and terminology individuallyand in small groups, they will begin to take moreresponsibility for solving their own problems. Thefreedom to discuss, to pose possible solutionsand to try out their hypotheses, offers manyopportunities for language to be recognized as auseful tool for learning. Children need to beencouraged to relate new experiences to old ones; forit takes time to process information. Throughconversations, discussions and writing, children canbring their perceptions to the learning task and mergethem with those of the teacher. If all the talking andtelling is done by the teacher and all information isgained only from textbooks, then we are ignoring thetenets of Piaget, Vygotsky and others that thefunction of speech and writing is as an instrument forreshaping the learning task into a meaningfulexperience .6

Interpersonal interactions are extremely important."The social interactions," says Louise Cherry, "inwhich the child participates directly in the alternatingroles of speaker and listener are among the mostimportant experiences for the child developing com-munication competence. "7 Cherry says that suchexperiences create a need for the child to uselanguage appropriately and effectively to communi-cate, to provide opportunities to test language rulesand to receive information about the adequacy of-those rules?'

Verbal & Nonverbal SignalsOne of the tasks of students is to learn to interprettheir teachers' remarks,

Teachers reveal much of their attitude toward theirteaching and their students by their verbal and non-verbal signals. Much research has been carried out on

"Barnes, Douglas, p 84,Cherry, Louise J . "A Soctocognnwe Approach to Language

Development and Its ImpliLatiuns tur EduLation," Language,Children ants Sauety, eds.. GilililLti and Ktng (New York. Pergamon Press, 1979), p.115,

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the amount of teacher talk that occurs in theclassroom and on the chaiactenstics of that talk.Researchers are becoming increasingly concernedwith the manner of talk as well.

Signal 1: Teacher talk. Teachers exercise controlover children with their talk the words, the tone.the amount and the direction used. Examininghabits of talk, the choice of recipients for ques-tioning and the tone with which certain topicsare presented, may be a revealing experience.Teachers need to remind themselves frequently thattheir speech habits serve as models for their students.The teachers' use of speech is a model of us functions.They use language to persuade, encourage, disagree,report, explain, entertain, and above all to organizetheir thoughts. Children attentive to these many func-tions can pattern their own use of language in similarways.

Signal 2: Experiences with language. The teacherwho engages children in conversation, providesopportunities for discussion, and initiates word playactivities shows children that language is importantand that language amities can be tun. The teacherwho reads aloud to students will add an evengreater dimension to the value of language toentertain and to inform, as well as to add newwords and word meanings to their growingvocabulary. Words used in these contexts willextend the children's knowledge of their languagesystem. This is especially valuable to children withinadequate language experiences. 1: children haveexperienced little conversation in the home, or havenever had a question answered to their satisfaction orhave never been asked to explain a game or to retellan experience, they need many opportunities to try allof these modes before they are ready to use languageat its fullest. As Alice Yardleystates,"Long before thechild can benefit from systematic teaching in wordusage, he must develop his natural skill in communication,'Signal 3: An invitation to learn. According toWilliam Purkey, all students should be "invited" tolearn by teachers using both verbal and nonverbalapproaches. The inviting teacher continuouslylets students know that they are responsible,able and valuable.o The teacher who smiles, nods,and spends time with students is using positive nonverbal techniques that encourage the students tobecome involved and to achieve. The teacher whofrowns and ignores certain students is not invitingthem to learn, and thus projects a negative image tothose students. Teachers may be intentionally orunintentionally inviting or not inviting studentsto learn. Negative nonverbal behavior oftencounteracts positive verbal behavior. Actionsspeak louder than words.

4Yardley, Alice, Explorauon and Language '...-mdom EvansBrothers, Ltd., 1970 p.29.

'Turkey, William, /wring School Success, Belmont, CaliforniaWadsworth Publishing, 1978,

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Signal 4: Nonverbal communication. Perhaps themost significant problem in the broad area of nonverbal communication Is the general lack ofawareness on the part of some teachers. The scope ofnonverbal communication is surprising. It can involveitems over which the teacher has no control such asthe size, color or design of the classroom or thebuilding itself, the classroom furnishings and thenumber of students in the classroom. The teacherwho is aware of these effects of the environment canarrange the classroom so that the space and facilitiesare used to better advantage. Individual space andspace to socialize or work together need to beconsidered in establishing an inviting classroom.Movements around the classroom, the gesturesemployed, posture, and above all, facial expressionand eye contact have an effect upon the degree ofacceptance. rejection, action, and interaction in theclassroom. Teachers who are aware will be more aptto adjust these factors to achieve t he ultimate learningsituation.

The effects of nonverbal communication upon thelearning incentives of students are made even morecomplex when the students in the classroom are fromdifferent cultural backgrounds. Caucasian, Black andNative American children interpret eye contact indifferent ways, for example, and gestures and facialexpression are more critical with certain culturalgroups than others. Howard Smith has compiled acomprehensive reference which examines numerouscategories of nonverbal communication that haveimplications for teaching.11 His seven categoriesinclude environment, proxemics (use of space),kinesics (body motion, movement, posture, facial andeye behavior), touching behavior, physical charac-teristics, paralanguage (voice volume, pitch, tempoand intensity, and silent pauses), and artifacts (clothesand beauty aids).

"Smith. Howard A "Nonverbal Communication in Teaching,"Renew of Edutabonol Resew, h Vol. 09 thut, 19791. pp 631672

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Components of Nonverbal CommunicationEnvironment:

111 placement of furniture desks and chairs

Personal space:

distance between teacher and studentsdistance between students

Body movement and orientation:

gestures - pointing, shruggingposture

Facial expression:

III moods and emotionsO eye behavior

Nonlanguage vocal behavior:

paralanguage (how a statement is made)laughing, crying, intensity, pitch, articulation

Adapted from Wiemann and Wiemann Nonverbal Communicationin the Elementary Classroom:2

Importance of QuestioningOne means of inviting students into a learning exper-ience is through the use of appropriate questions, Acareful sequence of questions can lead todiscussion, and open-ended questions tend to bethe best talk starters.Research shows that teachers ask countless ques-tions and far too many that are either unnecessary orirrelevant. One researcher, J.T. Dillon, suggests thatteachers should state what they are thinking ratherthan pose it as a question to students. Allowingstudents to respond to a statement rather than to a

t2 Wiemann, Mary 0 and Wiemann. John M. Native; bit Common,ration in the Elementary Classroom, Urbana, Illinois: ERICClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, 1975

question serves to involve the student and clarify whatwas said. Students can be invited to question eachother and this, too, encourages active involvementand is likely to stimulate greater participation indiscussion." Because students are quick to recognizethe unnecessary question, Dillon recommends thatteachers ask questions only when clarification oradditional information is truly needed. One alterna-tive to unnecessary questions might be silenceuntil the student has time to rephrase, rethinkorformulate a statement.14

Wlodkowski recommends limiting the use of know-ledge questions and selectively increasing the use of

`M-, J T , "Aittrnanves tuQuet.tioniny. The Education Digest,Vol. 45 pp 42 44

"Ibld.

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comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, andevaluation questions. He suggests teachers askthemselves, "In the learner's perceptions, howstimulating and provocative are the questionsbeing discussed ? "is

If the teachers' pais include bringing students into anactive participating role so that language interactionscan take place, then the model they present should be

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one of provoking thought. Effective questioning prac-tices are one means of providing students with oppor-tunities to acquire and classify information and to uselogical thought. Questions can subvert, as well asenhance, these teaching goals. Sondra Napo! hasposed some questions, paraphrased here, that allteachers can ask themselves about their use ofquestions.

Do your questions enhance learning or put students on the spot?

Do you give all students equal time to formulate their responses?

Do you ask questions that encourage responses?

Do you plan experiences which require that students design their ownquestions? For example. interviewing, brainstorming, one-to-one conversing.

Do you plan time for summing up?',

Since questioning is recognized as an important keyto stimulating discussion, to provoking logical thoughtand to opening the door to self-expression, teachersneed to help students perfect their own questioningtechniques. Students can be encouraged to formulatetheir own questions with more precision, clarity andrelevance as a means of increasing their effectivenessin both oral and written communication. This meanstime must be set aside for practicing questioningtechniques and listening to and assessing theresponses received. Open-ended questions by theleacher do much to allay students' fears ofhaving their responses ridiculed and allow forgreater flexibility, individuality and creativity.

16Wlodkowski, Raymond J.. Motivation and Teaching: A PracticedGuide, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1978.p.28.

16Napell, Sondra M.. "Using Questions to Enhance ClassroomLearning," Education, Vol, 99, pp. 194-197.

The segment on questioning in Motivation: Unleash-ing Learning Power offers specific suggestions forimproving classroom questions. r' A few are reprintedhere.

'Ohio Department of EduL,ation,Mutivation, Unleashing LearningPower, pp. 24.26.

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Improving Questioning Skills1. The teacher's questioning skill is revealed in the subtle phrasing and

direction of the question itself. Phrase questions to open up studentresponse rather than to imply that there is a known answer. (For somequestions, there is only one correct answer)

2. Ask questions which have more than one correct answer. Encouragechildren to view a problem from several perspectives and arrive at anumber of different but equally plausible answers. Such questions alsocan lessen a child's fear of being wrong and can help him concentrate onthe activity itself.

3. Ask questions which require multiple-word answers. The answers a childgives are, in part, a function of how a child thinks about the question and,in part, a function of the questions we ask.

4. Encourage children to ask questions. Urge children to ask about thingsthey do not understand by reacting positively when they do ask questions.Part of the positive reaction includes careful listening to a child whenquestions are asked.

5, Help learners make judgments on the basis of evidence rather than byguessing. Ask children to back up their answer with evidence. Showchildren you think evidence is important. Give children practice in usingevidence or criteria to develop their answers.

6. Let students know when their answer or work is wrong, but do so in a posi-tive or neutral way. Direct corrections to the child's answer or work, not tothe child as a person.

7 Help children view learning as problem solving.

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Enriching the Context for Language LearningContext 1: Content of the curriculum. Thelanguage arts have been presented as a means of com-munication and with components that are closelyinterrelated. Most educators agree that the languagearts are considered tools of learning more than as subjects in themselves, It would seem that the skills oflanguage, therefore, should be taught and used withinthe more meaningful context of the subject matter orcontent areas.

This does not mean that all language skills areacquired in an incidental way within the context ofstudying other subjects. Once the languagecomponent has been introduced in a relevantsituation, there will need to be direct instructionin the specific skills required for communication.For example, new technical vocabulary may requiredictionary skills and the word recognition skills ofreading. When writing a report, the student must beable to locate material, and organize a systematically,and must possess sufficient mechanical skills to pro-duce the final product, The various content areas ofthe elementary curriculum then would serve as thecontexts within which language can be taught.

There are many other environments in whichlanguage can be used meaningfully These occur bothin school and outside, with familiar matenals and withunfamiliar, and are used both by individuals and bysmall groups.

Context 2: Familiar to unfamiliar. One principleof learning suggests that experiences should movefrom familiar to unfamiliar and from concrete toabstract. Teachers who provide for learning expert-ences in a developmental way will help all studentsbridge the gap between their present knowledge of theworld and the "school" knowledge they are expectedto acquire.

Many opportunities for using language occur whenchildren are exploring their immediate environment.Some of these explorations will anse spontaneouslyas students discover that things they already knowcan contribute to their school experiences Tripsaround their school and community will permitstudents to draw upon their knowledge of that area,and discussions, reports, interviews, and observations will provide the confidence needed to pursue anenvironment farther afield. Tips to historical areas ormuseums contain a wealth of experiences thatacquaint children with less familiar territory and provide for trpre challenging language experiences in theform of new vocabulary, descriptions, comparisonswith the familiar, new questicris to ask and newmaterials to discuss. As the Mallett report indicates" ... they gain confidence in their capacity to makesense of what they encounte:."18

1+AMallett, Margaret and Newsome, Bernard. Talking, Writing andLearning 8.13, London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1977, p.22.

At times the context is so familiar that it is oftenoverlooked. Students can be led to discover featuresof familiar objects that they had never be f ore no ted orconsidered. A closer look at the school building andthe homes in the vicinity, for example, could revealarchitectural differences that help to identify the ageof the buildings. Styles of architecture, constructionmaterials used. cornerstones, and historical recordsare a few of the topics that might be initiated by acloser look. Information about streets and roadways,nearby streams, cemeteries, and local businesses canall be sources for school studies. The changing neigh-borhood might provide a springboard for research,interviews, discussions and a discovery of local folk-lore.

Students of any age need many experiences near athand before embarking on long trips to unfamiliarterritory. Before studying the culture of othercountries and times, they should look at the daily livesof their own neighbors, their work, their hobbies andtheir families. At a later time it will be easier for them tostudy via textbook or museums the world of thepioneers and their daily lives, crafts and customs.Children who bring meaningful experiences to theirunfamiliar textbook and reference materials will beable to integrate much more effectively their "action"knowledge and their "school" knowledge.

Context 3: Natural surroundings. Anothercontext for learning might include the naturalsurroundings of the area such as the flowers, trees,waterways and wildlife native to the region. Thesemight be natural outgrowths of science lessons andserve as a bountiful source for language arts experi-ences, with many possible avenues of exploration.

Context 4: Vicarious experiences. Thus far thecontexts have come from the immediateenvironment, but there are others that arise frombooks and other media. Filmstrips, movies, audio andvideo tapes and books are rich resources for class-room projects and language experiences in particular.These can be the means of introducing students tonew areas of the curriculum listening experiences,expressive writing, or extensions and enrichment oflanguage activities.

Context 5: Spontaneous events. Now and then anevent occurs that affects the lives and dominates theinterests of students. Such tin event demandsimmediate attention, and the skillful teacher can usethis "teachable moment" to bridge the gap from theincident to the curriculum. This more or less spontaneous context offers a valuable opportunity forexpression of feelings and thoughts. Quest.ons thatanse can be channeled in many different directions.

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16 These represent only a few of the numerous contextsin which language activities thrive. The teachers whouse the classroom as a primary environment canencourage children to include the world of the school.neighborhood and community as additional sourcesof knowledge and experiences. These teachers willbenefit from the broadened perceptions theirstudents bring to school assignments.

Two Suggested ModeisTo enable classroom teachers to visualize the use oflanguage in a variety of contexts, two models areincluded at this point. The content of the models ismerely a sampling of what might be found in atypical elementary school situation. Teacherswould substitute their own students'contributions. How comprehensive the list of topics

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and activities becomes depends entirely upon theabilities of the students involved and the willingness ofthe teacher to expand their horizons.

The models represent two very different sources. Oneis a spontaneous occurrence that causes greatconcern among the members of the class. Studentsinitiate discussion and suggest questions that might beinvestigated. The second is an assignment that theteacher develops for a specific subject area andarranges the environment to stimulate students.

The sequence in each model is somewhat the same,for the teacher may use each experience not only tofurther student knowledge of a specific content ofmaterials, but also to tap all of the language functionsfeasible within that context. The examples show howclassroom activities can serve as the content withinwhich language can be used in functional ways.

A Sequence for integrating Language Experiences1. An event or planned introduction occurs

2. Opportunities for questions and comments are provided

3. Possible activities or topics are brainstormed

4. Decisions are made jointly by teacher and students as to which areas canreasonably be used

5. Groups are assigned as needed to explore a specific area

6. Discussions of group procedures are held and agreed upon

Time for group meetingsSources of information

III Record keepingProgress reports

7. Ideas are exchanged during project

8. Experiences are assessed

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The two models that follow are offered as examples ofhow the teacher might record the responses ofchildren on a chart or chalkboard as a result of a brainstorming session. All responses are recorded, and asthey are offered the teacher asks uncirr tvhat categorya specific suggestion should be wrif ten or whether anew category should be added. This "webbing" proce-dure continues until the children no longer have ideas.The teacher at this point might sugc est a missing category or ask questions that coup j stimulate morecritical thought.

Once the webbing has been completed, the teacherand children make decisions as ti) which categoriesshould be explored further. Committees areorganized, and procedures for group meetings are dis-cussed and arranged. The teacher might want to alert

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the librarian about the project so that children willhave help in locating their resource materials.

When children are working in groups and eachgroup is researching a different area, there is amore natural interest in reporting and listeningto the reports of others. Exchanges of informationmay occur during the search as each group seeks itsown materials but finds resources appropriate toanother. Discussing needs, listening for pertinentfacts, writing notes, and locating and using materialsprovide language experiences that are educationallysound and meaningful to children. At the conclusionof the projects an assessment is made with thechildren of the success of the group process, thequality of the information gathered and the effective-ness of the groups' reports or presentations.

Two Models for Integrating Language ExperiencesUse of Transparencies

The pages that follow are designed for inservice use. Transparencies of eachset of three pages can be made and projected as follows:

A SPONTANEOUS OCCURRENCE

1. Collecting Student Ideasshow on overhead projector and discuss the brainstorming procedure

2. Planning Language Experiencesplace on top of (1) to illustrate the language experiences that can beapplied. Teachers would, of course, focus on those experiences that aremost needed in their own classrooms.

3. Evaluating the Responsesplace (2) over this page to illustrate the questions teachers might ask them-selves as they evaluate the responses of children to the assignment.

A PLANNED SCIENCE PROJECT

1. Collecting Student Ideas2. Planning Language Experiences3. Evaluating The Responses

present in the same sequence as the example above

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HOW SURVIVE?

lightheatrefrigerationfansappliancestrafficwater

NEWS COVERAGE

televisionradioreporters

WARNING SYSTEMS

sirensradiotelevision

DAMAGE

peoplebuildingscrop

animals

cars

REPAIRS

injuredroof, windowsreplantplow underkilledhurtbody, glass

THE STORM IN OUR TOWN

PEOPLE WHO HELPfiremenpolicemenRed Crossemergency squadhospital workers

doctorsnurses

neighborshelicopter rescuersveterinariansnews reportersmechanicspower crews

KINDS OF STORMSwindtornadohurricanerain-thunderhaillightning

CAUSES OF STORMS

PERSONAL EXPERIENCES

schoolhome

EXPERIENCES OF OTHERS

FEELINGS

concernedbravefearfulfrightenedexcited

FACTS

friendsneighborsrelatives

Date-timePlaces

homesfarmsschoolsbusinesses

Extent of damagePeople involvedType of storm

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C)

Problem solving

Decision-makingCritical Thinking

rna)

Ca)

a)a

a)c»

C

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C

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DRAMATIZING

Role-playing

For information

Critically

LISTENING]

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Information books

READING

Interviewing

TALKINGSharing

FictionPoetry About storms

Expressing

I WRITING 1

Reporting

2 4

Were problems identified9Were steps logical?Were criteria appropriate?Were options considered?

Were characterizations realistic9Were situations clearly presented?Were feelings portrayed well')

Could child retell one experience heard on TV?Could child identify sources of news?Could child describe signals given?

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Was interviewer courteous?Were questions relevant?

Did children take turns?Were they good listeners?

Was writing sensitive?Were words well chosen?Was theme apparent?

Was product well organized?Were facts included?What audience was addressed?

Does student understand cause/effect?Were facts clearly reported?Was coverage comprehensive?

Were stories realistic?Were characters well developed?

025 c\I

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wnere located/SUITABLE ANIMALSnatural habitat

SPECIES

LiFE CYCLE

;,fe expectancyeating habitsnatural enemies

PPESERVATION

ci wi d animalsa- d plants

PEOPLE

toadssnakessnailslizardsturtleearthworrcricketgrasshopperbeetles

atJralists

rr' seum directorgardenersr,a,nts

CARE

dailyfoodwaterlighttong -rangehumiditynutrientstemperature

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTION

materialsplacing base materialsplantinganimalscoverlocation in room

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BALANCE OF NATURE

living -nonlivingplant-animalproducers - consumers

SUITABLE PLANTS

mosses where collected9green plantsfern photosynthesisgrassblooming plants

violets parts of plants

safety tips

BASIC MATERIALS NEEDED

glass containericovercharcoal /foolssoil-sandmoss where foundgravel-rocksdish for water

CHANGES

humidityevaporationaging process-

flowers to seedsdecayanimals growing

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1 READING

NNinformation booksreference books

consultanttalks

Ireports

1

LISTENING following directions

categorizing THINKING

thank-you lettersinvitations -,,,,

-........

problem solvingresponsibility

dutychart

small group meetings

discussion

pBSERVATIOq- films

reportingchartingsketching

WRITING

CVCV

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were problems identified')were options considered')

were sources accurate''was coverage adequate%

did all children take turns?did they stay on topic%

was finished product functic;nal%

were reports well organized')were all facts correct%

were 0-oven courteous%were quest Ions relevant')

were charts clear%was coqect form used% were sketches to scale%

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III. DESIGNING LANGUAGE EXPERIENCES

The language skills have been described thus far asbeing closely interrelated, mutually reinforcing andessential to effective communication. In the sectionsthat follow, the receptive and expressive skills will bepresented as integral parts of the communicationprocess. The unique aspects of each will be describedand strategies for their use explored. A few examplesof the interrelationship each has with other language

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arts elements will be offered in the hope that teacherswill view language and its teaching as a natural part ofthe total curriculum. Many of the examples offeredwill relate to other language skills and curriculumcontent. There is a time for direct teaching of specificskills in any content area but language skills generallyare best understood by children when they are seen asa relevant part of the total learning process.

The Interrelationships of the Language Arts

LISTENING SPEAKING\--Appreciate literature,

yam\ musicA Converse intelligentlyt\ Recognize tone,

inflectionRecognize propagandaBroaden perspectiveGain informationFollow directionsRecognize symbols,detail

L OBSERVING

Enlarge vocabularyIdentify style, genre,figurative language

Organize thoughtsDiscuss in depthConvince othersAsk/answer questions

EFFECTIVECOMMUNICATION DRAMATIZING

Nonverbal cuesExpress feelingsSynthesize informationGive directionsInform

Absorb ideas, factsIdentify main ideas

LEADING

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Listening

One of children's earliest means of receiving informa-tion is listening. From infancy to the time they enterschool, the sound of the human voice has guided theiractions. For example, from the call to breakfast, theviewing of television, the chatter of family andplaymates, and a scolding when naughty to the firm"time to go to bed," children learn about the subtlemeaning differences revealed by the tone in which aword is spoken. Even though they come to schoolwith this background of language experience, childrenare not prepared for the kinds of listening the schoolprogram demands. Many cannot focus or maintaintheir attention. Strange new words are used andfamiliar words are suddenly used in a differentc ontext,

Listening, therefore, must be consciously taughtwithin the many contexts of the school setting. Avariety of listening experiences can be offered thatinclude teacher, peers, other school personnel,outside speakers, and many different media such asfilm, filmstrips, cassette and tape recordings, andrecords.

Listening with comprehension requires thought andthe ability to maintain attention. it is the type oflistening required in school settings. There are othertypes of listening that are essential for children and

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adults in order to become effective communicators.Classroom teachers should offer experiences in avariety of listening situations so that children canfunction comfortably. The more realistic and relevantto children these situations are, the more effectivetheir listening skills will become.

Listening seems to improve in relation to certaindevelopmental levels. Yet throughout their liveschildren and adults must be able to perform at any ofthese levels at any given time.

Marginal listening is essential to tune out distractingnoises and at the same time be conscious of subtlechanges in the sounds of people and things in theenvironment. Selective listening might be useful whenonly the highlights of a speech or a broadcast aredesired, but it could also jeopardize good listeninghabits, because so me listeners might "tune out" all butwhat they want to hear. The critical listener mightmentally respond to one speaker and come to a realmeeting of the minds, but not be swayed by another'spresentation. In this age of media bombardment,we need to concern ourselves with thedevelopment of critical listening in children sothat they may make judgments based on acomplete understanding of a presentation andits implications.

Early Experiences in ListeningListening plays such a vital role in the total languagearts program that a few activities are suggested herefor beginning experiences in listening. Auditorydiscrimination skills are essential to developing thesoundsymbol relationships necessary for successfulreading and spelling. Listening can be fun and educational at the same time. Keep early experiences assimple and brief as possible, develop one skill area at atime and create a readiness for each activity.

Daily story telling, story reading. story sharingtimes to develop attention to story sequence, dia.logue, vocabulary in context and theme

Music, poetry, singing games to de,elop appreLlation of the sounds of language

Auditory t. .)eriences to develop increased discri-mination of soundsidentify unseen sources of sounds, from behind ascreen or on tape (egg beater, vacuum cleaner,water running)develop awareness of pitch by playing notes onpiano or other instrument, speaking in high and lowvoice

a

play tapes of sounds of nature and man-madesounds to be identifiedtap or march to a variety of rhythmsdevelop a "code" of long and short sounds

Experiences with poetry, prose or real sounds toincrease ability to develop mental images (listen anddraw a picture of something in story)

Stories, word puzzles, and number games are use-ful for practicing listening for detail (clues) to solve aproblem or mystery

Daily conversation time, show and tell, and sharingexperiences or books with small groups developability to think with speaker and respond with relevant questions or comments

Directions for building an object or folding paperhelp to increase skill in listening for specificinformation

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Provide Realistic Experiences for Children to Improve

Kinds of Listening

ATTENTIVE(listening to gain information)

select pertinent facts

follow directions

grasp main idea

develop a sense of story

ANALYTICAL(listening with comprehension)

identify sounds

detect shades of meaning

detect propaganda

comprehend meaning

identify sources of information

APPRECIATIVE(listening for enjoyment and toheighten sensitivity)

build sensitivity to language

enjoy sounds of language

II enjoy sounds of nature

IIII enjoy music, plays, poetry

participate in word play

COURTEOUS(listening with consideration forothers)

avoid interrupting

be attentive-eye contact

suspend judgment until speakeris finished

MARGINAL(listening passively until called toattention)

provide background music

tune out distractions

identify routine alarm devices

recognize changes in tone ofvoice

CRITICAL(listening in order to make ajudgment)

develop criteria

categorize information

separate fact from opinion

make comparisons

solve problem

make judgment

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A Framework for Teaching: Listening

Concept: Listening skills can be taught and improved through planned instruction.

Goals: To improve student's ability to listen criti-cally, courteously, attentively and appreci-atively.To improve children's ability to analyzeand apply ideas as they listen.

Interrelationships:Mutual reinforcement with:speaking converse intelligently

ask and answer questionsfollow oral directions, assignmentscomprehend oral reports and selectpertinent ideasgrasp main idea in discussion

develop sense of story from hearingmany storiesuse listening experiences as springboards for writingincrease vocabulary and comprehen-sionrefine sound - symbol relationshipsgain an appreciation of literature

Essential Experiences:Teachers:

Offer frequent listening experience.Establish clear purpose for all lisiening activitiesRecognize children listen at different levelsOtter different kinds of listening experiencesRelate listening to other language s'rasDiscus with students what makes e good listenerEstablish standards for listening experiencesAvoid needless repetitionDevelop listening experiences appropriate foe ageand listening levels of studentsPlan peer listening activitiesMake listening importantCreate a readiness for listeningRead aloud daily and maintain a rt.41Neci atmosphereEncourage questions to clarify misunderstandingsEncourage response to listening experiencesReduce possible distractionsArrange seating for students with hearing difficulty

For Example:Students:

Play listening games such as Simon Says andGossipBuild group storiesSupply missing words in familiar rhymeCategorize sounds heard indoors and outdoorsVisit a listening corner with records, tapes, ear-phones, sound filmstripsHave time for small group sharing, conversationListen to reports by peers and list details and askrelevant questionsListen to a story and express feeling it creates, predict ending or give main idea

writing

reading

Listen to a paragraph and suggest reasonable titleor identify a sentence that doesn't belongListen to music and select favorite passagesFollow directions for a new gameListen to stories and poetry for enjoyment of thelanguage and ideas presented

Evaluation:Does student:

Follow oral directions capably?Need repetition before responding to spellingwords or answering questions?Respond emotionally to stories with laughter, tearsor comments?

X Respond appropriately to questions?Use broadened vocabulary gained from listening?Identify specific sounds by matching sound withobject, recognizing letters, and providing rhymingwords?Attend for reasonable length of time?Summarize a report, activity or story in an or-ganized manner?

Resources:Kaplan, Sandra; Kaplan, JoAnn; Madsen, Sheila; and

Taylor, Bette. Change for Children. Pacific Pali-sades, California: Goodyear, 1973.

Lundsteen, Sara W. Listening: Its Impact At AllLevels on Reading and Other Language Arts.Revised Edition. Urbana, Illinois: National Councilof Teachers of English, 1979.

"Procedures for Teaching CriticalReading and Listening," in Language and the Lang-uage Arts, ed . Johanna S. DeStefano and Sharon E.Fox. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974,

Russell, David and Elizabeth Russell. Listening AidsThrough the Grades. New York:Teachers College,Columbia University, 1959,

Taylor, Sanford E. Listening, What Research Says tothe Teacher, Washington D.C.: National EducationAssociation, 1964.

Tutolo, D.J.A. "A Cognitive Approach to TeachingListening," Language Arts, Vol. 54 (March, 1977)pp. 262-265.

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Oral Expression

Teachers are perhaps the second most influentialadults in the formation of children's speech andlanguage habits. The parents have had the mostinfluence, for they were the child's speech modelduring the most formative years. Another growinginfluence that cannot be overlooked is television.Children's programming has expanded enormously inrecent years with children watching advertisementsand adult programming as well. In The Plug-In-Drug,Marie Winn describes the possible influence oftelevision on children.1 Children with siblings have yetanother model of considerable influence prior toentering school.

Before they start their schooling, children haveacquired a reasonable ability to predict the results oftheir requests for things. demands for attention, andtheir questions. Upon reaching school age, childrenmay discover their speech patterns and habits (babytalk, dialect, colloquialisms) are not universallyunderstood. They need an understanding adult tohelp them to acquire the skills they need to becomeeffective communicators The child's teacher is atremendous influence and can do much to ease thechild gradually into the oral demands of the schoolsetting.

In the first year of school or in a later year if a childtransfers from one school to another, colloquialspeech patterns or dialect may cause misunderstand-ings. It is extremely important that the teacherrespect the language patterns with which thechild has successfully communicated up to thistime. A child's speech is a reflection of the child'sfamily, friends, and community. If the child's languageis not respected, It is seen as a sign of disregard for thechild's background, and therefore self-esteem suffers.

It is also important that the child learn just how effechve that speech pattern is in the larger school community and with those who live even farther away

tWion, Marie. The P1119111Dna New York: The Viking Pres.,1977.

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from the local district. We are not being fair to child-ren if we do not help them to understand the need tocommunicate in an ever growing circle of lifesituations. Only when children recognize this need willthey be motivated to make changes in their speechhabits. "Studying" standard English or usageconventions will not guarantee such change inbehavior.

Opportunities to express themselves in a variety ofsituations requiring oral response are essential. Atcertain times children need to feel free to speakwithout fear of correction or interruption. Theyneed, too, to recognize the needs of others tohave an equal opportunity to be heard.Children with speech problems resulting fromphysical or mental disabilities usually require pro-tessional help but the teacher's attitude can do muchto help these children in the classroom. A teacher'sunderstanding and acceptance of the way a childtalks will support the child's self esteem during aperiod of therapy outside the classroom. Thisacceptance will encourage the child's classmates torespond more sympathetically to the problem as well.

The teacher is often a "significant other" to childrenjust as are parents and other adults who are trusted bychildren. Perhaps the statements offered in a recentmotivation publication should be repeated here:

Significant others can:give students individual attentionshow kindness to studentsreally listen to what students have to sayvalue all students' contributions to class discussiongive students continuing and constructive feedbacktreat students as unique individuals with courtesyand respectlet students know that you have confidence in theirability

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Strategies for Classroom Discussion

Of the many oral expression experiences that take place in the elementaryclassroom, whole class or small group discussion may occur most frequently.Children need direction by the classroom teacher to function effectivelyduring a discussion. There are multiple skills involved, although the mostapparent are speaking and listening. Some of these skills are:

1. PREPARATION SKILLS for topic to be discussedUnderstanding purpose for disctissionSelecting relevant materialsSummarizing informationOrganizing information for quick retrieval

2. LISTENING SKILLSSuspending judgment until speaker is finishedUnderstanding those using propaganda techniquesKeeping eye contact with speakersListening for main ideas

3. SPEAKING SKILLSEnunciating clearly so that all can understandSelecting words within range of group's abilitySpeaking loudly enough to be heardImproving and increasing vocabularySpeaking to total discussion group/class - not just the teacher

4. THINKING SKILLSResponding with relevant remarksQuestioning those views not understoodClarifying remarks or ideas presentedWeighing all contributions before making decision

5. SOCIAL SKILLS play an important part in the success of any groupactivity

Taking turns - avoiding interruptionsBalancing contributions and listening - avoid "taking over"Respecting contributions of others - avoid sarcastic remarksWilling to listen to another point of view - reach a consensus

willinued (»I pag-e iU

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continued f`).(»It page 29

Obviously, the role of the teacher is an extremely sensitive one in classroomdiscussions. Perhaps the following tips will smooth the way to a successfulgroup meeting.

1. Set clear purpose for discussion2. Select topics of concern and interest to students3. Provide ample time for preparation and pondering of the topic4. Assemble reference materials - books, films, tapes- to aid preparation or

for use in discussion5. Attempt to reduce distractions when selecting time and location of

meeting6. Set standards for discussion WITH children BEFORE beginning meeting7. Assume leadership role as needed but maintain participant status to keep

discussion flowing around group8. Help children grow in use of their skills of questioning, solving problems,

offering relevant responses and sharing conversation9. Provide time for summation of topic and evaluation of solutions offered

10. Assist children who do not contribute by planning topics they can speakabout or providing materials for them to use while talking

Discussion takes time, but considering the many skills that may be improved,it seems well worth the time spent. The skills of discussion are essential foreffective communication throughout life.

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Kinds of Oral Expression Experiences

SPEAKING

organize thoughtsexpress effectivelysensitive to audiencesadequate usage

PERSUADING

debate formallyIll use propaganda techniques

INTERVIEWING

prepare well: know topicand personformulate questions aheaduse time wisely

TELEPHONING

be courteousbe briefanswer promptlyknow emergency procedurestake messages

CONDUCTING MEETINGS

follow procedureshe neutralshare "floor"

CONVERSING

listen carefullyshare ideas

BRAINSTORMING

ideas for projectsplanning aid

DISCUSSING

III listen attentivelykeep on topictake turns

QUESTIONING

come to point quicklyanswer conciselystate precisely

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A Framework for Teaching:Oral Expression

Concept: A good oral language foundation is basic toa child's ability to read and write

Goals: To improve children's power ofexpressionTo increase and enrich children'svocabularyTo increase children's ability to speakclearly, appropriately and intelligently

Interrelationships:Mutual reinforcement with:

listening

writing

anstucr questions appropriatelybroaden speaking vocabularygain information to use in responses

discuss experiences to better organizeideasclarify word meanings for precisewriting

enrich writing vocabulary with oralword playrecord notes from oral reports

reading read words from oral vocabulary moreeasilyreduce reading problems whileimproving speech

Essential Experiences:Teachers:

Create a nonthreatening atmosphere thatencourages oral expressionEncourage children to formulate own questionsProvide varied opportunities for oral interactionLimit teacher "talk" encourage student involve-ment in discussionSelect discussion topics of interest and concern tostudentsAid children in organizing oral presentationsDiscuss standards for speakers and audienceDevelop on awareness of audience as students prepare presentationsServe as a speech model for classProvide rich and varied experiences that stimulatetalkHelp children develop a growing sensitivity to thebeauty and power of languageInvestigate the many nonverbal cues to meaningAid students in developing good speech habitsSet acceptable and realistic standards for oralcommunication

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For example:Students:

Give directions of all kinds games, directions tovarious locationsDictate stories or reports of experiencesConvince classmates to vote, purchase, read orfollow suggestionsPractice voice control, manner, posture whenspeakingUse telephones in classroomBrainstorm many ideasContribute to a panel discussionOrganize facts, know audience, think on feet duringdebatesConduct meetings using parliamentary proceduresInterview principal, coach, teachers about topics ofconcernConduct surveysShare experiences or materialsPlay with words meaning, rhyming, humor

Evaluation:Does student:1 Relate events in sequential order?

Stay on topic, take turns in discussions?Use words appropriately and easily?Use complete sentences when appropriate?Read orally with ease and pronounce correctly?Contribute to discussions, conversation?Organize thoughts and express self well?Elicit positive audience reaction to oralpresentations?Speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard?Speak in an interesting manner?

Resources:Carlson, Ruth Kearney, Speaking Aids Through the

Grades. New York: Teachers College Press, 1975.

Laffey, James L. and Roger Shuy, eds. LanguageDif-ferences: Do They interfere? Newark, Delaware:IRA, 1973.

Mallett, Margaret and Bernard Newsome, Talking,Writing and Learning 8.13. London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1977. (Schools CouncilWorking Paper 59)

Possien, Wilma, They All Need To Talk. New York:AppletonCentury.Crofts, 1969.

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Dramatization

Drama means many things to many people. In theelementary classroom drama frequently takes theform of dramatic play or creative dramatics, althoughchoral speaking, puppetry and pantomime are alsoincluded. Dramatic play is usually defined as unre-hearsed play with materials found in the K-3 class-room. Children are often seen playing house, schoolor doctor and manipulating blocks into a variety ofstructures for playing train, building a skyscraper ortrucks. The teacher provides these materials andrules for their use but otherwise allows children muchfreedom. Observation of children shows much talkoccurring which aids language development and adultbehavior being copied in an exaggerated manner.

Creative dramatics is more structured than dramaticplay, and the teacher's role is more apparent.Incidents of importance to children are role-playedwith children changing roles to learn to view prob.lems or situations from another's point of view.Children's stories may serve as the basis for a look athow certain characters might be portrayed. Somecreative drama might be related to social studies orscience in which children dramatize a moment inhistory or a scientific discovery. A clear way to assessa child's understanding of the lessons involved wouldbe the teacher's observation of such drama.Movement to music, following a rhythmic pattern, ormoving as though one were an animal or a tree in the

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wind all help children release energy while enjoying acreative experience. In drama, children can try outmany roles without fear. This helps them deal withaspects of life that they may someday encounter. Forsome children "acting out" will help them to clarify asituation from a story, a textbook or a classroomdiscussion.

Children who have grown up with television have hadaccess to a medium in which the main element isdrama. They have been exposed to all types ofdramatic presentations in which the roles played, thethemes depicted and the information dispensed repre-sent a wide range of quality. The teacher may helpchildren view these programs by examining the tech-niques of characterization and staging that make thedifference in the quality of a production.

All activities should be educationally defensible andthe teacher must have a clear understanding of thevalues involved in the experiences for children.Dramatics can be a healthy channel for emotions, anexcellent group discussion topic, a stimulation of thesenses and a springboard to other forms of creativeexpression. Children who are seeing, feeling, andthinking in creative drama are more likely to findit easy to communicate in speaking and writingthroughout the school day and beyond.

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Kinds of Dramatic PresentationsDRAMATIC PLAY

Playing "house" using dollsUsing blocks as propsPlaying at sand tablePlaying in "school store,""bank," "post office"

ROLE-PLAYING

Trying on adult rolesPortraying story book charactersMaking a scientific discoveryBecoming a pioneer, explorer or

famous chef

MOVEMENT

Changing a familiar game aroundWalking as if old, young, a toddlerMoving to mood musicMarching to varying rhythms

CHORAL SPEAKING

CREATIVE DRAMATICS

Selecting a familiar poem or verseDeciding on the range of voices

neededReading the lines in a variety of waysEvaluating effectiveness of each

attempt

Using simple props (hats, scarves)Improvising a situation with

speech and movementSustaining a dialogue on a themeActing out a new ending to a story

PANTOMIME

Acting out parts while narrator readsscriptPlaying charadesResponding to story poemPantomiming a familiar activity

PUPPETRY

Using paper bag puppetsUsing finger puppetsCreating stick puppetsSwitching roles and puppetsManipulating stick puppets on over-

head projector while telling storyRecording story for use with puppets

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A Framework for Teaching:Dramatization

Concept: Children's natural enthusiasm for "actingout" can be directed toward educationallysound objectives

Goals: To satisfy children's need for trying outadult rolesTo provide children experience with situa-tions that depict varying points of viewthrough role-playingTo provide an outlet for children's creativetalents

interrelationships:Mutual reinforcement with:listening impro.e ability to at tur.d to dramatic

presentationsincrease sensitivity to rhythm andsound of languagemove in rhythm with sounds or music

speaking present varying roles by changing voiceand postureincrease ability to speak on impromptubasispresent choral readings of poetry

reading use stones to understand and portraycharactersdevelop and portray scenes fromstoriesread aloud from play scripts

Essential Experiences:Teachers:

Understand and appreciate values of dramatic, playProvide time and an idea from which to createa dramaProvide some equipment with which to charac-terize rolesObserve drama and at , nes participate withchildrenUtilize drama when an appropriate complementto subject areasEmphasize peer evaluation of performancesGuide imaginative experiencesStimulate sensory impressionsUse literature as a stimulus for dramaticexperiencesExplore various media as appropriate stimuli fordramaRecognize characterization is basic to creativedramaticsRecognize that a basic part of drama is self -evaluationAsk questions that tap the ideas and imaginationof children themselvesEnable children to transform their feelings andmoods into movement

For Example:Students:

Identify personal concerns that can be addressedthrough dramaUse color, music and comments to guide move-ment activities

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COMMUNICATIONCOMMUNiCATION

," I Er- '7771Portray different kinds of people by adding hats andscarvesRole-play pioneers struggling across the westernplainsParticipate in experiences with seeing, feeling,smelling and hearing as the basis of a responseOffer positive comments and suggestions after acreative performanceRead story or play while others pantomime thepartsDescribe a setting and move through it takingdifferent rolesListen to an adventure story or folk tale and actout in an impromptu waySelect favorite story and create puppets or flannel-board characters for retellingListen to tape or cassette of story and respond withmovement or pantomimeRespond with movement to mus.cal themes thatevoke different moodsSelect familiar verse and plan the choral readingassignmentsDiscuss a common conflict and role play varioussolutionsSelect partners and have one apply makeup orshave in front of "mirror partner"

Evaluation:Do students:

Improve in their ability to assess a performancepositively?Work better as a team in producing drama?Show improvement in ability to speak or think "ontheir feet"?Exhibit more sensitivity to moods and feelings as aresult of role playing?Accurately depict historical events in their drama?Show improvement in their ability to express them-selves verbally and through actions?

Resources:Gerbrandt, Gary L. An Idea Book for Acting Out and

Writing Language K-8. Urbana, Illinois: NationalCouncil of Teacher of English, 1974.

allies, Emily, Creative Dramatics for All Children.Washington, D.C.: Association for ChildhoodEducation International, 1973.

Glass, Gerald G. and Muriel W. Klien. From PlaysInto Reading. (Plays to read in the classroom) Bos-ton: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1969.

Kelly, Elizabeth. Dramatics in the Classroom: MakingLessons Come Alive Bloomington, Indiana: PhiDelta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1976. (Fast-back If 70)

King, Nancy Giving Form to Feeling, New York:Drama Book Specialists 'Publishers, 1975,

McCaslin, Nellie. Creative Dramatics in the Class-room, New York. David McKay Company. 1968.

Moffett, James. Drama What is Flappening. Urbana,Illinois: National Council of Teacher of English,1967.

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Written Expression

The emphasis in teaching writing has beenchanging from what children write to how theywrite. Recent studies have focused on the processrather than the product, and their results appear tooffer classroom teachers more effective strategies forthe teaching of writing.

James Britton, Marie Clay and Donald Graves,among others, have been providing the leadership inthis study of the writing process They each advocatethe concept that children learn to write by writing, andthat the interactions of the children and teacher areessential to the refining of the product. Product andmechanics involved in good writing are not forgotten,but are introduced at a different stage of production.Most technical aid is offered at the "editing" stage of a

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first or second draft. Children are urged to makerevisions that clarify their ideas or message beforetheir work is analyzed for specific mechanical prob-lems. Children's anxiety about corrections reducestheir ability to express :leas. If burdened by how theyare writing, they will lose their enthusiasm and desireto write,

Writing takes time, and the classroom teacher.can provide that time by integrating writing with,all curriculum areas. Not only will children havemore experiences with varying functions of writing,but they will come to view writing asan integral part oftheir daily lives and one of many excellent means ofrecording and expressing their ideas and thoughts.

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Stages in the Process of WritingPREWRITING: Something to Write About

Time to explore topics, ideas and perceptionsListen/read good literature, prose and poetryTry role playing or dramatizing an eventBrainstorm with peers, teachersResearch an idea in the library, locate facts. detailsHold sustained discussions with peers, teachersGo on field trips and walksPonder what has been seen, heard, experienced

FIRST DRAFT: A Purpose for WritingDecide on the reason for writing to express self, record an event.

entertain, persuadeThink of the reader (audience) to whom writing is directedWrite ideas, thoughts down quicklyOrganize ideas and write in logical sequenceExplore new ideas generated by writingPattern style after familiar storyCreate new ending or setting for a story

REVISION: Clarify the MessageReread aloud to "hear" your messageListen for dull, repetitive statementsShare with peer or teacher to check interpretation by othersFocus on effective use of wordsLook at organization and clarity of message

EDITING: Improving the MechanicsCheck grammarUse dictionary to correct spellingLook over punctuation and capitalizationCheck flow of words and vitality of message

PUBLISHING: Making Use of th. Final ProductDesign and make own booksCopy story or poem into student-made booksShelve in classroom or school library for use by othersCompile reports, articles into class notebooksKeep folder of all writing to check progress or for later polishingWrite stories, make books for younger children to readShare stories orally in class and with younger listenersKeep a journal when have something to record might include a teacher

student dialogueContribute to a young author's corner or bulletin boardSubmit books "published" to a young author's conference

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The Tools of Writing

Handwriting

The mechanics areas important to the craft of writingas they have always been, it is the placement of theiruse that has undergone great change at the elementary level. Many children have been discouraged fromwriting because of the emphasis on mechanicsocurring long before they have seen a need foracquiring the skills of spelling, handwriting and usage

The present trend of thought for instruction in hand.writing is to teach the formation of letters, eithermanuscript or cursive, in the primary grades so thatchildren have a tool with which to transcribe theirideas. The refinement of their handwriting, of course,continues, but writing is copied in its best form whenthat writing is going to be used in some specific writtenproduct such as a letter, a report, a class book, or, astory to be published in a school or classroom paperChildren can then more easily understand the needfor legibility and neatness, The following criteria for ahandwriting program might include.

Well-planned direct teaching to develop proficiencyAn individualized approach following initial inst ruc-tion so that individual needs are metPupii-teacher disc.ussion of reasons for good hand.writingLegibility as the primary aim in teachinghandwritingThe teaching (rather than LopyIng) of individuallettersProper posture and positioning of paper and writingtoolsChildren's evaluation of their own workInstruction integrated into situations where there isa need and desire to writeWriting is complex and immediate accuracy quiterareWriting experiences not associated with punish-ment

Beginning experiences:Children need practice with large and small musclecoordination activities such as cutting, drawing.painting, and working with clay

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Unlined paper on an easel and the chalkboardshould be used before lined paper at a deskLeft to right drawing of objects or shapes should bepracticedIf using manuscript writing, the child needs to beable to make circles and straight linesVerbalizing handwriting procedures may improve abeginning writer's attempts.

Later experiences:Quality of handwriting can be judged by childrenwith teacher guidance on improving form, size,spacing, alignment, slant and neatnessSpeed is not a major element during the elementaryyears though children should acquire greater speednaturally as they n.aster the techniquesA folder of children's writing efforts should be main-tained for diagnosis of difficulties and evaluation ofimprovement by teacher, child and parentif a transition to cursive writing is made, childrenshould be given an option to write in their mostcomfortable form when completing tests or writingreportsGroup evaluation of legible writing can be done withthe use of an opaque projector. (What makes thispaper easy to read? What causes you difficultywhen reading this next paper?)Continue use of both manuscript and cursive tomaintain skillsHandwriting difficulties can be checked during theediting process in most writing projects whetherpractical or creative

Resources:Andersen, Dan W. Teaching Handwriting, What

Research Says to the Teacher. Washington, D.C.:National Education Association, 1968.

Burns, Paul C. Improving Handwriting Instruction inElementary Schools. Second Edition. Minneapolis:Burgess Publishing Co., 1968.

Myers, Emma The Whys and Hows of TeachingHandwriting Columbus, Ohio: Zaner Bloser Com-pany, 1963

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Spelling

Children come to school with a fax knowledge ofspeech sounds and a rich and complex understandingof their language. In the past we have taught spellingby assuming that children knew very little aboutlanguage. We now recognize that we must buildon what children know and change some of theirassumptions about the complexities of theirlanguage system. For example, young children (andolder) are confused about which ,,ov. el sounds arespelled with the same letters. We are :earning to permit children to use their phonetic judgement, which inmany cases is quite reasonable and serves as a cue tothe children's stage of development ir. spelling. Children who are consistent in their misspellings areapplying the "rules" as they perceive them and are at ahigher stage of development than children who havenot yet reached a point of consistency.

Children are guided in the process of learning to spellby their knowledge of the subtle properties of speechsounds and of parts of sentences. Children use manycues from the oral language of adults to 3ive meaningto words or statements Their reliance or prununciation, timing and intonation may be responsible furreading difficulties, for these cues are not found inwritten language. If written language is difficult todecode, the encoding process may be equallyfrustrating. Teachers need to recognize thisdifference in acquisition of language meaning and toidentify the level at which children are working.

Changes in spelling strategies occur sequentially andsystematically and children move through these overan extended period of time regardless of the instructional procedures employed.,:' This knowledge mightindicate that until children reach a certain point in

'Beers, lames Wheeloik ,end Carol Strickl,inct Beers "VowelSpelling Si rateg,es Among First dnd Second Gr.r,ter, A GrowingAwareness of Written Words," Language Arr,, Vol. 57 (Februarv, 3980). pp 166-172.

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maturation and their cognitive development theycannot deal successfully with spelling and word recog-nition sic,ils. Learning to spell involves learning aboutwords, their components and relationships amongthese components (sound-symbol, syntactic,morphemic elements). Therefore, the teaching ofspelling should be linked with word recognitionskills and word exploration in the classroom.Children should be urged to explore words to unlockmeaning Actually seeing words in print may helpstudents to remember how a word looks so that theycan spell it , urrectly, for over the long run readingbecomes a major source of information about spelling.However. teachers should recognize that childrenmay read the standard orthography of a textbook withease while unable to read their own writing whichincludes their own "invented spellings."

We ha,. e much to learn about the process of learningto spell there seems to be common agreementthat we approach the teaching of spelling in asystematic way and with a greater awareness of theproblems faced by children as they attempt to usetheir knowledge of language to express themselves inwriting.

Analyzing spelling errorsOne of the most effective ways to aid children withtheir spelling and to assess the stage of their develop-ment is to examine their spellingerrors. An analysis oferrors will frequently reveal that a child is incorrectlyspelling many words but only one or two types oferrors are involved. Errors can be classified Into typesand children can be given direct instruction in theskills involved in one type at a time. Their task forimprovement will not then seem so overwhelming.

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Common types of errorsERROR POSSIBLE CAUSE

Spelling wrong word confusing words similarin sound

Substituting letters confusing vowel soundsconfusing consonant

sounds

Adding letters doubling consonantincorrectly

incorrect suffix

Transposing letters misunderstandinggeneralization

carelessness

Omitting letters forgetting silent vowelusing phonetic spelling

Other errors inaccurate pronunciationpoor handwriting

EXAMPLES

loose for lose

din for densents for cents

comming for coming

partys for parties

recieve for receive

saftey for safety

wer for wereWensday for Wednesday

liberry for libraryruin for rain

LA

Beginning experiences:Children need help with writing and naming lettersof the alphabetChildren need to practice copying words correctlyChildren should be able to write their own namesand a few other words from memoryA desire and interest in learning to spell should beencouragedFormal spelling lessons should begin after childrenindicate a readiness for the taskWord recognition skills phonetic and structuralare aids to spellingInvented spelling as children begin to write shouldbe accepted as a step towards later masteryEmphasis on word meaning is important to spadingreadinessEmphasis on oral cues when reading aloud t-)children can lead to greater understanding

Later experiences:Errors in spelling should be analyzed and used forreteachingChildren need help in developing a systematicapproach to new words

Spelling "demons" should be identified and pre-sented to students (words with schwa sound, r-controlled vowels, certain letter sounds)Practice in dictionary use aids student inde-pendence in spelling/proofreadingSupplementary spelling words should be selectedfor their utilityIndividual differences must be recognized and metTeststudy-test methods are favored in uppergradesSelf-corrected tests aid student understanding oferrors

Resources:Hanna, Paul R., Richard Hodges and Jean S. Hanna.

Spelling: Structures and Strategies. Boston:Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1971,

Boyd, Gertrude A. and E. Gene Talbert. Spelling inthe Elementary School Columbus, Ohio: CharlesE. Merrill Publishing, 1971.

Read, Charles. Children's Categorization of SpeechSounds in English. Urbana, Illinois. NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, 1975.

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Grammar, Usage, Punctuation and Capitalization

GrammarGrammar is the study of the structure of language anddeals with the form and structure of words, with theirarrangement in phrases and sentences and theirfunctions. In recent years the traditional grammarbased on the rules of Latin has been supplemented orreplaced by other grammars. The linguists' study ofthe way we speak produced structural grammarwhich reports language as it exists, identifies basicsentence patterns and describes the function ofwords. This was followed by transformationalgrammar which was developed to overcome theweaknesses of the structural approach. The kernelsentence is the core of the system iThe dog ran.).Anything added to enlarge the kernel sentence (Thelittle black dog ran down the street.) changes it into a"transformed" sentence.

Grammar deals with word classifications whethertraditional or structural, and the terminology shouldbe used when it is natural to do so. The terms maydiffer somewhat, such as an adjective called a deter-miner and an adverb an intensifier, but if used inrelation to actual written or oral expression, childrenshould have no trouble with them.

It is also natural for children to learn thenames of sen-tences and their parts as they work to improve theirwritten expression. Teachers should deal with thisstructure and function of language informallybut not incidentally. The activities dealing with theforms. structure and functions of language are care-fully planned situations from which the need for usingspecific language skills arises.

Results of a study published by Pooley in 1974 showedformal instruction did not produce change in usageand composition.' Elementary students benefitmost from practicing their writing and speaking,learning by listening to language in use, andreading the publications of others as well as theirown. Definitions and "rules" are not effectivetools unless they are preceded by experiencesthat exemplify those rules.UsageLanguage is constantly changing, and there are inanylevels of its use from illiterate to literate and informal toformal. Words are invented as a result of advances intechnology and familiar words take on new meanings.Levels of language change to accommodateaudiences and situations. The national standard oflanguage at the elementary school has moved from aformal to an informal standard and some linguistsrecommend that we teach a variety of levels of usage(standard, dialect, slang, colloquial).

Usage is concerned with the choices we make whenusing words and is often thought of in terms of"correctness" or "incorrectness." The NationalCouncil of Teachers of English has urged teachers toobserve that acceptable usage is determined by the

'Pooley. Robert E. The Teaching ofEnglish Usage Urbana, Illinois:NCTE, 1974.

_urrent language in use; recognizes dialect and geo-graphical variations, Judges appropriateness by thepurpose intended, recognizes situational levels ofspeech; and takes the historical development oflanguage into account.

Teachers must be sensitive to the responses of child-ren who use other than the dominant language of aschool or community. If these children are being ridi-culed by their peers, then dialect differences becomean area of concern. The teacher needs to understandthe dialect or colloquialism so that the child's learningcan be reinforced. Students need to be reminded oftheir own knowledge of language and encouraged togenerate sentences that express what they want tosay. Children cannot learn to improve their languageunless they first feel free to use language. Typicallyusage difficulties are centered around a few commonerrors and teachers should use their best judgment indeters, rung which need to be improved if children areto become .ttective communicators.Some usage difficulties are only problems in writtenform. For example, in "I am going the store,"children must identify which of the words, (to, too,two) is the correct one to use. When children say "Iam going to the store," there is no problem. The samewould be true of their and there and the many otherhomonyms in our language.

PunctuationThe unique aspect of punctuation is that it appearsonly on paper and not in speech. We "punctuate" inspeech to some extent by stress, pause, inflection,and tone of voice, but punctuation is in realitya visualaid to making sense of writing. Writing has been prac-ticed for almost 3,500 years, but punctuation markshave only been used for a little over 200 years. We arestill attempting to find a more adequate system.Children should be introduced to punctuation marksas naturally as possible and always in the context ofwritten expression While there are many punctuationmarks in use, only a small number of them arenecessary for children in elementary school. Ingeneral we use punctuation for four major reasons:(1) separating period, question mark, exclamation

point, comma(2) linking hyphen, clash, semicolon, colon(3) enclosing pairs of commas, dashes, paren.

theses, brackets, quotation marks(4) omissions apostrophe, period in abbreviations,

series of periods or dots, dashesAs children are taught to proofread their own writing,they must be given specific items to look for. Studentscan review the types of punctuation they are to checksuch as endings on sentences or the use of theapostrophe, A chart can be made as a ready referencefor individual proofreading. Reading a written selec-tion orally gives clues for punctuating. This practicelater becomes internalized,

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42 Lack of punctuation frequently leads to lack ofeffective communication and teachers canstudents in their early efforts so that positive attitudestoward the tools of writing will be fostered. An over-emphasis on punctuation to the detriment of theideas expressed, however, may hinder the desireto write.CapitalizationJust as with punctuation, capitalization is a visual clueto understanding and needed only when writing. Anexamination of children's writing in the classroom willreveal any difficulties they are having. Long beforechildren begin to write independently, however, theycan be introduced to capitalization. As they learn toform letters in handwriting lessons, they find twoforms for every letter. As dictated sentences arewritten on charts, teachers should be pointing outwords which begin with a capital letter.

As children begin to write independently, they usuallyexhibit a great anxiety for correctness, and teachersmust help them discover ways to cope with theseanxieties. If individual handwriting charts withdirections for formation of letters are available at theirdesks, they will feel more comfortable about usingthem. Sample sentences showing capitalization of thefirst word will serve as reminders, and proper nameslabeled where appropriate might help to reducefrustration. Above all, teachers should recognize thatchildren can help each other and that errors arebound to be made in early attempts. An attitude ofhelpfulness while encouraging formation of goodhabits will reduce the anxieties of children as theystrive to perfect their skills.

Beginning experiences:Keep mechanics of writing and of forms on an mdividual basisEncourage good habits in using mechanics butemphasize ideasIntroduce grammar ..sage. punctuation and c apttalization in the context of real writing experiencesHave young children draw pictures to representparts of speech (prepositions such as over, unc:er.across can be illustrated)Read Mary O'Neill's Words, Words, Word:, tointroduce children to parts of speech and punctua-tion marks

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Use colored chalk on chalkboard to identify punc-tuation marks and capital lettersHave children sign notes home to practice capitallettersDramatize punctuating sentences with Mr. Period,Mr. Question Mark, Miss Comma

Later experiences:Serve as an "editor" for children's writing after ideasare on paperKeep folder of children's writing and use in privateconference to review needed improvementsDevelop a play on punctuation marks or a gamewith homonymsUse daily newspaper to identify various kinds ofsentences, punctuation, capitalization

I Start a class newspaper for varied writing expel.-fences especially editing and proofreadingpracticeEmphasize use of language by writing letters,reports and storiesUse an overhead or opaque projector to identifywriting errors with class (no names on papers)Continue journal "dialogue" with children whodesire to do soUse bulletin board, posters and charts to focusinterest on mechanicsUse first drafts to polish ideas; use second draft to"edit" mechanicsWork on only a few common errors at one timeLook up history of our language, letter formation,and punctuation marks

Resources:Burrows, Alvina, et al. They All Want To Write. New

York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964.

Carlson, Ruth K. Writing Aids Through the Grades.New York. Teachers College Press, 1970.

Epstein, Samuel and Epstein, Beryl, First Book ofWords. New York: Franklin Watts, 1954.

O'Neill, Mary, Words, Words, Words. New York:Doubleday, 1966.

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43Forms of Written CommunicationPRACTICAL WRITING

business letterslabels/captionsthank you notesfriendly lettersinvitations

EXPOSITORY

reporting facts, datainformative

III descriptive

EXPRESSIVE (factual-imaginative)

prose-storiespoetry-versepatterns, free verserecalling experiencesthought ramblingsjournal writing

RECORDING

notes from speakers, readingsexperimental data

II events in sequencelists of materials, namesexperience charts

PERSUASIVE

editorialsdirections

II advertisements

REPORTING

newsresults of experiments

II social/sports events(who-what-when-where-why)movies and television

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A Framework for Teaching:Written Expression

Concept: Children learn to write by writing

Goals: To aid children's effectiveness in com-municating their thoughts and ideas inwritingTo develop students' awareness of auence as they writeTo increase children's proficiency in themechanics of writingTo develop students' understanding of theneed for editing

Interrelationships:Mutual reinforcement withlistening develop ti oncept of "story"

broaden perspective from ideas ofotherspolish now taking skills

speaking discuss experiences to clarify thoughtsask questions to obtain information forwritingtry out new words for later use in writing

-- share and enjoy stories

reading absorb farm style of stories read inde-pendentlyacquire new vocabularybecome aware of need for legible, clearwriting

Essential Experiences:Provide a supportive enronment for studentsRespond as editors to children's writingProvide many prewrit.r. experiences that will givestudents something to write aboutFocus on writer's ideas (content) before mechanicsin early writingDiscuss experiences to clarify and organizethoughtsRead aloud to develop a concept of story

N Develop a sense of audience with studentsProvide numerous contexts 4ur writing in additionto classroomLink writing experiences with curriculum topicsthat have relevance to studentsHelp students establish real purpose for wi dingto inform, entertain, persuadeEncourage revisions of first drafts to polish ideasand languageProvide what technical help is needed du ringrevisionsEncourage peer groups to edit other's work pro-vide criteria for making juegmentsMake use of student writing that is polished andproofreadProvide time for writing: time to experience,ponder, produce, polish, proofread

For Example:Students:

Try Sustained Silent Writing on a regular basisCan dictate their individual stories or poems to anadult

L(2tEtor

r-Tri A( 17-1

Contribute a sentence to a short story by peergroupOrganize and clarify their information and enlargetechnical vocabulary when writing reportsWrte up sequence of events following demonstra-tions in scienceUse variety of aids so that ideas are not lost for lackof spelling skill. (Draw lines, write only first letter,invent spelling, use dictionaries, ask studentmonitors)Work on improving mechanics of writing during theediting processCreate a mood by using sounds, music, poetry,stories, films, and other sensory experiences (writea response)Use writers' corner where materials and spaceencourage expressionLook at pictures before writing; take field tripsaround neighborhoodRespond to drama arid literature by expressingfeelings, thoughtsCombine many forms of writing, plus editing, proof-reading, planning layout by working on class newspaperCombine interviewing with recording, graphing orcharting and summarizing results while making aclass surveyRecord minutes during class meetingsWrite telegrams on how to relay important messagein a few wordsRead student-authored books shelved in school orclassroom libraryCorrespond regularly with pen pals in United Statesand other countries

Evaluation:Do students:

Disregard all form when writing creatively?Rank high on scale when scoring their total writingproduct holistically?List criteria before making judgment on qualities ofa good story?Communicate in clear and appropriate language?Keep individual student folders and check forimprovement in their writing periodically?Check for organization, clarity of message, pre-cision in word selection when editing their work?Discuss writing techniques and ideas with teacherin individual conferences?Recognize that different forms of writing should beevaluated in different ways?

Resources:Britton, James, et al. The Deuelopnient of Writing

Abilities 11 18 London: MacMillan Education Ltd,1975. (Schools Council Publication)

Burrows, Alma et al. They All Want To Write. Thirdedition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1964

Carlson, Ruth Kearney. Sparkling Words. rev. ed.Geneva, Illinois: Paladin House Publishers, 1979.

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Writing Aids Through the Grades,New York: Teachers College Press, 1970.

Cassedy, Sylvia. In Your Own Words: A Beginner'sGuide to Writing, New York: Doubleday & Corn.pany, 1979.

Cheyney, Arnold, B. The Writing Corner. SantaMonica, California: Goodyear Publishing, 1979.

Clay, Marie M. What Did I Write? Auckland, NewZealand: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1975.

Graves, Donald. Balance The Basics: Let ThemWrite. New York: Ford Foundation, 1978.

Livingston, Myra Cohn. When You Are Alone/ItKeeps You Capone: An Approach to CreativeWriting with Children mcw York: Atheneum, 1973.

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Lundsteen, Sara W. ed. Help For the Teacher ofWritten Composition K-9. Urbana, Illinois: NationalConference on Research in English/Eric Clearing.house, 1976.

Ohio Department of Education. Write On: TeachingWritten Communication. Columbus, Ohio: OhioDepartment of Education, 1976.

Stewig, John W. Read to Write. 2nd ed. New York:Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1980.

Tovey, Duane R. Writing Centers in the ElementarySchool. Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta KappaEducational Foundation. 1979.

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Reading: Literature for Children

The values of- including fine literature as an essentialpart of the entire school curriculum are well knownG pod books can do much to supplement instructionand complement the topics under discussion. Booksfor children supply information about a subject inaddition to indirectly teaching children about theprocess of both reading and writing.

There is a growing belief that children learn to read byreading and that they are stimulated to read by adultswho can open the world of books to them in new andexciting ways. Children will develop lifelong readinghabits if they are read to and have access to a library ofmany books, are encouraged to read and to sharetheir favorite stories with others, are provided withmany opportunities to respond to stories and poetryin a variety of ways and are encouraged to extendliterature with experiences in art, music, drama, andwriting.

Children are enriched by the literature they hearand read and almost unconsciously store awaypositive feelings about books and reading. Thedevelopment of imaginative thinking may be aided byacquaintance with animal fantasy, folklore or the hiql1fantasy stories of mature readers. The concept ofstory so necessary for children to write their own mlesof fact or fiction may be enhanced. A knowledge ofcharacter development and of the form and style ofvarious authors is carried over into their own writing.

Hearing stories and poetry read aloud provides child-ren with an increased listening vocabulary and

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strengthens their comprehension skills in addition toimproving their ability to attend to the spoken word.

The vicarious experiences that children mayencounter in literature supply them with insights andunderstandings about people and their world thatcould not possibly be experienced first hand. Bookscan be found that will enhance all topics and the broadrange of human emotions. Interests may be kindledthrough books that lead to avocations and vocations.

Learning from literature can lead to learning aboutliterature. In addition to developing a sense of storyand character delineation and development, childrenmay begin to acquire a style of their own in the use offigurative language and other literary devices such aspoint of view, foreshadowing, flashback, and use ofimagery. These should not be forced but should beintroduced in the questioning of teachers to helpchildren discover their meaning and their contribu-tion in the context of a story or poem. As childrenbecome acquainted with a greater variety of storiesand poetry the discussion of form might be intro-duced to enrich meaning.s

Above all, the pleasures that children find in booksthe laughter, the wonder, the facts and the fantasies

all join to encourage those children to learn to readand to love to read. When learning to read becomes agoal desired by children, they will apply themselvesvigorously to mastering those skills that will help themachieve that end.

Literature as a Base for Critical ReadingChildren's stories and poetry provide an exLellentbase for teaching of critical reading. Children'sinterests and enthusiasm are tapped by the teacherwho reads aloud and discusses literature with them.These discussions can be designed so that childrenbecumeincreasinglya+ka ir ')1 the for ins. viola:I aidevices of literature. They can use their knowledge tumake judgments about the matenals they read and tubecome discriminating readers.

Forms of literatureExperiences with many types of literature leadchildren to an awareness of the variety available tothem. Reading from both fiction and nonfiction, proseand poetry will broaden children's understanding ofthe author's purpose for writing; to make them laugh,cry, or think.

Teachers can introduce children to t he many forms ofliterature through reading aloud, After hearing severalstories of historical fiction, for example, children candiscuss what makes a historical novel good. As theydevelop its criteria, such as authenticity and accuracyand a feeling for the times, these will be considered as

new historical stories are read. Criteria for each of thetypes of literature can be developed in this way. Thenext step can be making judgments based on theirLnteria and comparisons made with other examplesLit the same type. Thus, realistic fiction, both con-temporary and historical, fantasy, traditionalliterature such as fables and folk tales, and biographywill gradually become ca familiar part of the children'sbacKground of knowledge about books. A listing ofthe more common forms follows.

flock. Chariottc, S Children,. I item/tire m the E/enientarySt hoof. New York. Holt. Rinehart and Winston, pp 709 710,

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Forms of Literature

Prose

Fictionrealistic

contemporaryhistorical

modern fantasytraditional

fablesfolk taleslegendsmyths

picture books(can be all typesincluding wordless)

Nonfictionbiographyinformation bookspicture books (ABC.counting. concept.informational)

(36.11.11171

Poetry

NarrativeLyricalFree verseBalladsConcrete poetryPatterned poetry

haikutankacinquaindiamantelimerick

Elements of fictionAs children become aware of the many forms ofliterature, they will begin to learn about the differentelements associated with each. In fiction the majorelements are theme, plot, setting, characterization,and style. The list below will identify them briefly.

ELEMENT

theme

plot

setting

characterization

style

DEFINITION

the main idea/author'smessage

the action of the story

the time and place of thestory

way author reveals thecharacters

author's choice andarrangement of words.other literary devices

CRITERIA

appropriate

well-constructed

authentic/credible

believable

reflects tone

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48 An additional element may be considered whenreading picture books, though not found extensivelyin novels The illustrated book has pictures depictingcertain events in the story or placed at the beginningof chapters The picture book contains illustrationsthat are unified with the text, enhance it, and "t ell" t hestory even if children cannot read the words. Itsillustrations are created by the artist who uses line,color, and spacing in a variety of media and styles tocomplement the content of the story Observationskills are enhanced by children who look for detail inthe illustration that is described in the text.

Children may compare the works of one author orillustrator using the various criteria to determine thequality of a new book, They may compare andcontrast stones of similar content or theme to evaluate those elements. Children and teachers mightdiscuss the characters in a book in terms of theirdevelopment by the author. How does the writerreveal the kind of person mat character is in the story?What is it that enables the reader to predict how thecharacter will respond in a given situation?

These questions will come naturally from manychildren as they discuss the action of a story and relateit to their own experiences and background of knowledge Allow this absorption of information aboutbooks to occur informally and in an atmosphere ofcuriosity, inquiry and sharing.

This attitude of inquiry will help children to readbetween the lines to interpret the intentions of thewriter and to read beyond the lines to criticallyexamine the worth of what they have read. Once thehabit of observing and reading critically has beenestablished with literature it may transfer to other

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materials as well. Just as with tiction, criteria for non-fiction can be determined. The best of biography andinformation books can then be selected for use inreports and research topics as well as for pleasure.Children should be introduced to many forms andpatterns, so that they will recognize the varietyavailable and be able to select their favorites.

Literary devicc-After children have responded in a personal way tothe stories and poetry they have heard orread, theymay have questions that relate to the devices used byauthors to make their stories memorable. Among thedevices that might be used in children's literature arepoint of view, symbolism, figurative language and, attimes, flashback. Children do not need to define theseterms, but a knowledge of "who is telling the story"may help them discover meaning. Symbols representative of the theme occur in many stories and oftenprovide the means to talk about theme or "big idea."Figurative language often causes children to thinkabout common objects and events in unique ways.The language of the simile or metaphor should relateto children's experiences or they will fail tounderstand the meaning intended by the writer.As teachers explore the literature and help childrenbecome more discriminating readers with the abilityto make judgments about their reading, perhaps theycan also see the relationship to the total language pro-gram. Discussions, observations, writing and listeningare essential parts of the process of criticallyexamining material. Children's literature can bethe catalyst that effectively integrates thecommunication skills.

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Experiencing Literature

DEVELOPING APPRECIATION

hearing or reading a variety ofliterature

reading books by same authorrecognizing styles of illustratorsdiscovering enjoyment in books

RESPONDING TO LITERATURE

dramatizing stories or poetrydrawing, painting, sculpturing

scenes and characters fromstories

portraying a charactercreating a game from story

WRITING FROM READING

writing new endingscreating a new story or poemfollowing a story pattern or formcreating a unique book report

COMPARING ANDCONTRASTING

experiencing many forms ofliterature

reading stories on similar themeidentifying similar story plotscomparing different versons of

folk tales

READING ALOUD

reading to peers, younger childrenor family

reading daily by teacherchoral reading of poetrychoosing books that stretch the

imagination

STORY - TELLING

retelling favorite storystory-telling by librarian, teachers

or childencouraging children to join in

refrainstaping well-told storiesusing flannelboard to enhance story

DISCUSSING/SHARING BOOKS

discussing believability of characterdiscussing theme or conceptrelating story to own experiencesquestioning reality of storymaking oral book reports

IDENTIFYING LITERARY FORMS

introducing new forms throughoutyear

developing criteria for each literaryform

discussing the author's purposelistening to different patterns of

poetry

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A Framework for Teaching:Reading Children's Literature

Concept: Good books serve as a motivating factorin the reading process

Goals: To develop in children a lifelong habit ofreadingTo develop children's imaginationTo help children identify a variety of Inerary forms, styles and devicesTo create in children an awareness of theinformation and enjoyment found in books

Interrelationships:Mutual reinforcement with.listening develop concept of story plot and

characterizationacquire an awareness of rhyme andrhythmidentify theme or main idea

speaking retell familiar storieschoral speaking (verse choir) withpoetryshare a story with small group

writing create new endings to well-known storyfollow story poetry patternsuse new vocabulary appropriately

Essential Experiences:Teachers:

Read aloud from good books every dayGuide discussions about books and their author"illustratorUse a variety of literature prose and poetry, fic-tion and nonfictionDevelop criteria for identifying good informationbooksDevelop critical reading skills using literatureLink children's persona: and school experiences tobooksShare poetry dailyProvide for extensions of literature with ai t, music,and dramaEncourage reading during free timeProvide time for sharing of stories and poetry bychildrenMaintain a classroom libraryInvolve children in book selection for classroomlibraryWork closely with school librarian or mediaspecialistUse books to complement content area studiesDevelop criteria for judging good booksParticipate in National Book Week and RIO' ioRead Week activities

For Example:Students:

Retell stories with flannel board and puppetsStudy books by one author or illustratorCompare stories of similar theme, plot, settingShare a favorite story with a small groupRead to younger children on regular basisCreate time-lines using facts from historical fiction

UC4AKati

iniVADING

Compare several biographies of a famous personCreate games from adventure stories or fantasyPaint mural depicting many stories from one genreRead many variations of one folktale and discussUse picture books to note detail, unity with text,color and artistic techniquesCreate dialogue or sound track to accompanywordless booksPredict endings after reading part of storyUse information book location skills in class projectDramatize stories role play charactersHold book fairs in school or class conduct a bookcharacter paradeWrite original story based on familiar plot or theme

Evaluation:Do students:

Attend to reading aloud and story telling?Respond to books in a variety of ways?Improve in ability to predict story action?Increase the number of books read independently?Continue to broaden their scope of reading?Apply literature !earnings to other school work?

Resources:Carlson, Ruth Kearney. Enrichment Ideas. Dubuque,

Iowa: William C. Brown, 1976.

Hopkins, Lee Bennett. Books Are by People. NewYork: Citation Press, 1969.

. More Books by More People: NewYork: Citation Press, 1974.

Huck, Charlotte S. Children's Literature in the Ele-mentary School, Revised 3rd ed. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, 1979.

Huck, Charlotte S. and Janet Hickman, eds. TheWeb: Wonderfully Exciting Books. Columbus,Ohio: Center for Language, Literature and Read-ing, College of Education, Ohio State University(published quarterly).

Lai-rick, Nancy. A Parent's Guide to Children'sReading. 4th ed., Garden City, New York: Double-day, 1975.

McCracken, Robert A. and Marlene McCracken.Reading is Only the Tiger's Tale. San Rafael, Cali.fornia: Leswig Press, 1972.

Monson, Diane and Betty J. Pelt ola. Research inChildren's Literature. Newark, Delaware: Inter-national Reading Association, 1976.

Ohio Department of Education. School and Com-:nullity Handbook for Reading improvement. Col.umbus, Ohio: Ohio Department of Education,1981.

Painter, Helen W. Poetry and Children. Newark,Delaware International Reading Association, 1970.

Sawyer, Ruth. The Way of the Storyteller. New York.Viking, 1962.

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Tway, Eileen. Reading Ladders for Human Relations.6th ed., Washington, D.C.: American Council onEducation, 1981.

Whitehead, Robert. Children's Literature: Strategiesfor Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pren-tice-Hall, 1968.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, Roach Van. Language Experiences in Com-munication. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company,1976.

Anderson, Paul S. Language Skills in ElementaryEducation. 2nd Edition New York: MacMillan Com-pany, 1972.

Barnes, Douglas. From Communication to Curri.culum. New York: Penguin Books, 1976.

Beers, James Wheelock and Carol Strickland Beers,"Vowel Spelling Strategies Among First andSecond Graders: A Growing Awareness of Writ tenWords," Language Arts, Vol. 57 (February, 1980),pp. 166.172.

Callitri, Charles. "A Structure for Teaching theLanguage Arts," Hart andEducational Review, Vol35 (Fall, 1965), pp.481-491.

Cherry, Louise J. "A Sociocognitive Approach toLanguage Development and Its Implications forEducation," Language, Children and Society,(eds.), Olga K, Garnica and Martha L. King. NewYork: Pergamon Press, 1979.

Dillon, J.T. "Alternatives to Questioning," TheEducation Digest, Vol. 45 (September 1979) pp. 42.44.

Halliday, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions ofLanguage London: Edward Arnold, 1973.

Hennings, Dorothy. Communication in Action. Chi-cago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company,1978.

Huck, Charlotte S. Children's Literatuie in the Elementary School, Revised 3rd ed. New York: Holt.Rinehart and Winston, 1979.

Loban, Walter. The Language of Elementary SchoolChildren. Champaign, Illinois: National Council ofTeachers of English, 1963.

Mallett, Margaret and Bernard Newsome. Talking,Writing, and Learning 8.13. London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1977.

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Moffett, James. Teaching the Universe of Discourse.Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1968.

Napell, Sondra M. "Using Questions to EnhanceClassroom Learning," Education, Vol. 99 (Winter,1978), pp. 188.197.

Ohio Department of Education. Motivation: Unleash-ing Learning Power. Columbus, Ohio: OhioDepartment of Education, 1978.

Piaget, Jean. The Language and Thought of theChild. Cleveland: World Publishing Company,1969.

Pooley, Robert E. The Teaching of English Usage.Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers ofEnglish, 1974.

Purkey, William. Inviting School Success. Belmont,California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1978.

Smith, Howard A. "Nonverbal Communication inTeaching," Review of Educational Research, Vol.49 (Fall, 1979), pp. 631.672.

Smith, James A. Creative Teaching of the LanguageArts in the Elementary School, Boston: Allyn andBacon, Inc., 1973.

Vygotsky, Lev S. Thought and Language. Cam-bridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1962.

Wiemann, Mary 0. and Wiemann, John M. Nonver-bal Communication m the Elementary Classroom.Urbana, Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Readingand Communication Skills, 1975.

Winn, Maie. The Plug-In Drug. New York: TheViking Press, 1977.

Wlodkowski, Raymond J. Motivation and Teaching:A Practical Guide. Washington, D.C.: NationalEducation Association, 1978.

Yardley, Alice. Exploration and Language. London:Evans Brothers Ltd., 1970.

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The activity which is the subject of this report was supported in whole orin part by the U.S. Department of Education. However, opinions expressedherein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S. Departmentof Education, and no official endorsement by the U.S. Department ofEducation should be inferred.

"An Equal Opportunity Employer"

Total copies Piloted 5 000Unit cost' S 4329Publication data 8,83(Excludes paper costs)

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Additional Information May Be Obtained From:

The Ohio Department of EducationDivision of Educational Services65 South Front Street, Room 802Columbus, Ohio 43215(614) 466-4838

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