ED 039 362

TITLE

TNSTITUTIONSPONS AGENCY

REPORT NOPUTI. DATE70mEAVAILAInE FROM

EDES PRICEDESCRIPTORS

DOCUMENT RESUME

Distributive Education in +he High School. A

Suggested Guide for Administrators and Teachers ofDistribution and Marketing.Virginia Commonwealth Univ., Richmond.Office of Education (DEEW), Washington, :N. C. Div. ofVocational and Technical Education.0E-82010Sep 69A8p.Superintendent of Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, D.C., (PS5.282:82109,

EDPS Price MP-$0.50 HC vot Available from EDFS.*Administrator Guides, *Curriculum Planning,*Distributive Educations Economic Climate,*'Sducational Planning, Instructional Programs,Marketing, *Program Guides, Pelevance (7ducation),Vocational Education

ABSTRACTThis guide was prepared by a researcher-consultant

to help school administrators and teachers improve, redirect, andexpand instructional programs preparing high school youth to enterand progress in distributive employment. It presents distributiveeducation in its educational, social, and economic environment and isconcerned with a broadly conceived program. Chapters cover: (1)environment for distributive education, its educational, social andeconomic responsibilities, (2) distributive education as a program,as it is affected by the 1968 Vocational Education Amendments, (3)areas of instruction in preparatory curriculums, and how they relateto each other and to the field of distribution, (4) methods to assureapplication to employment requirements in preparatory plans, ()implications of levels of training opportunities, and (6) organizingand administering preparatory instruction in the high school. Abibliography and a glossary are appended. (GP)

DistributiveEducationin theHigh School,A SUGGESTED GUIDE FOR ADMINISTRATORSAND TEACHERS OF DISTRIBUTION AND MARKETING

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFAREOffice of Education

Robert H. Finch, SecretaryJames E. Allen, Jr., Assistant Secretary and Commissioner of Education

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION& WELFARE

e\biOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR0 ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OFVIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECES-rN SARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

FOREWORD

This publication is designed to help school ad-ministrators and teachers to improve, redirect, andexpand instructional programs preparing highschool youth to enter and progress in distributiveemployment. It presents distributive education inits educational, social, and economic environmentand is concerned with a broadly conceivedprogram.

The Vocational Education Act of 1963 removedrestrictions relating to Federal authorizations fordistributive education, and the subsequent Vo-cational Education Amendments of 1968 havemade it possible for vocational education to adaptits programs to meet the needs of students of differ-ing abilities and for employment requirements.It has been estimated that over one-third of thelabor force is engaged in distributive occupationsand that opportunities for employment in sales,and marketing activities will continue to grow.The distributive education program can bringthese opportunities within the reach of many highschool age youth.

This guide was prepared under contract withVirginia Commonwealth University, Richmond,Va., by Mrs. Kay B. Brown, Researcher and Con-sultant. The guide presents material that can beconsidered by administrators and teachers to meetlocal, State, and regional needs.

September 1969LEON P. MINEAR, DirectorDivision of Vocational andTechnical Education

GRANT VENNAssociate Commissioner for Adult,Vocational, and Library Programs

Iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Valuable contributions were made in the de-velopment of this guide, part',:ularly in areas ofcurriculum, methods of instruction, and the or-ganization and administration of instructional pro-grams by the following distributive educationpersonnel:

TED BEST, Assistant State Supervisor, OklahomaDR. LEROY BUCKNFIt, Teacher Educator,

Florida Atlantic UniversityM. J. DEBENNING, State Supervisor, OklahomaJAMES DORSEY, Consultant, ConnecticutMILDRED L. JACKSON, State Supervisor, GeorgiaLESTER B. KESTERSON, State Director, MissouriDR. PERRY MOCK, Teacher Educator, Central

Missouri State CollegeDR. G. D. PALMER, Teacher Educator, Montana

State UniversityKENNETH L. ROWE, Teacher Educator,

Arizona State UniversityH. D. SHOTWELL, State Supervisor, KansasMRS. JOAN K. SMITH, Assistant State Supervisor,

North CarolinaDAVID A. TnompsoN, State Director, Texas

Ex C. TOOTIIMAN, State Supervisor, Florida

iv

Pea

CONTENTS

FOREWORD III

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IV

CHAPTER

I. ENVIRONMENT FOR DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 1

Distributive Education as an Educational Service 1

Distributive Education as a Service to Distribution and Marketing 3II. DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION AS A PROGRAM 8

Implications for Distributive Education in Legislative ChangesCharacteristics of the Program 8Structure of the Distributive Education Program 9

III. AREAS OF INSTRUCTION IN PREPARATORY CURRICULUMS 13

The Major Instructional Areas 13Interrelationship of Areas of Instruction 19Adaptation of Instructional Areas to State and Local Programs 19Adaptation of Areas of Instruction to Levels of Preparation 19Adaptation of Each Curriculum to Its Occupational Objective 23

IV. METHODS TO ASSURE APPLICATION TO EMPLOYMENT REQUIREMENTS

IN PREPARATORY PLANS 29Classification of Methods of Instruction 29The Cooperative Method 29The Project Method 31Vocationally Directed Teaching in the Classroom 35Diagrams of Cooperative and Project Methods 35

V. IMPLICATIONS OF LEVELS OF TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES 39Facing Changes in Employment 39Vocational Guidance 39The Use of Advisory Committees 42Components of Organization for Preparatory Instruction 43

VI. ORGANIZING AND ADMINISTERING PREPARATORY INSTRUCTIONIN THE HIGH SCHOOL 45

Procedures for Developing Preparatory Instruction in High Schools 45Principles of Organization 45

BIBLIOGRAPHY 60

GLOSSARY. .... ......... A .... ............. ".4a ...... ............. 61

FIGURES PAGE

1. The Distributive Education Program ............. 102. Outline of Areas of instruction in Preparatory Curriculums 183. Areas of Instruction arid Their Interrelationships 204. Project Training Record . . 32

5. The Cooperative Method in Secondary Schools 366. The Project Method in Secondary Schools 377. Diagram of Training Opportunities for High School Students

Basic Job Curriculurrs . . 408. Diagram of Training Opportunities for High School Students

Career Development Job Curriculums 419. The Cooperative Plan in Secondary Schools 48

10. The Project Plan in Secondary Schools 4911. Regular Curriculum .

52

12. Youth With Special Needs 53

13. Organizational Options for Different Objectives 5414. Suggested Organizational Options 55

15. Sample Student Schedules 5616. Teacher-Coordinator Schedules ..... ...... . ti8

vi

CHAPTER I

ENVIRONMENT FOR DISTRIBUTIVEEDUCATION

The distributive education program has its rootsin both education and distribution. This environ-ment encompasses distributive education as aneducational service and as a service to marketingor distribution. Educational, social, and economicresponsibilities are pointed out in a statement ofthe goals of distributive education:1. To offer instruction in marketing and

distribution.2. To aid in improving the techniques of

distribution.3. To develop an understanding of the wide range

of social and economic responsibilities whichaccompany the right to engage in distributionin a free, competitive society. (1)

The first and third goals pertain to distributiveeducation as an educational service, and the secondrefers to its service to distribution.

Distributive Education as anEducatbnal Service

INSTRUCTION IN MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION

To offer instruction in marketing and distribu-tion, the first goal, provides a special challenge to-day because of nonrestrictive provisions of recentnational legislation which point the way to greatlyIncreased enrollments. Now, youth and adults whoare preparing to enter distributive employment maybe trained in the distributive education program,as well as those already engaged in marketing anddistribution.

The American Marketing Association definesmarketing as: The performance of business activi-ties directed toward and in ':dent to the flow ofgoods and services from producer to consumer oruser. (2)

Distribution is explained as follows:Distribution is the second step in a series of

economic processes which bring goods and serv-ices from those who make them to those whouse them. The making of such goods and serv-ices is called production. The use of the goodsis called consumption. Distribution includes allmethods by which goods are sent from producersto consumers. (3 )

As evidenced by these definitions, it is possible touse the terms "marketing" and "distribution"synonymously. There has been disagreement amongthose engaged in or associated with this field con-cerning which term is preferred. Distribution isthe basic term used in this publication, and market-ing is, of course, a synonym for it. The phrase"distribution and marketing" appears in certaininstances to indicate to proponents of both termsthat the functions involved are the same, regard-less of personal preference in terminology.

Abundant vocational opportunities are avail-able for men and women in distributive occupa-tions to carry out the functions of distribution. Itis the educational responsibility of distributive edu-cation to prepare each student-trainee for the dis-tributive occupation which he has selected as hisjob goal.

A distributive occupation is generally accepted tobe an occupation followed by proprietors, man-agers, or employees engaged primarily in thesales and sales-supporting functions of marketing,merchandising, and management. Distributiveoccupations are found in such areas of economicactivity as retail and wholesale trade, finance,insurance, real estate, services and service trades,manufacturing, transportation, utilities and com-munications. (4)This includes also those occupations in which

there is a distributive function (soiling, sales pro-motion, buying, operations, market research, man-agement) or production industries where there aremarketing activities. For example, a distributivefunction may be a partial factor in the total occu-pational activities which primarily involve produc-tion or trade skills. A plumber must have technicalcompetency in the skills of his trade. At the sametime, however, he is engaged in marketing hisservices. The owner of a barber or beauty establish-ment is concerned simultaneously with performinghis production services and with merchandisingthese services.

1

A distributive education student has manychoices available to him in selecting a job goal.His classroom instruction and vocational learningexperiences will be directed toward the attainmentof this occupational objective.

OCCUPATIONAL OBJECTIVE

Distributive education students are guided inthe selection of their occupational objectives bythe teacher-coordinator in cooperation with theguidance department in the particular school. Awide range of educational ability and achievementwill be exhibited among those referred for trainingto qualify for employment in distributive occupa-tions. This implies a wide range of occupationalobjectives which necessitates careful considerationof the student's, aptitudes, interests, needs, andmotivations in counseling with him.

Vocational decisions should be based on certainunderstandings about the field of distribution, de-scribed by Mary Marks, as follows:

1. Employability for successful performance in adistributive occupation depends upon the indi-vidual's ability to relate himself to people, tothe profit motive and to products and servicesoffered for sale by his employer. Manual skillrequirements are negligible. Judgment skillsare the key to employability. Judgment skillsare developed individually out of attitudes ofservice to others, appreciations of customerneeds, knowledge of product performance, andacceptance of the social and economic re-sponsibility of free competitive enterprise.

2. In distribution the wage payment plan gen-erally allows an individual to enjoy the securityof a base pay while providing him the oppor-tunity to earn according to his initiative andability to produce dollar volume for the busi-ness. Jobs bearing similar titles provide a rangeof incomes to their holders. Variables, suchas human relationships, pricing under a profit-system economy, personal motivation, the ex-tent of customer services, product sophistica-tion, the working of supply and demand, pro-vide challenges and satisfactions enjoyed bythose employed in marketing, merchandising,and management.

3. The level of entry jobs in the field of distribu-tion differs according to the degree. of indi-

2

vidual responsibility and decisionmaking re-quired of the applicant. There are many start-ing points. Some are satisfying in themselvesas career jobs. Others are necessary steppingstones to the job objective to which prepara-tory training has been directed. Career de-velopment is inherent in each entry job. How-ever, this does not mean an orderly progressionthrough a specific sequence of steps in a pro-cedure or operation. Movement within an or-ganization may be horizontal or vertical sincethere is an interdependence of distributive ac-tivities within every business organization. Thequalifications of an individual are measured interms of his total occupational experiences,his social maturity, the breadth of his market-ing techniques, and his specialization by prod-uct field. (5)

The handbook used by local and State schoolsystems to identify subject matter areas serves asa basis for classifying students' distributive occupa-tional objeci:ves.(6) The taxonomy for distribu-tivc education consists of instructional programswhich encompass the major types of business estab-lishments in which distributive occupations arefound, according to the definition of a distributiveoccupation. Programs of study are described bythe type of activity in which these establishmentsare engaged; occupational goals, therefore, aresimilarly identified.

Reaching a final occupational choice generallydevelops from a series of decisions over a period ofyear.% Each student in the distributive educationprogram, however, should have an occupationalobjective toward which his classroom instructionis directed. For some students, completion of aninstructional program will represent the prepara-tion needed for their occupational objectives; forothers, completion will represent a step towardsa long-range goal which necessitates continuingeducation. Adjustments may be made in job goalsas trainees become aware of new employment op-portunities and as their knowledge of the employ-ment field selected increases. (7)

AN UNDERSTANDING OF SOCIAL ANDECONOMIC RESPONSIBILITIES

To develop an understanding of the wide rangeof social and economic responsibilities which ac-

company the right to engage in distribution in afree, competitive society is the social goal of dis-tributive education. (8) Leaders in distributiveeducation have a social responsibility since societylooks to education to play a major role in the solu-tion of its problems and to meet the challenge ofsocial and technological transformations occurringin these times. Virgil Ward summarizes thesetransformations as:1. Upheavals among social, political, and tech-

nological arrangements across the face of theglobe; among human beings themselves, ac-celerated population increases, often amongthose with least resources for the accommo-dation of human needs; marked shifts in thepower balance among nations, new and old;racial and political unrest in unprecedentedproportions; the emergence of urban problemspeculiar to this century.

2. Mushrooming general technology, leading tohitherto unimaginable reaches in communica-tion; y. sterday's science fiction turned real inspace-age mechanical feats; massive ribbonsof con:Tete and steel spanning whole cities andconnecting sprawling megalopolia.

3. Electronic developments leading to industrialproduction techniques and to research in chem-ical and biological sciences, all of which arecausing material upgrading in human healthand reopening questions about human po-tentiality.

4. Such massive innovations within human cul-ture that increases in society are predictableas derivatives, rather than simple increases inefficiency, within established social objec-tives. (9)

Such revolutionary transformations have changedconcepts of education's role in the community, Itis no longer enough for education passively torespond to a need for service. The communitywants educational leadership which is aggressive,flexible, imaginative, and involved with communityproblems. The public expects education to assistin the solution of social problems related to urbanliving and technological change resulting in highunemployment among minority groups, youth, andwelfare recipients.

This new role for education has national sig-nificance also. In addressing the Southern Cali-

fornia Distributive Education Conference, MissMarks has stated that "the national well-being,socially and economically, is directly affected bythe quality and quantity of educational oppor-tunity provided by the States and localities for allthe people."(10)

As an educational program, distributive educa-tion is actively involved in the community andmaintains a leadership role in working with com-munity groups, businessmen, civic associations,local governing bodies, and parents, as well aseducators. Distributive education programs incities can assist in alleviating urban problems bydeveloping new educational opportunities and oc-cupational guidance services for youth and adultsnot previously reached by vocational education.With expansion into rural areas, the program carassist in preparing rural youth for distributive cmployment in their home counties or in cities.

Distributive education's social goal of develop-ing in students an understanding of social andeconomic responsibilities involves consideration ofpeople-oriented problems in a changing environ-ment. Change is inherent in the distributive proc-ess. Distributive personnel must be concerned withthe varied motivations of potential customers.Their self-fulfillment, their tensions and leisureactivities control what is offered for sale and whatis purchased. Distributive education students learnto adapt to changes in people and processes as aqualifying factor for job success. Their under-standing of social and economic responsibilities ismint a d through participation in activities ofthe Distributive Education Clubs of America.

Distributive Education as a Service toDistribution and Marketing

IMPROVING THE TECHNIQUES OF DISTRIBUTION

To aid in improving the techniques of distribu-tion is the economic goal of distributive education.In remarks on distribution to the Governor's Con-ference on Education for Distribution at Indianap-olis, Indiana, John Beaumont has stressed thefact that:

Education has an economic, responsibility to oursociety. Distributive education has an economicresponsibility to our society, and this particular

3

responsibility is fulfilled by distributive educatorsin their realization that improved techniquesin distribution are essential to our economicgrowth. Distributive educators recognize theplace of change, and they use the findings of re-search and, in may y instances, conduct researchwhich involves finding new methods by whichto provide our society with improved standardsof living.f / / )Improved techniques are most readily acquired

through well-qualified and well-trained managers,supervisors, and employees who are motivated toimprove themselves and their facility in the useof these techniques. It is in this area that distribu-tive education performs its most vital service forthe field of distribution. The program preparesyouth and adults for specific occupational oppor-tunities according to the competencies needed inthe occupation. It trains employed adults to up-grade and update distributive practices involved intheir employment situations. In addition, teacher-coordinators are asked to confer with proprietorsand manvgers concerning improvement of tech-niques. These teaching and counseling activitiesnecessitate the research to which Beaumont refers.

The importance of continuing improvement indistributive techniques and distribution's need for

Nvell-trained personnel in ever-in-creasing numbers may be demonstrated by consider-ing concepts of distribution in the economy, theoutlook for employment in distributive occupa-tions, and the factors of change affecting distribu-tion in the next decade.

CONCEPTS OF DISTRIBUTION IN THE ECONOMY

Distribution is a symbol of competitive enter-prise, a link between the process of productionand consumption in our economic system. In a"free-private-enterprise" economic system, compe-tition regulates business activities. If one businessoverprices its product or service, its customers turnto competitors with lower prim. This may causea reduction in prices set by the original firm. Thecompany m hich fails to improve its product orservice will be overshadowed by competitors whoconduet research for product or service improve-ment. The benefits of a competitive economy areoutlined by Phillips and Duncan in MarketingThinciple% and Piactieet as:

4

1. Promoting the Sow of new products and ofproduct improvements

2. Offering consumers adequate choices and al-ternatives of both goods and services

3. Expanding output and consumption and, atthe same time, keeping demand and outputin balance

4. Passing on to customers the results of researchin the form of lower prices or goods whichoffer better consumer satisfactions

5. Improving real wages, together with shorterhours and better working conditions

6. Providing opportunity for individuals to launchnew enterprises and to make capital invest-ments. (12)

These benefits focus on the consumer. It is hisneeds, wants, desires, preferences, beliefs, andhabits which control the distributive process. Theydetermine what products or services are offered forsale, the channels through which these move, thepromotional techniques which are employed, andthe prices that may be obtained. Improvement ofthe techniques of distribution increases efficiencyof operation, resulting in reduced prices of goodsand set,ices for consumers. Improving the dis-tributive techniques of an individual business en-hances its competitive position and leads to in-crtfased sales, the creation of ACW jobs, anri im-proved services to the trade area.

Distribution is a symbol of a higher standard ofliving in the economy. The effectiveness of themarketing process and the standard of living areso closely related that it has been said that "market-ing is the delivery of a standard of living."(13)It is now more difficult to market goods and serv-ices than to produce them. If a distribution systemcould be devised to market at a profit all the goodsand services which could be produced, these wouldincrease greatly in volume, and the standard ofliving would rise substantially. (14) Improving thetechniques of distribution is essential to the achieve-ment of this long-range economic objective.

Distribution is a symbol of productive might inthe economy in its relationship to gross nationalproduct and gross national income. This produc-tive quality is not to be confused with the produc-tion of goods and services as evidenced by the fol-lowing statement by Phillips and Duncan:

From the economist's point of view, those en-

gaged in marketing are producing just as arethose engaged in manufacture or agriculture. Inan economic sense, production is the creation ofform, time, place, or possession utilities; the latterthree are created by marketingthereby leadingsome authorities to define marketing as the ac-tivities involved in creating these three kinds ofutilities. (15)

A value-added concept has been applied tomanufacturing for many years. It is now used inconnection with the marketing process and empha-sizes the contribution of distribution rather than itscost. For example, Phillips and Duncan say:

By emphasizing the fact that goods acquire addi-tional value as they flow toward the consumer,thereby being available when, where, and howhe wants them, this concept recognizes the eco-nomic productiveness of marketing activities. (16)Gross national product is "the total market value

of the output of consumer goods and services inthe United States for any given period, usually ayear." (0) It is dependent upon the process ofdistribution in that it includes the value added byall who are involved in this process, as well as thevalue added by those engaged in the creation ofthese goods and services. It represents the finalprices paid by consumers.

The gross national income is "the total of all theincome received in the distribution process." (18)Distribution, then, is "the system of control andexchange that combines the output of specializedproducers into a national income and deliversthe resultant level of living to consumers." It is"the set of activities that make possible (and inturn are made necessary by) the intricate divisionof labor that characterizes our economy." (19) Im-proving the techniques of distribution, therefore,contributes to the growth of gross national product,gross national income, and the labor force. Itresults in increased employment opportunities.

Distribution has become a symbol of this oppor-tunity for employment. The outlook for employ-ment in distributive occupations is optimistic.

OUTLOOK FOR EMPLOYMENT IN DISTRIBUTIVEOCCUPATIONS

The second largest number of workers are foundin retail and wholesale trades, a growth area whichhas more than doubled during the past 25 years.

Distributive occupations, especially in retailing,continue to provide entry employment opportuni-ties for those qualifying at diverse levels of jobcompetency. Two notable characteristics of thework force are the presence of increasingly largernumbers of young people and adult women.Women hold two out of every five jobs in sales oc-cupations, and these are primarily in retailing.

The sales group, in general, is expected to rise byabout 25 percent during the 10-year period endingin 1975. Greater than average increases, for ex-ample, were noted between 1950 and 1960 in thelarge occupations of real estate salesman, insuranceagent, and manufacturer's salesman. Smaller salesoccupations of demonstrators, stock and bond sales-man, and house-to-house salesman also increasedrapidly. Employment in finance, insurance, andreal estate is expected to increase by 700,000 be-tween 1965 and 1975. An 11 pevcent growth injob openings in the insurance field is anticipated by1975, particularly for young salesmen to attractyoung married couples as customers. Additionalsales positions in wholesaling, an increase of over25 percent, are expected during the period of 1965-1975.

Proprietary and managerial positions, consistingmainly of owners of small enterprises and salariedofficials, are increasing as fast as the total laborforce. Although the number of independent busi-nessmen declined during the postwar period, thistrend is expected to level off in the yearsahead. (20 )

As individual incomes rise and the populationspends more and more on all kinds of services, dis-tributive occupations take on added importance.The factors of change affecting distribution in thenext decade also will increase employment in dis-tributive occupations

FACTORS OF CHANGE AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION,1965 TO 1975

There is an urgent need to encourage and stimu-late consumer demand in the next decade in orderto expand the sales of goods and services. Increasedconsumption, with the higher standard of livingwhich it brings, is essential in order to provide jobopportunities for those who ivill be available foremployment in the next 10 years. Arno H. John-son, Vice-president and Senior Economist, J.

5

Walter Thompson Company, New York, speaks ofthis pressing need in an analysis entitled TheDecade of Opportunity-1965 to 1975, presentedbefore The Rochester Advertisers at Rochester,N. Y..

We have an insistent pressure for economicgrowthenough to provide 20 million morenon-agricultural jobs in the United States by1975 (from 66 million to 86 million) . $245 bil-lion additional sales to consumers (from $395billion to $640 billion) will be needed to providejobs for our larger, - Ater educated, and moreproductive labor forcea labor force capableof producing a trillion dollar economy by1975. (21)

Considerable selling and sales promotion effortis required to stimulate consumer demand and toexpand markets for goods and services. This pointsto an increased need for capable, well-trained per-sonnel in the distributive occupations of selling, ad-vertising, display, public relations, and the man-agement of these functions. If these efforts aresuccessful, jobs will be available in manufacturingand in technical skills areas to meet the demandfor additional goods and services. Opportunities insales-supporting distributive occupations will ex-pand to enable consumers to have these goods andservices when and where they want them.

It is anticipated that economic growth and in-creased productivity in the next decade will causeindividual incomes to rise substantially, giving mil-lions of people more discretionary income to spendas they choose in improving their standard of liv-ing. It will be the responsibility of persons engagedin distributive occupations to motivate consumersto use intelligently their increased discretionaryspending power. Johnson points out that thisspending is not to be necessarily for luxuries:

With a potential growth to over one trilliondollars of production in the next decade, whichcould provide an average income of $11,300per household, many markets could more thandouble without excessive luxury or exceedingthe present concepts and way of life of familieswho are now at the $10,000 income level.(22)Related to the rise in income level is the move-

ment upward in educational level of the popula-tion. With each step up in level of education,income generally becomes stepped up so that ac-

6

cording to Johnson:Those with four years of high school enjoyedincomes 150% higher than those with less thaneight years of elementary school. And wherethe man had received four or more years ofcollege training incomes averaged 98% abovethose with only one to three years of highschool. (23 )The better educated consumer will demand

better educated distributive personnel to provideintelligent service in meeting his needs and desires.

The population will continue to expand duringthe next decade with a continuation in the trendtoward increasing numbers of young people andpersons over 65 years of age. The teenage marketprovides a continuing challenge to distribution inthe next decade. Young adults, who are marryingat an early age and having many children, havebeen affecting and will continue to influence hous-ing needs, food consumption, recreation, medicalcare, and other facets of family living. Goods andservices related to leisure activities, health careneeds, and housing facilities for retired people willreceive increasing attention. There will be manyemployment opportunities in distributive occupa-tions for well-trained personnel who can quicklyadapt the techniques of distribution to differentage groups.

Competition for the consumer dollar has been,and will continue to be, a growing factor in theeconomy during the next decade. The movementto suburban areas and revitalization of central-cityretailing has created a revolution in distribution.Night openings, a general increase in shoppinghours, and continued expansion of suburban storesmean that more and more workers at all levelsof employment will be needed to staff them.

The economic goal of distributionto aid inimproving the techniques of distributionwill beparticularly significant as individuals and businessesrise to the challenge of competition from alldirections.

Summary

The environment of the distributive educationprogram focuses attention on educational and socialgoals of an educational service and an economicgoal implicit in the program's service to distribu-

tion and marketing. To offer instruction in dis-tribution and marketing, the educational goal, in-volves preparation of the student for the distribu-tive occupation which he has selected as his oc-cupational objective. This necessitates vocationalguidance based on understandings about the fieldof distribution. To develop an understanding ofthe wide range of social and economic responsibil-ities which accompany the right to engage indistribution in a free, competitive society is thesocial goal. Social and technological transforma-tions have changed concepts of education's rolein the community, and education is expected toplay a major part in solving social problems. Dis-tributive education as an educational service assistsin the solution of these problems. To aid in im-proving the techniques of distribution is the eco-nomic goal. The multiplicity of changes affectingdistribution and the growth rate in distributiveemployment underscore the need for continuingimprovements in distributive techniques. Distribu-tive education provides a most valuable service tothe economy by providing well-qualified and well-trained personnel for distribution.

References

(1) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-fare, Office of Education, A Study of Curricu-lum Development in the High School Coopera-tive Program, 0E-82000 (Washington: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1960), p. 20.

(2) REAVIS COX, CHARLES S. GOODMAN, and THOMASC. FICHANDLER, Distribution in a High-LevelEconomy (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1965), p. 13.

The World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 4 (Chicago:Field Enterprises, Inc., 1953), p. 2021.

(4) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-fare, Office of Education, Vocational Educationand Occupations, OE-80061 (Washington: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1969), p. 19.

MARY V. MARKS, "Characteristics of Employmentin Distribution," Distributive Education Branch,Division of Vocational and Technical Education,

(3)

(5)

U.S. Office of Education, August 30, 1962,pp. 1-2.

(6) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-fare, Office of Education, Standard Terminologyfor Curriculum and Instruction in Local andState School Systems, 0E-23052, State Educa-tion Records and Reports Series: Handbook VI(Preliminary Edition), 1968, pp. 467-486.

GEORGE SANDERS, "The Basis of OccupationalGoals," Implementation of Vocational Educa-tion in Distribution, University of Wisconsin(Madison: Wisconsin Distributive Education As-sociation, 1967), p. 18.

JOHN A. BEAu MO NT, "Distributive EducationToday and Tommorrow," a presentation at theGovernor's Conference on Education for Distri-bution, Indianapolis, Indiana, April 14, 1964,p. 1.

Vim', S. WARD, "Toward a Theory of Educationfor These Times," Education Review, Universityof Virginia, Vol. Two (Charlottesville: Uni-versity of Virginia Education Review Associa-tion, 1964), pp. 4-5.

(10) MARY V. MARKS, "The Future of DistributiveEducation," a presentation at the SouthernCalifornia Distributive Education Conference,La Mirada, California, October 16, 1964, p. 3.

(// ) Beaumont, loc. cit.(12) CHARLES F. PHILLIPS and DELBERT J. DUNCAN,

Marketing Principles and Practices (Homewood,Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1960), p. 733.

(13) Ibid., p. 12.(14) Ibid., p. 13.(15) Ibid., p. 5.(16) Ibid., p. 6.(17) VIVIEN K. ELY, "The Importance of Distribution

in America" (unpublished course outline, Dis-tributive Education Service, State Departmentof Education, Richmond, Virginia, 1965), p. 17.

(18) The World Book Encyclopedia, op. cit., p. 2023.(19) Cox, GOODMAN, and FICHANDLER, OP. cit., pp.

14-16.(20) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook

Handbook, 1966-67 Edition, Bulletin No. 1450(Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,1967), p. 17.

(21) ARNO H. JOHNSON, The Decade of Opportunity-- -1965 to 1975, an analysis presented before TheRochester Advertisers, Rochester, New York,January 12, 1965, p. 6.

(22) Ibid., p. 6.(23) Ibid., p. 8.

(7)

(8)

(9)

7

CHAPTER II

DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION AS A PROGRAM

Distributive education is a program of vocationalinstruction. Its purpose is to qualify those enrolledfor gainful employment in distributive occupationsor in occupations in which a distributive functionappears, according to their individual career goals.The program is broad in scope and flexible in de-sign to achieve this objective.

New and expanded opportunities for the de-velopment of programs of training for the distribu-tive occupations have resulted from the enactmentof the Vocational Education Act of 1963 and theVocational Education Amendments of 1968. Theseopportunities relate to provisions assuring broaderprogram availability and more flexibility in or-ganizing instruction.

Implications for Distributive Education inLegislative Changes

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION LEGISLATION

Recent vocational education legislation removesprevious restrictions which confined distributive ed-ucation to (1) cooperative classes for inschoolyouth who had reached their 16th birthday, and(2) part-time or evening classes for employedadults. Program planning may now include allyouth and adults for whom opportunities are rea-sonably available for distributive employment. Highschool students regardless of age may enroll. Train-ing may now be provided to prepare adults toenter distributive employment, including thosewho wish to prepare for a vocation in distributionwhile still employed in another occupational area.

The legislation facilitates the organization ofprograms in rural areas and in other situationswhere the requirement of continuous employmenthas been difficult to meet. It encourages adjust-ments in traditional patterns of instruction in urbanareas. Preparatory classes may use either projecttraining or cooperative training experiences toachieve vocational application of instruction.

8

Cooperative training refers to on-the-job instruc-tion and application on a regular part-time basis.Project training involves job-oriented individual-ized projects and may include some occupationalexperience. Both project and cooperative trainingare related to students' job goals and are types ofparticipation activities. Participation activitiesfocus on employment activities and decision-mak-ing situations typical of specific occupationalobjectives.

YOUTH WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Until the Vocational Education Act of 1963 andthe 1968 amendments, there was little opportunityfor young people from culturally and economicallydisadvantaged homes or for the handicapped tosecure job preparation for even the most limitedbasic jobs in distribution. Most of these youthswere selected out because of program restrictions.Now they have several choices. They may enrollin cooperative training classes and receive remedialservices or financial assistance to help them bridgethe gap between their problem and their occupa-tional goal. Or they may elect to enroll in classesutilizing project training until they feel better qual-ified for the regular cooperative training class.Others will enroll in a job-training program thathas been especially developed for persons withsimilar handicaps or disadvantages.

Characteristics of the Program

As a program enrolling individuals who vary inability, motivation, and job maturity, distributiveeducation is designed to meet their different needs.The majority of students at any one level of train-ing will probably progress at the same rate. How-ever; some trainees may need a period of personaladjustment to the learning experiences essential tothe completion of an occupational curriculum.Other persons may be able to accelerate their train-ing, because of prior education or work exper-iences, and reach their occupational objective inless time than is generally required.

The distributive education program serves thediverse occupational objectives of those enrolled.To qualify for some types of employment onlylimited knowledge and skills may be required whilefor the others sophisticated abilities in performance

on the job must be achieved. Occupational objec-tives may be broadly tentative or specifically com-mitted. They may have been chosen because theyrepresent an opportunity for full-time employmentor because upon completion of training such em-ployment on a part-time schedule may safeguardanother personal goal.

As a program, distributive education includes avariety of curriculums. Some curriculums lead tothe achievement of competencies necessary for in-itial employment or entirely new occupational op-

portunities. Other courses are provided so thatrefresher, updating, and promotional goals may be

attained by those already employed in a distributive

occupational field.As a program, distributive education also main-

tains continuous training opportunities. This means

that an individual may qualify according to hiscapacity for vocational development and the ma-turation of his occupational objective. He may en-roll immediately following completion of a courseof study for further training in order to reach adifferent level of occupational qualifications beforestarting full-time employment. He, also, may un-dertake the employment for which he has becomequalified before entering a new full-time curricu-lum. He may, on the other hand, wish to enhancehi job potential by enrolling for part-time studiesseveral times during his work life.

The program of distributive education, then,makes available a variety of curriculums to youthand adults so that they may attain the compet-encies needed for gainful employment in line withtheir distributive occupational objectives at what-

ever time they elect to enter or re-enter vocationaltraining.

Structure of the DistributiveEducation Program

The program of distributive education is com-posed of preparatory instruction, in which studentsgenerally enroll on a full-time basis for job train-ing or retraining, and supplementary instruction,

in which employed adults upgrade their job com-petencies by part-time study appropriate to their

needs.Figure 1, The Distributive Education Program,

shows curriculums for preparatory and supple-mentary instruction and where these are available.It refers to organizational plans for preparatory in-struction, the cooperative plan, and the projectplan, explained in Chapter VI and in this chapterfollowing a description of curriculums for pre-paratory instruction.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Curriculums for preparatory instruction may beclassified as basic job curriculums, career develop-

ment job curriculums, and specialist job curricul-lums. Each of these corresponds to a level of em-ployment responsibility and is identified with thedegree of competency needed in specific distributive

employment.

Curriculums for Preparatory Instruction

Basic job curriculums develop fundamental tech-niques in sales and sales-supporting services, es-

sential marketing concepts, qualifying social com-petencies, and basic skills in computations andcommunications. These curriculums are available

to prepare enrollees for threshold level distributiveoccupations, involving minimal, often routine, em-ployment responsibility. Basic jobs exist in mostestablishments performing distributive functions al-though they are decreasing in number. Job duties,such as stock work, cataloc sales, wrapping andpacking, and delivery in retail and wholesale estab-lishments; bagging groceries in a supermarket;and serving customers in a cafeteria or restaurant,

are examples of basic level functions. Depending

upon an individual's ability and motivation, a jobat the basic level may be either the beginning of acareer involving advancement and increased re-sponsibility or a life's work performing less com-

plex, but important duties.Basic job curriculums usually utilize project

training, including work experience, and are avail-able in secondary schools and in vocational train-ing facilities. The purposes of these curriculums

are:

1. To prepare persons attending secondary schools

for immediate employment following gradua-tion in a specific distributive occupation at thebasic job level.

2. To qualify persons attending secondary schoolsfor enrollment in a career development job

9

1

FIGURE 1

THE DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM

LPreparatory Instruction

(Youth and Adults)

Basic JobCurriculums

Secondary Schoolsand Vocational

Training Facilities

(Project Plan)

Career DevelopmentJob Curriculums

Secondary and Post-secondary Schools

and VocationalTraining Facilities

(Project Plan orCooperative Plan)

AND

Supplementary instruction

(Employed Adults)

Specialist JobCurriculums

Post secondarySchools

(Project Plan orCooperative Plan)

Updating Courses

Institutions OfferingTraining for Adults

Advancement Curriculums

Institutions OfferingTraining for Adults

curriculum in the secondary school or forpostsecondary training in a career develop-ment or specialist job curriculum, frequentlyinvolving cooperative training.

3. To prepare adults available for full-time studyto enter distributive employment in a specificoccupation at the basic job level.

4. To qualify adults available for full-time studyfor enrollment in a career development jobcurriculum or a specialist job curriculum.

5. To prepare out-of-school youth and adultswith socioeconomic handicaps for a specificdistributive occupation at the basic job level.

Training for youth or adults who have academic,socioeconomic, or other handicaps that preventthem from succeeding in the regular distributiveeducation curriculums generally is organized as atype of basic job curriculum. This training maytake place in the same school as regular job cur-riculums; may be offered during, before, or afterschool hours; or may begin in the regular sessionor during the summer months. When within thelegal definition of public supervision and control,such programs may be taken out of the regularschool facility and put into an environment moretypical of distributive businesses or more conven-ient to those to be trained.

Ckacer development job curriculums developjudgment skills in relation to the functions of mar-keting, merchandising, and management. Theyare designed to prepare students for those jobswhich involve competencies and responsibilities be-yond the basic job level but less advanced than thoseneeded at the middle management level of em-ployment in distribution. Examples of career de-velopment occupations are a salesperson in a bigticket department of a general merchanCise retailestablishment, a head of stock, a sales representativefor a general line wholesale firm, a desk clerk in ahotel or motel, or an assistant in display or othersales promotion medium.

Career development job curriculums make use ofboth project and/or cooperative training and arelocated in secondary and postsecondary schoolsand in vocational training facilities. The objectivesof these curriculums are:1. To prepare students attending secondary

schools for immediate employment followinggraduation in a career development level job,

according to their individual distributive occu-pational goals.

2. To qualify students enrolled in a career de-velopment job curriculum in a secondary schoolfor postsecondary traie.i:Ais in a specialist jobcurriculum.

3. To prepare youth and adults attending classesin vocational training facilities or in post-secondary institutions either for immediate em-ployment in a career development level job orfor enrollment in a specialist job curriculumat a postsecondary school.

Specialist job curriculums emphasize specificfunctions, product areas, or service fields at mid-levels of employment responsibility. They are de-signed to prepare students for distributive speciali-zations in functions, such as management or buy-ing; in product areas, such as furniture and homefurnishings, food, or petroleum; or in service fields,such as insurance or real estate. Mid-level com-petencies involve decisionmaking at a point ofresponsibility between that of top management andthat of regular employees. A student in a specialistjob curriculum, therefore, should have potential forsubprofessional achievement either in a marketingfunction or a specific product or service area.

Specialist job curriculums utilize project and/orcooperative training and are available in post-secondary institutions These curriculums prepareenrollees for distributive employment not requir-ing a baccalaureate degree.

The full implications for training opportunity atprogressive levels of educational achievement pro-vided by basic job curriculums and career develop-ment job curriculums are discussed in Chapter V.

Organizational Plans for Preparatory instruction

For purposes of identification, preparatory in-struction is organized following a cooperative planor a project plan.

The cooperative plan includes a control classand a laboratory schedule for part-time employ-ment, approved for training by the school. Thus,students are able to apply theory in practice andimprove their employment qualifications by train-ing on a job related to their distributive occupa-tional objectives. The job sponsor, who is theemployer or his training representative, and theteacher-coordinator seek to promote an harmoniousrelationship between learning experiences in the

11

classroom and those experiences student-trainees en-counter on their regular part-time jobs. The co-operative plan of organization is especially appro-priate when instruction prepares for career develop-ment and specialist job levels.

The project plan includes control classes supple-mented by scheduled laboratory experiences. Timeis provided for students to participate in a seriesof projects designed to bridge the gap betweenclassroom theory and the practice of marketingfunctions found in their job goals. The teacher-coordinator uses resources in the school and busi-ness community to involve each student accordingto his need in activities simulating specific employ-ment situations and in directed work experience.The project plan of organization is especially suit-able for curriculums developing basic job levelcompetencies. It also may be used to organize in-struction leading to other distributive job levels.

Most State plans for vocational education en-courage innovation and variations in the organiza-tion of distributive curriculums. Local planningwill depend in many cases on the flexibility a schooldistrict is able to bring to the master schedule. Onecurriculum may be offered that organizes all classesor units of instruction under a cooperative plan. Aparallel curriculum may follow the project planthroughout. A third may require a four-semestersequence of study in vocational distributive sub-jects but provide the cooperative or project planonly in the last two semesters.

In certain educational situations, for example,it may be advisable to develop an organizationalpattern which combines both project and coopera-tive plans within a coordinated training program.The curriculum could be structured so that agroup of students beginning their training in theproject plan would progress at the same rate to acooperative plan. Another possibility would be anarrangement permitting the transfer of projectplan students to the cooperative plan according toindividual readiness for regularly scheduled, part-time employment learning experiences.

12

SUPPLEMENTARY INSTRUCTION

Supplementary instruction in the distributiveeducation program is available for those wishing torefresh and update competencies needed in theiremployment and for those seeking new and special-ized competencies necessary to continuing employ-ment or promotional opportunities. Such trainingis offered in updating courses and in advancementcurriculums for employed adults, who usually at-tend day or evening classes on a part-time schedule.Updating Courses

Updating courses emphasize current practices inthe employment situation of enrollees. These maybe part of an advancement curriculum but usuallyare more limited in purpose. The units of instruc-tion are of a length appropriate to part-time study.Advancement Curriculums

Advancement curriculums are planned for long-range development of employed adults. These cur-riculums emphasize those functions of marketingand management that enrich current employmentqualifications or are necessary to qualify for aspecific promotional opportunity. These curricu-lums are broken into a series of short units so thatattendance may be adjusted according to indi-vidual employment schedules.

Summary

An individual who has learning ability and thedesire to reach an employment objective in distri-bution has open to him a variety of beginning andstopping points in the program of vocational distri-butive education. The characteristics aid structureof the program provide breadth and flexibility de-signed to serve youth and adults at different stagesof their work lives. Eligibility for training is basedon the nature and firmness of an occupational goal,plus capacity and motivation to profit from instruc-tion.

CHAPTER III aratory curriculum for high school students:

AREAS OF INSTRUCTION IN PREPARATORYCURRICULUMS

The substance of preparatory curriculums is

identified with the competencies universally neededin distributive employment. The subject matter isdivided, therefore, into areas of instruction whichcorrespond to these competencies The areas ofinstruction vary in emphases, depending upon suchfactors as the job level for which a curriculum isdesigned and the students' occupational objectives.They are always taught, however, in relation to oneanother and to the field of distribution.

The subject matter of the instructional areasprogresses in depth and complexity from basic jobcurriculums to career development job curricu-lums, to specialist job curriculums. A student in asecondary school who completes a basic job cur-riculum, for example, and decides to enter a careerdevelopment job curriculum in the same schoolmay study the same areas of intruction; however,the subject matter becomes more complex to pre-pare him for the more advanced job level.

These areas apply to both cooperative and pro-ject training. In cooperative training, classroom in-struction is coordinated with a series of on-the-joblearning experiences related to each student's oc-cupational objective. The subject matter in thisplan is taught, therefore, in relation to those learn-ing experiences which students encounter on theirregular part-time jobs. Project training coordinatesclassroom instruction with a series of individuallyselected learning experiences or projects relatedto each student's occupational objective. The areasof instruction in this plan are presented, therefore,in relation to school - directed participation ex-

periences, including work experience.How instructional areas are applied to a particu-

lar curriculum depends upon such factors as stu-dents' job goals, the purpose of the curriculum,where the curriculum is available, the method ofinstruction, and the sequence of training availablein a school or community. These factors suggestthe following principles for development of a prep-

1. Identifying the curriculum with the trainees'readiness and occupational objectives.

2. Planning the curriculum so that the proportionof time devoted to the various areas of instruc-tion is related to the competencies required forthe particular job levelbasic jobs or careerdevelopment jobs.

3. Making the curriculum consistent with the typeof school in which it is locatedcomprehen-sive, area, or technical high school.

4. Adapting the curriculum to the particular in-structional method that assures vocationallydirected learning experiences for those enrolledcooperative method or project method.

5. Planning the curriculum in relation to the se-quence of job preparation available to studentsin the school, community, area, or State sothat there is articulation with advanced cur-riculums.

The Major Instructional Areas

Five major categories of instruction are includedin each curriculum in order to develop competen-cies in the following areas: 1) marketing, 2) pro-duct or service technology, 3) social skills, 4) basicskills, and 5) distribution in the economy.

MARKETING

Marketing as an area of study is the disciplineof distribution. It is the body of knowledge com-mon to all distributive occupations found in thestandard industrial classification groups. The func-tions and study areas related to this competency areselling, sales promotion, buying, operations, marketresearch, and management.

In remarks to the 1963 National Clinic on Dis-tributive Education, Edwin L. Nelson pointed outthat:

One engaged in distribution has demonstratedaccomplishment in the performance of one ormore of the functions of distribution which are,in summarized form: selling, sales promotion,buying, operations, market research, and man-agement. While the immediate job responsibilityis generally centered on one of these functions,an accomplished worker has understandings and

13

appreciations of all the functions operating with-in the business enterprise. Out of these functionsand supplemental understandings about distribl;-don come the body of knowledge which we callthe discipline of distribution. ( / )

Selling

Selling is a dominant function because "the sale"is the culminating activity toward which all othermarketing activities are directed. Without sales,there would be no incentive to create and improveproducts or services. To be effective, selling s lustemploy desirable techniques and incorporate a highsense of service to those who buy. These factorsapply to the sale of both tangible and intangibleproducts and services and to all types of sellingretail, wholesale, service, industrial, direct, and ex-port. A study of selling is concerned with communi-cating facts, influencing buying decisions, and pro-viding required services.

Sales Promotion

Stimulating the demand for goods and services isa function of distribution. Mass production succeedsin relation to the mass markets created by salespromotion at various stages of distribution. Eventhe smallest of enterprises, whether it offers aproduct or a service, must use some promotionalmeans to reach potential customers. Each salespromotion activity, regardless of how simple orcomplex, must establish a favorable image for theproduct or service if the public is to continue pur-chasing. The study of sales promotion includes allaspects of advertising.

Buying

One of the functions of distribution is to securefor resale either goods or raw materials for makinggoods. In such transactions, one person does theselling, the other the buying. Procedures for buy-ing vary according to the method a seller chooses toput his products or raw materials into distribution.A buyer strives to balance supply (the itemsbought) with demand (items needed or wanted ina market areal. A study of buying involves plan-ning for this activity and obtaining and controllingmanufactured goods or raw materials for resale orprocessing.

Operations

One of the functions of distribution is support-

14

ing directly the selling and buying functions. Manyactivities exist for this purpose. Even though allof these activities serve the same purpose, each canbe identified separately for the purpose of account-ability in achieving profitable conduct of a busi-ness. Arrangements must be made for transportinggoods to the place of business; goods must be storedand prepared for sale; arrangements must be madefor extending or obtaining credit; purchases ofequipment and supplies must be made; and custo-mer services must be identified and implemented.Indirect activities, such as work associated withsecretarial services, recordkeeping, maintenance,and repair, are not identified as marketing func-tions. A study of operations centers on producthandling; protection; customer services; purchas-ing of supplies; and utilization of equipment, sup-plies, and services.

Market Research

Another function of distribution is investigatingthe market environment in which the sale of goodsor services takes place. Without some form ofmarket analysis, it would be difficult for an enter-prise to put into play the other functions of dis-tribution profitably. The more deliberate this in-vestigation, the more effective are the adjustmentsthat are made for the sale of goods and services.The study of market research begins with develop-ing an awareness of where improvements can bemade, followed by learning to identify and analyzeproblems. Advanced instruction in market researchstresses the ability to interpret and apply researchfindings to distributive employment. This may leadto the creation of new markets and changes inpolicies and procedures designed to improve thetechniques of distribution.

Management

Managing men, money, and markets availablefor merchandising goods and services is also a func-tion of distribution. The management function isconcerned with the factors of who, what, when,why, and how. Management decisions are madeprior to, concurrent with, and subsequent to theperformance of all the functions of distribution.No matter how small an enterprise may be, policiesfirst must be formulated and then implemented andevaluated. The larger the enterprise, the greaterthe delegation of the various facets of the manage-

ment function.Instruction in management includes policies,

organization, personnel, and financing. Policies are

developed to guide distributive personnel in theperformance of their job duties and to implementthe organization's objectives. The organizationprocess involves establishing relationships amongmarketing functions, personnel, and physical fac-tors so that management's phns may be carriedout. (2) Personnel is concerned with the planning',

of a personnel program, employment procedures,compensation, training, and the maintenance ofemployee welfare. (3) Supervisory techniques topromote harmonious employee relationships are in-

cluded in the social skills area of instruction. Fi-nancial management in marketing includes activi-

ties such as obtaining capital for short and longterm needs, extending and using credit, leasingfacilities for the sale of products and services, and

renting services.

PRODUCT OR SERVICE TECHNOLOGY

As an area of instruction, the product or servicetechnology is concerned with studying the product

or service characteristics around which the indi-

vidual occupational objective is based. The productor service is the agent which unites economic pro-duction, distribution, and consumption. Produc-tion will create the product or service; distributionwill move that product or service into the channelsof trade in order to generate economic value forthe efforts of production and the creation of ser-vices requiring trained personal skills. Consump-tion will use the product or service. Product orservice technology relates to social skills, basic skills,

and distribution in the economy, as well as market-ing. Proficiency in social and basic skills enables the

worker to use his product or service knowledge and

the techniques effectively. Economic understand-ings serve as bases for decisions concerning specific

products and services.The relationship of competency in product or

service technology to other competencies and itsimportance in distributive employment has beenemphasized in the following comments:

One engaged in distribution is intimately asso-ciated with a specialty, typically a product orservice. The degree of success is dependent uponthe knowledge he possesses of this specialty

which, in view of the growing complexity ofproducts and services being produced in the econ-

omy, we may refer to as his technology. A func-tioning knowledge of this technology, whether it

be furniture, insurance, fabrics, automobiles,

petroleum, or data processing, becomes the focal

point upon which other knowledges and skills

are applied. (4)

Product Knowledge and Techniques

A product has a physical,tangible existence for

which the ownership rights and privileges are trans-ferred through the marketing process. There arespecial techniques or skills needed in handling orpresenting most products. A shoe salesman, forexample, must master the special technique of fit-

ting shoes; a fashion coordinator in a store should

be accomplished planning, coordinating, andmoderating a fashion show. In addition to suchspecial techniques, a study of the product mayfocus on manufacturing processes, characteristics,advantages and disadvantages, care of the product,cautions in its use, and related products.

Service Knowledge and Techniques

A service has an intangible existence and is per-formed in relation to something tangible. A service

exists in the marketing process for the period oftime required to effect a predetermined goal orbenefit. The service itself is not transmitted from

a seller to a buyer as in the case of a product.There is usually evidence that the service has been

performed, however. A receipt for rental of ahotel room, an airline ticket, and the improvedcondition of a repaired item are examples of this.s)ecial techniques are needed to perform various

personal and business services, such as laundryand dry cleaning, rental, barber and beauty serv-ices, advertising, management consultation, insur-

ance, transportation, and bearing risks. Special

techniques required, for example, in advertisingservices are layout, copywriting, and the mechanicsof production. A study of service technology may

be concerned with characteristics of the service, itsduration and scope, terminology associated withthe service, and benefits resulting from the service,

as well as special techniques involved.

SOCIAL SKILLS

Achieving competency in social skills involves

15

personal attributes, attitudes, and standards ofservice needed for distributive occupations. "Skill,"as used here, does not refer to manipulative ormanual dexterity but is a comprehensive term rep-resenting personal effectiveness in relation tocustomers, to the business, to employees, and tojob activities. This area of study includes businesssocial skills, ethics, human relations, and super-visory skills and leadership.

Reference to the need for competency in socialskills has been made in the statement that:

One engaged in distribution has a set of personalcharacteristics which are vocationally relevant.Distribution is characterized as being people-oriented, not machine-oriented, and as suchhuman relationships are of paramount impor-tance. Personal appearance, traits, attitudes addup to this social competency which becomes aqualifying factor in employment. (5)

Business Social Skills

Business social skills focus on those personalattributes which make an individual employable,help him to succeed in the job, and enable himto advance to his ultimate occupational objective.In the field of distribution, advancement to a jobgoal is related significantly to the attainment ofbusiness social skills. Instruction in these may in-clude such topics as good grooming, the mainte-nance of good health, appropriate business dressand developing a suitable wardrobe, personalitydevelopment, techniques of applying for a jobthe application and the interview, making intro-ductions, and proper conduct at business socialfunctions. Instruction is adapted to individualneeds in relation to an occupational objective andthe product or service which this entails. Activitiesof the Distributive Education Clubs of Americaprovide many opportunities for students to practiceand to apply these business social skills.

Ethics

Ethics is founded on psychology and involves"what is right and what is wrong, according tocircumstances, conditions, natural powers, and ob-ligations." (6) The study of ethics underscoresintegrity, confidence, and respect as social skillsessential to success in all distributive occupations.Although the primary emphasis is on ethical con-duct at all levels of employment in distribution

16

and marketing, there should also be a transfer tosituations other than those encountered on the job.Case problems, in which the person in the casemust make a decision involving moral considera-tions, frequently facilitate the learning of businessethics.

Human Relations

The term "human relations" may be consideredfrom the viewpoint of the manager, or the super-visor as his representative, or from the viewpointof the employee. Regardless of an individual's oc-cupational objective, however, and no matter whatthe job level or the technology may be, ine!tallyskill in human relations will be needed. KeithDavis describes this skill as:

The integration of people into a work situationin a way that motivates them to work togetherproductively, cooperatively, and with economic,psychological, and social satisfaction.From the employee's viewpoint, skill in human

relations reveals itself in the ability to performjob duties cooperatively and productively withinthe framework of interpersonal associations withcustomers, co-workers, supervisors, and manage-ment. The study of human relations may involvesuch topics as the importance of getting along withothers; effective relations with customers, em-ployees, supervisors, and management; understand-ing human needs; and the process of adjusting tcdifferent people and conditions.

Supervisory Skills and Leadership

Supervision is "the function of ensuring thataction is actually taking place in accordance withplans and orders," according to Edwin Flippo.(7)The supervisor serves as a liaison between manage-ment and employees and strives to achieve man-agement's objectives through his guidance and di-rection of the employees for whom he is re-sponsible. He also communicates to managementthe development and needs of employees. Leader-ship is quite similar to supervision. An individualmay be in a leadership role in a distributive occu-pation, however, without having personnel directlyunder his supervision. He frequently is expectedto lead others but does not have supervisory author-ity over those he leads. A separate unit of instruc-tion may be devoted to leadership, including suchtopics as characteristics of a leader, developing

leadership traits, being a good follower, committeework, leading discussions, and parliamentary pro-cedure. A study of supervision may be concernedwith how to supervise, how to train, how to inter-view, and how to conduct meetings.

BASIC SKILLS

Basic skills as an area of instruction includesapplying mathematical processes and the communi-cation skills of reading, listening, speaking, andwriting. Using mathematics may involve units ofstudy in elementary computations and mathe-matics directly related to distribution, such asformulas to compute selling price, cost, andmarkup. Study in communications focuses oncorrect and effective speech and business reportwriting. Instruction in basic skills begins withdeveloping accuracy in arithmetic, reading, speak-ing, listening, and writing, and advances to thegoal of refining these skills to the point that stu-dents acquire facility in their use and are ableto interpret records and reports.

This area of instruction, then, is the applicationand refinement of skills taught in general educa-tion in relation to the practices, terminology, andrequirements of specific areas of employment indistribution and marketing. The need for compe-tency in basic skills in distributive employment hasbeen summarized by Nelson:

One engaged in distribution makes constant ap-plication of the basic skills of communicationsand mathematics to his employment situation.The whole field of distribution revolves aroundcommunications. This fact places a premiumon one's facility with these tool subjects as abasis for employment in distribution. (8)

DISTREBUTION IN THE ECONOMY

Related to all other areas of instruction and toall competencies needed in distributive employmentare certain economic understandings. These under-standings facilitate the distributive process by serv-ing as bases for management decisions and by en-abling employees to comprehend the reasons forcertain processes and procedures. A study of distri-bution in the economy should promote understand-ing of economic concepts, such as gross nationalproduct (GNP) ; the role of the local, State, andFederal government in marketing; the functions

of distribution as contributing factors in the econ-omy; and the effect of distribution upon individualsin the labor force. This area of instruction alsoincludes channels of distribution, job opportunitiesin distribution, and distribution in a free enterprisesystem.

Channels of Distribution

A channel of distribution has been described asfollows:

A channel of distribution, also known as a "tradechannel," consists of middlemen and any otherbuyers or sellers involved in the process of mov-ing goods from producers to consumers. It refersto the course taken by a product in its journeyfrom producer to consumer. (9)A study of the channels of distribution concen-

trates on the economics of moving goods from (1)producer directly to consumer or user, (2) pro-ducer to retailer to consumer, (3) producer towholesaler to industrial user, (4) producer towholesaler to retailer to consumer, and (5) pro-ducer to agent to wholesaler to retailer to con-sumer. ( /0) These may be compared to the chan-nels used to distribute the product or service identi-fied with students' occupational objectives. A studyof channels of distribution should include the trade-channel policies followed by sellers and the reasonsfor these policies.

Job Opportunities in DistributionAn understanding of the scope of job opportuni-

ties available in distribution enables students torefine their own job goals and to appreciate thevarious relationships among distributive occupa-tions. It assists in preparing future workers for therapid changes occurring in distributive employ-ment, frequently necessitating several periods ofretraining in an individual's work life and thetransfer of his abilities and acquired skills to newand different jobs. The nature of certain productsand services also may require changes in employ-ment and movement to different localities. Stu-dents should be made aware of all these factors instudying job opportunities in distribution. A class-ification system, such as the standard industrialclassification, is helpful in presenting the widerange of jobs in distribution. Such topics as per-sonal and educational qualifications needed, theavailability of training for the particular occupa-

17

tion, competencies required, promotional oppor-tunities, and advantages and disadvantages shouldbe discussed in relation to each major type of dis-tributive job presented.

Distribution in a Free Enterprise SystemAppropriate instructional objectives for a study

of distribution in a free enterprise system havebeen set forth as follows in an experimental courseoutline entitled "The Importance of Distributionin America":

To show that the private enterprise system inAmerica is based on the importance of theindividual and his freedom and opportunity todo what he will with his life workTo introduce the student to the wide varietyof activities embraced by American businessand where distribution fits as a part of theseactivitiesTo show the student what activities take placewithin the field of distributionTo show the student that everything we use and

FIGURE 2

all of our physical surroundings have been pro-vided by the distribution of goods and servicesTo introduce the student to our method ofmeasuring the value of all our outputourgross national productTo show the student how goods and servicesare classified for the purpose of measuring howmuch business we do in our country. ( / / )

A study of distribution in a free enterprise sys-tem also includes the economics of profits andtheir effect upon the individual worker and thediff3rences among competitive enterprise, a social-isex, and a communistic society. Emphasis shouldbe placed on the role of distribution in each system,and the student should be able to draw compar-isons between the systems. This may lead to thetopic of trends in distribution which can be pre-sented from a national or international standpoint.

Figure 2 is an outline of instruction in prepara-tory curriculums which shows the major instruc-tional areas and the subject matter related to each.

OUTLINE OF AREAS OF INSTRUCTION IN PREPARATORY CURRICULUMS

18

A. Marketing1. Selling2. Sales Promotion3. Buying4. Operations5. Market Research6. Management

B. Product or Service Technology1. Product Knowledge and Techniques2. Service Knowledge and Techniques

C. Social Skills1. Business Social Skills2. Ethics3. Human Relations4. Supervisory Skills and Leadership

D. Basic Skills1. Application of Mathematics2. Application of Communications

E. Distribution in the Economy1. Channels of Distribution2. Job Opportunities in Distribution3. Distribution in a Free Enterprise System

Interrelationship of Areas of Instruction

Competencies are always developed in relationto one another. Marketing with its distributivefunctions of selling, sales promotion, buying, opera-tions, market research, and management is thediscipline of distribution. Marketing is the nu-cleus of the curriculum around which the otherareas of instruction are grouped.

The product or service is the focal point in theperformance of the distributive functions, such asselling. The technology of a distributive occupa-tion would be studied in relation to each of themarketing functions.

Social skills are related to marketing and productor service technology in that proficiency in personalattributes, attitudes, and standards of service facili-tates the performance of the distributive functions.It enables the worker to use his product or serviceknowledge and techniques effectively.

Basic skills relate to marketing, product or serv-ice technology, and social skills in that one engagedin distribution must make constant application ofthe basic skills of communications and mathe-matics. These skills are essential in performingthe distributive functions, in using product orservice knowledge and techniques, and in applyingthe social skills.

Distribution in the economy relates to market-ing, product or service technology, and social andbasic skills because economic understandings stimu-late decisionmaking and motivation for distribu-tive personnel. To achieve economic objectives,the worker should be motivated to improve hissocial and basic skills. These skills, together witheconomic understandings, help him to carry outthe distributive functions included in the market-ing area of instruction and to apply product orservice knowledge and techniques.

Because of these interrelationships, any one unitof instruction in a curriculum necessarily is con-cerned with the development of competenciesother than those of its area of concentration. Aunit on selling, for example, inevitably is involvedwith product or service knowledge and techniques,with ethics and human relations as social skills,with the basic skills of effective speech and themathematics of selling cost, with economic under-standings related to disposable income and the role

of selling in the marketing process, and with allother functions in the marketing area of instruction.

Figure 3 illustrates the interrelationship of theareas of instruction. Marketing, the discipline,as the nucleus of the curriculum is encircledthroughout with a solid line. Dotted lines repre-sent integration of instructional areas in a curric-ulum. This integration is realistic in terms of re-lating instruction to the interdependent compe-tencies needed in distributive employment.

Adaptation of Instructional Areas toState and Local Programs

The specific treatment of the areas of instructionwhich have been described will be determined bystudents' occupational objectives, their specialneeds, and by the instructional environment in in-dividual States and localities. Units of instructionwill vary in number, subject matter, topics, se-quence, and relative position in the organization ofthe curriculum. These may be organized or adaptedin any way which best meets the needs of individualsenrolled and the nature and scope of local jobopportunities in distribution.

The following are primary considerations inState distributive education programs where newunits of instruction are being developed and cur-riculum offerings reorganized:1. Adapt areas of instruction to the entire or-

ganized curriculum plan.2. Design units of instruction for specific job

levels.

3. Meet students' varied occupational objectivesby providing flexible units of instruction.

4. Design units of instruction for cooperative orproject method.

5. Design instructional units so that there is artic-ulation from basic job curriculums, to careerdevelopment job curriculums, on to specialistjob curriculums.

Adaptation of Areas of Instruction toLevels of Preparation

Preparatory curriculums should be planned sothat the proportion of time devoted to the study

19

FIGURE 3

AREAS OF INSTRUCTION AND THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIPS

Marketing(The Discipline)

SellingSales PromotionBuyingOperationsMarket ResearchManagement

Marketing, the discipline, is the specialized subjectmatter unique to vocational instruction in distribu-tion and marketing. It is the body of knowledgecommon to all distributive occupations.

Social Skills

sr

4

Marketing(The Discipline)

..................

Product orService Technology

Product or service technology relates to the disci-pline in that the focal point in the performance ofthe distributive functions is the product or service.

Marketing(The Discipline)

Product or ServiceTechnology

Social skills relate to the discipline and to productor service technology in that proficiency in personalattributes, attitudes, and standards of service facili-tates the performance of the distributive functionsand enables the worker to use his product or serviceknowledge and techniques effectively.

FIGURE 3

AREAS OF INSTRUCTION AND THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIPS(Continued)

\ Marketing *:\ (The Discipline) I.I

* eI II t

eI I

o1 ........... Seek; Skill

'Ml111.111P/Product or Service

Technology

Basic skills relate to the discipline, product or serv-ice technology, and social skills in that one engaged

distribution must make constant application oftho basic skills of communications and mathematicsin performing the marketing functions, in usingproduct or service knowledge and techniques, andin demonstrating proficiency in social skills.

FIGURE 3

AREAS OF INSTRUCTION AND THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIPS(Continued)

Social lisltlis

...........................

Distribution in

.$ Marketing, .

*$ (The Discipline) e,$ I$

$ .* 1

I1II j4I f

0 1 ........ j

Product or ServiceTechnology

s

the Economy

............ .............

Distribution in the economy relates to the disci-pline, product or service technology, social skills,and basic skills in that economic understandingsserve as bases for decisions concerning distributivefunctions and the product or service, and these un-derstandings provide motivation for the worker toapply his social and basic skills.

Basic Skills

of an area of instruction is commensurate withthe competencies required at the job level forwhich the curriculum is designed. The relativeimportance of each instructional area depends uponthe special needs and occupational objectives ofthe students enrolled in the particular curriculum.Variation in emphasis is essential for different cur-riculums at each level of preparation.

Basic job curriculums emphasize the funda-mental techniques of the selling and operationsfunctions found in teaching marketing. Studentsenrolled in these curriculums also need concen-trated instruction in social and basic skills. Be-cause they are refining their occupational goals andbeginning to learn about the field of distribution, asubstantial part of the curriculum may be spent inlearning about job opportunities in distributionand distributive activities in a free enterprise sys-tem. The product or service technology areagenerally is subordinate in basic job curriculumsbecause the nature of basic jobs does not requiredetailed product or service knowledge. The em-phasis at this level of preparation is product orservice techniques, such as proper handling of theproduct in doing stock work.

Marketing instruction for career developmentjob curriculums concentrates on the functions ofselling, sales promotion, buying, and the manage-ment functions of policies and organization. Prod-uct or service technology becomes increasingly im-portant at this preparation level as the focal pointfor these distributive functions. Competency insocial skills, particularly in ethics and human re-lations, should be developed in these curriculumsas a complement to the study of marketing andproduct or service technology. Leadership develop-ment through the club program may be includedalso at this job preparation level. Students aregiven an opportunity to practice basic skills as theyrelate to the other areas of instruction. Study ofdistribution in the economy generally centers ondistributive functions and their relationships toeach other and to the economy.

Specialist job curriculums give primary attentionto either specific functions or to product or serviceknowledge and techniques, depending upon stu-dents' job goals. If the specialization is in manage-ment or supervisory functions, these are empha-sized. If the curriculum is designed to develop

competencies in a product or service field, thespecialized product or service technology is thearea of greatest concentration. In either event,competency in marketing should be developed indepth in order to relate all distributive functionsto the specialization. The development of super-visory skills is generally the objective of instructionin the social skills area of study for specialist jobcurriculums. Instruction in basic skills in thesecurriculums is concerned with using mathematicsand communication skills to interpret records andreports to implement business goals. The role ofgovernment in different economic systems andtrends in distribution may also be topics ofinstruction.

Adaptation of Each Curriculum toIts Occupational Objective

The content of instruction should be adaptedto the occupational objective for each curriculum.This may be done by analyzing each subject matterarea according to the requirements for clusters ofjogs in distribution and marketing. Competenciesrequired for the levels of occupational objectivesindicate what instruction trainees should receiveand, therefore, what should be included at eachlevel of preparation.

Such an analysis may be made for each of themajor types of business establishments in whichdistributive occupations are found. The curriculumoutline which follows is an example developed toshow the progressive complexity in competenciesrequired in preparation for jobs in the generalmerchandise category. Specialist jobs, which arenot considered appropriate for high school ageyouth, are included in order to show how basic andcareer development job curriculums point towardspostsecondary instruction.

Such a curriculum outline may be used with anadvisory committee drawn from any one of severaldistributive occupational fields. The questions askedusually would remain the same. Each would bediscussed in relation to employees, employers, cus-tomers, business goals, and specialized proceduresand characteristics. The degree of competency tobe achieved would vary according to the occupa-tional objective.

23

CURRICULUM OUTLINE FORANALYSES OF OCCUPATIONS*

I. Competency in MarketingThe Discipline

A. Sellingcommunicating facts, influencingbuying decisions, and providing requiredservices.

1. Basic JobsWhat responsibilities arerequired in selling?a. Handling customersb. Showing productsc. Offering servicesd. Making a salee. Building goodwill

2. Career Development JobsWhat is re-quired in the sales process?a. Involving the customerb. Handling objectionsc. Getting the buying decisiond. Controlling costse. Reflecting policiesf. Meeting quotas

3. Specialist JobsWhat is required ofthe sales advisor?a. Analyzing customer needsb. Interpreting product valuesc. Reachi...6 mutually profitable

decisionsd. Maintaining customer satisfactione. Building a clientele

B. Sales Promotionadvertising, display,special events, and public relations1. Basic JobsWhat is required to partici-

pate in sales promotion activities?a. Maintaining selling aidssigns,

mannequins, fixturesb. Creating point of sale materials and

simple display propsc. Checking quantities of advertised

merchandised. Arranging advertised merchandise

on counters, tables, or shelves

*This analysis is applied to occupations in General Mer-chandise. The outline is equally applicable to each cate-gory identified in the handbook, "Standard Terminologyfor Instruction in Local and State School Systems," re-ferred to in Chapter I.

24

e. Keeping informed on sales pro-motion activities

2. Career Development JobsWhat is re-quired to coordinate sales promotionactivities with personal selling?a. Knowing location of advertised

merchandiseb. Checking selling points of advertised

or display merchandisee. Informing customers of special

eventsd. Replacing or rearranging interior

displays as merchandise is sold fromthem

e. Anticipating trade and seasonalemphases

3. Specialist JobsWhat is required toplan and evaluate sales promotion ac-tivities?a. Selecting suitable merchandise for

advertising or displayb. Checking advertising proofsc. Analyzing results of certain

advertisementsd. Assisting in planning for special

events and public relations activitiese. Maintaining a check on competitors'

promotions

C. Buyingplanning, obtaining, and control-ling manufactured goods or raw materialsfor resale or processing.

1. Basic JobsWhat is required to sup-port the buying process?a. Careful handling of merchandise to

reduce markdownsb. Keeping buyer informed on low

quantity points of staple stockc. Participating in merchandise count

for physical inventoryd. Following control procedure

2. Career Development JobsWhat is re-quired to implement buying activities?a. Maintaining customer "want" lists

and keeping buyer informedb. Keeping record of merchandise sold

by classificationuse of ticket stubsor special form

c. Assisting in preparing for inventory

d. Handling special orders forcustomers

e. Following procedures on returnsand exchanges

3. Specialist JobsWhat is required tomake buying decisions?a. Knowing "open-to-buy"b. Preparing merchandise plan by

seasonsc. Preparing and maintaining a model

stock pland. Knowing sources of information on

economic indicators to forecast ex-pected sales

e. Maintaining sales records for yearspast

f. Knowing available resources andcharacteristics of individual manu-facturing firms

g. Keeping up to date on trendsthrough trade journal reading andbuying office aids

I). Operationshandling products; protec-tion; customer services; purchasing sup-plies; and using equipment, supplies, andservices.

1. Basic JobsWhat is required to ident-ify and use sales-supporting activities?a. Avoiding waste of supplieswrap-

ping materials, pencils, formsb. Adhering to safety measures and

policiesc. Using or operating special equip-

mentconveyor belt, price ticketmachine

d. Receiving, checking, and markingmerchandise

e. Wrapping merchandise to return tovendor and to give to customer; do-ing gift wrappingAssisting in delivery proceduresCarrying merchandise for customersto central points or to automobiles

2. Career Development Jobs What is re-quired to be discerning in the use ofsales-supporting activities?a. Knowing appropriate times to sug-

gest special services to customers

f.

g.

b. Being familiar with procedures forlayaway, "will call," gift wrapping,delivery, lost and found, adjustments

c. Following store policy regardingshoplifting prevention

d. Conserving suppliessales books,pencils, special forms

e. Adhering to safety policies and as-sisting coworkers to do so

f. Maintaining stock classifications3. Specialist Jobs What is required to

improve operational procedures?a. Knowing available cost reduction

techniquesb. Analyzing efficiency of existing cus-

tomer servicesc. Determining need for increase or de-

crease in services offeredd. Training employees in shoplifting

prevention policies, safety measures,and use of supplies and equipment

e. Supervising employees engaged insales-supporting activities

f. Keeping informed on merchandis-ing trends

E. Market Researchhelping to determinethe climate for selling goods and servicesand for practical research techniques.1. Basic JobsWhat is required to recog-

nize where improvements can be made?a. Looking for easier ways to increase

speed and efficiency of operationb. Maintvining simple records of perti-

nent factors, such as amount of sup-plies used over a given period, num-ber of items sold of a certain styleor classification, or times of heaviestcustomer traffic

c. Keeping supervisor informed of pos-sible improvement areas noted fromobservation or simple recordkeeping

d. Watching customers' and coworkers'reactions to products and services

2. Career Development Jobs What is re-quired to identify and study problems?a. Analyzing customer objections to de-

termine significant trendsb. Analyzing adjustments to determine

merchandise needing to be returned

25

to manufacturer, nature of com-plaints, and underlying causes

c. Observing peak shopping periodsand relationship to floor coverageby salespeople at these times

d. Maintaining sales records to deter-mine best item sellers, probablemarkdown items, and lost sales asresult of not having particular mer-chandise on hand

e. Keeping up to date on trends inproduct line and relating trends tomerchandise purchased for ownstore or department

3. Specialist Jobs What is required tointerpret and apply research findings?a. Organizing basic statistical informa-

tion into appropriate categories foranalysis

b. Conducting meetings to determinefrom employees possible areas forimprovement and suggested ways ofhandling

c. Knowing effective methods of pres-entation of research findings tomanagement

d. Conducting experimental proce-dures to remedy problem situations

F. Managementpolicies, organization, per-sonnel, and financing.

1. Basic jobsWhat is required to re-spond to management decisions?a. Adhering to company policiesb. Following established channels of

communications and authorityc. Understanding importance of one's

own job dutiesd. Facilitating the speed of moving

merchandise to selling floore. Reacting constructively to change

2. Career Development jobsWhat is re-quired to implement management de-cisions?a. Interpreting policies to new co-

workersb. Performing and understanding one's

own job relative to the responsibil-ities of other personnel

26

c. Participating in special meetings andprograms initiated by management

d. Stimulating esprit de corpse. Maintaining unit or dollar quotasf. Understanding legislation affecting

employee performance3. Specialist Jobs What is required to

occupy a liaison position with manage-ment?a. Conducting initial and followup

training concerning company poli-cies and procedures

b. Analyzing the efficiency and ef-fectiveness of relationships amongfunctions, personnel, and physicalfactors in the organizational plan

c. Interpreting management's policies,decisions, and plans to employeesand bringing employee problems, at-titudes, or suggestions to the atten-tion of management

d. Assisting management in perform-ing the financing functionprepar-ing reports necessary for profit andloss statements, facilitating customercredit procedures

II. Competency in a Technologyproduct knowl-edge, service knowledge, and special techniquesA. Basic Jobs What is required in the ma-

nipulative skills of the technology?1. Using correct procedures to handle

product carefully2. Stocking product on counters, tables,

racks, or shelves3. Using correct wrapping and packing

procedures for product4. Following established stock system for

productsize, color, style, classificationarrangements

5. Using equipment, catalog, rate guidesB. Career Development jobsWhat is re-

quired in the substantive knowledge ofthe technology?1. Understanding facts about manufac-

turing process, characteristics, advant-ages and disadvantages, care and cau-tions in use of the product

2. Interpreting product in terms whichappeal to customers

3. Knowing what facets of knowledge ofthe product to use with differentcustomers

4. Adapting to individual customers'needs for information and value

5. Identifying strengths of the product inrelation to all job duties

C. Specialist Jobs-What is required to an-alyze the efficiency of the technology?1. Analyzing merchandise returned as un-

satisfactory by customers to determinereasons for poor performance

2. Knowing how to coordinate productwith related items, especially for "bigticket" merchandise or service (interiordecorating knowledge for home fur-nishing products; landscaping knowl-edge for nursery products)

3. Comparing product with competitors'products (comparison shopping as oneactivity)

4. Analyzing product in relation to re-cent trends (fashion or style, innova-tions, novelty appeal)

5. Training employees in product knowl-edge

III. Competency in Social Skills-personal attrib-utes, ethical conduct, human relations, super-vision, and leadership.A. Basic Jobs-What is required in business

social skills?1. Dressing appropriately for the job and

being well groomed2. Maintaining good health for effective

job performance3. Developing the personality traits neces-

sary for success in the job, especiallyhonesty, dependability, and loyalty

4. Using correct procedures in applyingfor the job

5. Representing the business positively tocustomers and friends

B. Career Development Jobs-What is re-quired in human relations and ethical con-duct?1. Adapting to the personality and needs

of customers2. Avoiding misrepresentation of people,

products, and policies

3. Understanding the needs and motiva-tions of coworkers and self

4. Working cooperatively with supervisorsand management

5. Maintaining an objective point of viewin problem situations

C. Specialist Jobs-What is required in super-vision and leadership?1. Interpreting management's policies and

employees' problems2. Building morale3. Training and followup of employees4. Interviewing and handling corrections

and grievances5. Working cooperatively with other su-

pervisors, as well as management andemployees

IV. Competency in Basic Skills-mathematics ariacommunicationsA. Basic Jobs-What is required in using the

basic skills accurately?1. Understanding basic arithmetical proc-

esses2. Making change and using the cash

register3. Writing and speaking clearly4. Knowing correct telephone usage5. Listening and following directions

B. Career Development Jobs -What is re-quired to facilitate using basic skills?1. Using mathematics proficiently on the

job-in preparing sales tickets and re-cording sales, computing employee dis-counts, shipping charges, alterationexpenses, layaway tickets

2. Understanding key principles in math-ematics of distribution, such as markupand profit

3. Communicating effectively with cus-tomers, coworkers and supervisors

4. Using the telephone correctly5. Using the terminology of distribution

and developing a vocabulary descrip-tive of the product or service

C. Specialist Jobs-What is required in abil-ity to interpret records and reports?1. Understanding the mathematical fac-

tors involved in retail method of in-ventory

27

2. Understanding procedures ,1 prepar-ing purchase orders

3. Knowing policies and procedures of theparticular firm concerning pricing,shipping arrangements, markdowns, al-lowable expenses, accounts payable,and compensation

4. Selecting pertinent factors from a sta-tistical or written report

5. Synthesizing several reports into acomposite report, statement, or presen-tation for management

V. Competency in Distribution in the Economychannels of distribution, job opportunities indistribution, and distribution in a free enter-prise system

A. Basic JobsWhat is required to identifydistributive activities and opportunities?1. Knowing the meaning of distribution2. Understanding the kinds of activities

involved in distribution3. Understanding how distributive activi-

ties affect the individual in a freeeconomy

4. Being aware of job opportunities indistribution, and how these jobs areclassified, and qualifications needed foremployment in each classification

B. Career Development Jobs -.What is re-quired to relate distributive functions toeach other and to the economy?1. Understanding the relationship of dis-

tribution to production and consump-tion

2. Understanding the meaning of grossnational product and its relationship todistribution

3. Knowing the channels of distributionand being able to determine appropri-ate channels for different products andservices

4. Understanding distributive functionsand their interrelationships

C. Specialist jobsWhat is required to rec-oncile privileg ;s with responsibilities in afree economy?1. Understanding the role of a citizen in

a free economy, his privileges, restric-tions, and responsibilities

28

2. Understanding the role of local, State,and Federal Government in a freeenterprise system

3. Comparing the role of the citizen andthe government in a free economy tocitizenship

4. Being aware of trends in distribution,their causes, and effects

Summary

Adaptation of preparatory curriculums to in-structional needs involves consideration of a totalcurriculum plan, units of instruction designed forjob levels, occupational objectives, and provisionfor a progressively complex training sequence.Preparatory curriculums are based on competenciesneeded in marketing, product or service technology,social skills, basic skills, and economic understand-ings. Marketing, the discipline of distribution, isconsidered the nucleus of each curriculum. Allother areas are related to each other and enrichthe discipline. Methods of instruction bridge thegap betwen theory and practice, thus assuring thevocational purpose of preparatory instructions.

References

(1) EDWIN L. NELSON) "Basis for Curriculum De-velopment in Distribution," Implementation ofVocational Education in Distribution, Univer-sity of Wisconsin (Madison: Wisconsin Distribu-tive Education Association, 1967), p. 23.

(2) RALPH C. DAVIS, The Fundamentals of Top Man-agement (New York: Harper and Brothers,1951), p. 155.

(3) EDWIN B. FLIPP°, Principles of Personnel Manage-ment (New York, Toronto, London: McGraw -Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961), pp. 4=6.

(4) NELsoN, loc. cit.(5) Ibid.(6) KEITH DAVIS, Human Relations in Business (New

York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19571, p. 4.(7) FLIPPO, op. cit., p. 91.(8) NELSON. /0e. cit.(9) CHARLES F. PHILLIPS and DELBERT J. Dt!NOAN,

Marketing Principles and Practices (Homewood,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1960), p. 40.

(10) Ibid., pp. 4041.(11) VIVIEN K. ELY, "The Importance of Distribution

in America" (unpublished course outline, Dis-tributive Education Service, State Departmentof Education, Richmond, Va., 1965).

CHAPTER IV

METHODS TO ASSURE APPLICATION TOEMPLOYMENT REQUIREMENTS INPREPARATORY PLANS

Preparation for gainful employment in distribu-tive occupations is the dominant objective of vo-cational instruction in marketing or distribution.As a program of vocational instruction, distributiveeducation is successful when the trainee is able tomake the substance of the curriculum a part of hisperformance pattern. This involves modificationsin behavior, inherent in the learning process, whichare facilitated by application, participation, andpractice. In a list of points of agreement amongeducators, the following principles relate to theselearning activities:1. Transfer to new tasks will be better if, in learn-

ing, the learner can discover relationships forhimself and if he has experience during learn-ing of applying the principles within a varietyof tasks.

2. Active participation by a learner is preferableto passive reception.

3. There is no substitute for repetitive practicein the over-learning of skills. ( / )

Teacher coordinators of distributive educationhave available to them methods of instruction uti-lizing application, participation, and practice.These methods are vital in assisting student-traineesto develop competencies needed in the area of theiremployment choice. They provide the vocationalapproach to instruction since through them stu-dents are able to assimilate knowledge, skills, andattitudes developed in the curriculum, and theteacher-coordinator is able to test each student'squalifications as he prepares for performance ina distributive occupation. Through learning ex-periences of application, participation, and prac-tice, each student becomes aware of his progressthroughout the training period. The importance ofthis aspect of the vocational approach is sum-marized in a fourth point of agreement amongeducators which states, "Information about thenature of a good performance, knowledge of his

own mistakes, and knowledge of successful resultsaid learning." (2) Reference may also be madeto a statement by Marks which points out, "Unlessthe learner is able to recognize his own achieve-ment and capacity for self-direction in the subjectmatter, distributive education will have lost itsvocational direction." (3)

Classification of Methods of Instruction

Teaching techniques involving student participa-tion provide vocationally centered learning exper-iences in the classroom. Such learning experiencesshould be supplemented with activities as de-veloped by the Distributive Education Clubs ofAmerica. The methods used to assure individualapplication to employment requirements are re-ferred to as the cooperative method or the projectmethod. They supplement and enrich group in-struction by focusing in depth on employmentqualifications and decisionmaking situations typ-ical of occupational objectives.

The Cooperative Method

The cooperative method is the coordination ofclassroom instruction with a series of on-the-joblearning experiences related to each student's oc-cupational objective. The term "cooperative" de-scribes the relationship between the school and theemploying business, both of which work togetherto prepare a student for his vocation in distribu-tion. In the classroom, the teacher-coordinatorprovides instruction in the competency areas ofthe curriculum and paves the way for the transferfrom theory to job environments. Regular part-time er Pployment enables the student to apply andto test his mastery of these competencies in a con-tinuing laboratory situation related to his careerchoice. Here, his instruction on the job is super-vised by a training sponsor who works closely withthe teacher-coordinator in developing a sequenceof learning experiences appropriate for the studentand compatible with his goals and those of theemployer.

IDENTIFYING FEATURES OF COOPERATIVE TRAINING

School Approval of On-the-Job Training ActivitiesThe teacher-coordinator consults with the train-

29

ing sponsor to reach agreement on responsibilitiesand training experiences to be involved in thestudent's part-time job. The teacher-coordinatorthen relates job experiences to classroom instruc-tion and assists the training sponsor in identifyingopportunities for the student to apply on the jobthe principles and practices developed in the cur-riculum. This frequently involves using a coopera-tive training agreement in which desired learningexperiences on the job are scheduled according toa progression of complexity and in relation to unitsof instruction presented in the classroom. Schoolapproval of the student's training program is anessential feature of cooperative training.

Clearly Defined Instructional GoalsFor each instructional area, for each unit of

instruction, and for each lesson within that unit,the teacher-coordinator should establish definiteobjectives which he wishes to become manifestedin students' behavior. There are instructional ob-jectives to be attained in the classroom and othersmay be realized by on-the-job experience. Teacher-coordinators may find it helpful to give considera-tion to Bloom's classification of objectives(4) inevaluating their objectives and in determining theextent to which they have been accomplished. Eachobjective should facilitate the attainment of themajor goal of preparing students for gainful em-ployment in distribution, specifically the prepara-tion of individual students for full-time employ-ment according to their occupational goals.

Regularly Scheduled Employment

Employment that is a regularly scheduled partof the instructional plan is of utmost importance inusing the cooperative method. It provides thelaboratory, it creates and maintains motivation,and it permits involvement and measurement ofachievement. The students' schedule may showa block of time planned for full-time employmentduring peak business periods or perhaps for alter-nate full time in school and full time in the trainingstation. Traditionally, scheduled employmentaverages not less than 15 hours per week through-out the school year with a major portion of thistime during the normal day school hours. It hasbeen felt that approximately 500 hours of co-ordinated training in a distributive business isneeded to develop practices and judgment skills

30

_ '

ti

to a satisfactory level.

Pay for Work Performed

Student-trainees are required to meet conditionsset by employing agencies for part-time workers.Their wages are commensurate with those paid tobeginning workers in the particular job for whichthey are employed. They may be expected to re-ceive increases based upon the contribution theyare able to make to the production of profit andservices. Remuneration will vary according tofactors such as community wage scales, type ofemploying businesses, specific jobs, pertinent legis-lation, union contracts, and individual trainees.

Credit Recognition for Proficiency in On-the-JobAssignments

Credit recognition for achievement in on-the-job activities underscores the instructional pur-poses inherent in the cooperative method. Whileit is true that the student leaves the school estab-lishment for his laboratory experimentation in adistributive occupation, it is also true that theschool exercises approval and gives direction to hislearning through coordination and supervision.Most schools award credit, equivalent to that givenfor one period of classroom instruction, for pro-ficiency developed during regularly scheduled part-time employment. Progress reports evaluating thestudents' job performance are obtained by theteacher-coordinator in consultation with trainingsponsors. These ratings are discussed with the stu-dent and frequently coincide with the normalevaluation periods in the school.

The Role of the Teacher-Coordinator in theCooperative Method

The teacher-coordinator using the cooperativemethod skillfully blends classroom instruction andon-the-job instruction and application. Determin-ing opportunities to place students in jobs relatedto their career goals, counseling and referring stu-dents to prospective employers, and reaching un-derstandings concerning training experiences andresponsibilities for each student's job are initialcoordination functions. To coordinate principlesand practices developed in the curriculum withpart-time employment, the teacher-coordinator ob-tains information and materials from the job touse in class and confers with the training sponsorconcerning opportunities to apply classroom in-

struction on the job. The teacher-coordinator pro-vides opportunities in class and in individual con-ferences for students to show achievement of spe-cific learning objectives. He also evaluates students'job performance by conducting observations, meet-ing with training sponsors and/or supervisors, andobtaining progress reports.

The Project Method

The project method centers around individuallydesigned learning activities which are coordinatedwith classroom instruction and related to a stu-dent's occupational objective. According to theDictionary of Education, a project is:

A significant practical unit of activity havingeducational value and aimed at one or moredefinite goals of understanding; involves investi-gation and solution of problems and, frequently,the use and manipulation of physical materials;planned and carried to completion by the stu-dents and teacher in a natural, "real-life"manner. (5)

The term "project" as used here refers to anysignificant practical unit of learning that has abehavioral objective related to an individual's dis-tributive occupational goal and is to be accomp-lished in a specified length of time. Projects pro-vide a series of job-related experiences, both simu-lated and real, which are designed to lead thestudent not involved in regularly scheduled co-operative employment to his occupational objective.

Projects are designed for the individual studentat his level of motivation, maturity, and prior edu-cational achievement. They are the laboratorylearning experiences similar to on-the-job training.Marks views projects as follows : they should 1)permit student trainees to identify with work activi-ties and rating standards of their occupationalgoals, 2) encourage adaptability within an em-ployment field, and 3) test the qualifications ofstudent-trainees as they prepare themselves forperformance in and with the principles and prac-tices developed in the curriculum. (6)

IDENTIFYING FEATURES OF PROJECT TRAINING

Direction and Coordination by the School

All project activities are directed and coordi-

nated by the school. The teacher-coordinator as-sumes the major responsibility for selecting ap-propriate projects and making arrangements forthe students to carry them out. This differs fromthe cooperative method in which responsibility forthe development of vocational learning experiencesis shared with employing businesses. When theproject method is used, the teacher-coordinatorserves as both the classroom vocational instructorand the job training sponsor.

Project Training Records

The teacher-coordinator develops project train-ing records in cooperation with student-traineesand selected consultants, such as teachers, coun-selors, and resource people in the business com-munity. A suggested form for a project trainingrecord is shown in Figure 4. This has a number ofpossible uses. The teacher-coordinator identifiesprojects by instructional areas, determines whichare appropriate and feasible, establishes objectivesaccording to student needs, and allows suitabletime for completion. The space for evaluation isused to record the level of competency the studentachieved. This type of planning and evaluationserves as a progress chart, summarizing the stu-dent's accomplishments and indicating individualareas of strength or weakness. The project train-ing record develops as qualifications for employ-ment mature so that finally the record certifies toa candidate's employability in the area for whichhe has been trained.

Projects Related to Occupational Objectives

All projects should be related to the career goalsof individual students. However, some projectsmay be suitable for group work at the beginning oftraining when individual differences may not betoo marked or when objectives are the same forseveral students. As students progress through theirtraining and as projects increase in complexity,the relationship of projects to occupational choicebecomes more specific. Projects requiring partici-pation in depth in individualized activities or inde-pendent study should be specifically applicable toemployment goals. Through meaningful projects,student-trainees apply, observe, discuss, and evalu-ate principles and procedures related to competen-cies needed in distributive employment. In thisway, they gain a feel for the environment of their

31

FIGURE 4

Name of Student

Instructional Area

OBJECTIVE

PROJECT TRAINING RECORD

Student Participation Activities

Occupational Objective

(Performance Outcomes) PROJECTDATES

TO FROMEVALUATION

(Progress)

1

occupational choice and develop those judgment,technical, and human relations skills required foremployment in a specific job field.

Simulated and Directed Occupational ExperienceSome simulated and directed occupational ex-

perience is generally incorporated in each projecttraining record. Simulated occupational experienceideally takes place in a physical environment ap-proximating the real life situation. Many fine ex-periences may be set up for individuals or for smallgroups of students in connection with a schoolstore, the county fair, church bazaars, a seasonalbuyer's market, a Distributive Education Clubs ofAmerica profitmaking activity, or a product frail,chise. Equipment and supplies should be represen-tative of occupational goals and available in theschool or in the community for assigned projects.

When directed occupational experience is ar-ranged for in the community, it should be assignedin relation to a specific unit of instruction, such assales or product control. This experience should beplanned to emphasize or explore major problems,such as peak merchandising periods or customerpreferences in payment plans. It might be sched-uled in appropriate establishments in e.owntown or"string" areas, neighborhood, county, or suburbancenters. It could take place in chain or indepen-dent organizations, in central or branch operations,in service or highly promotional establishments, ina general or specialized Standard Industrial Classi-fication group. Whether part-time or full-time;during school hours, after school, at night, duringsummers or vacation periods; it should be legal em-ployment scheduled for the time necessary to ac-complish its objective. Referrals or approval andsupervision are responsibilities of the teacher-coordinator.

Time Scheduled for Project TrainingTime spent in projects should be acknowledged

as part of the trainee's permissible class load. Thisis essential to ensure that students have sufficienttime to carry out assigned projects. Various sched-uling patterns are possible to meet this need. Stu-dents could have one classroom instruction periodand one project or laboratory period in each schoolday. An alternative could be one period of dailyclassroom instruction and one or two afternoons aweek devoted to projects. Class and project time

could be combined into a period of one and ahalf to two hours daily. When a project period isscheduled separately, it is recommended that it beheld after the students' other classes have met toallow time for field trips, occupational experience,individual visits to distributive businesses, and otherindependently arranged laboratory activities.

Credit Recognition

Credit recognition is given for progress andproficiency in project assignments. The amount ofcredit to be offered depends upon decisions madein States and local school systems and upon theschedule for classroom instruction and for projecttraining. The pattern of two class periods a daysuggests credit of one high school unit for class-room instruction and one unit for project training.Daily class periods with one or two afternoons aweek of project time suggest total credit recogni-tion of one and a half to two high school units.Project training could be given a special laboratorycredit which differs from the regular credit ap-plied to classroom instruction. Regardless of thecredit arrangement and as with other regularlyscheduled classes, credit should be awarded onlyafter evaluation of competencies achieved.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROJECTS

The number and variety of projects to be as-signed depends upon the length of the trainingperiod, the climate for the program, the strengthsand weaknesses of each student, and his occupa-tional objective. There are two major categoriesof projects. One involves simulated and/or directedoccupational experience already described as anidentifying feature of project training. The otherclassification includes independent observation,evaluation, discussion, and practice projects. Allwould be carried out under laboratory conditionseither in the school or in the business community.They represent an extension of classroom instruc-tion according to the pace and capacity of individ-ual students. Some examples of appropriate proj-ects follow:1. Directed Observation

(a)

(b)(c)(d)

Viewing selected films and televised pro-gramsStreet or floor countsTrade exhibits and museum visitsNonpaid schedules of "over-the-shoulder"

33

(e)

(f)

(g)(h)

For

observations of personnel in distributive oc-cupations in the employment situationTrips with management representatives tobuying resources (preferably those in closeproximity)Customer calls with sales representativesor with delivery servicesAttendance at shows and sales ralliesAttendance at Distributive EducationClubs of America district or State competi-tions

example, one project of a student with acareer development objective in general mer-chandise might be to observe how to coordinateeffectively sales, newspaper advertisements, in-terior and window display, stock arrangementand quantity, personal selling, and departmenttraffic. Another student planning a career inhome furnishings might be assigned to observeeupholstering and furniture refinishing to gain

an understanding of woods and fabrics.

2. Analysis and Evaluation (of appropriate situa-tions and materials)(a)(b)(c)(it/(e)(f)(g)

Case studiesCreative marketing problemsInterviews and surveysTrade journal readingListening to tapes and recordsComparing profit and loss statementsBusiness games

For example, a student whose occupational ob-jective is a basic job in a gasoline service sta-tion might conduct a survey of how to sell pro-ducts maintained on service station shelves. Theproject objective could be to develop the abilityto recognize slow turnover items or to developawareness of suggestions that close the gap be-tween car service and product availability.

3. Discussion (small group projects)(a) Panel presentations and discussions(b) "Buzz" sessions

Committee work(d) Conference discussions( e ) "Brainstorming"A group of students preparing for the groceryfield might undertake a project related to "self-selection," present their findings in oral reports,and lead a group discussion focusing on manage-ment decisions about customer traffic patterns,

(c)

34

shopping convenience, automation, pilferage, andsuggestion sales. Students needing skill in com-munications might be assigned projects utilizing"buzz" groupings to discuss such topics ascharacteristics of the trade area, customer differ-ences, product values in relation to the standardof living, wage payment plans, uses of credit, andjob ethics.

4. Practice(a) Review of arithmetical processes(b) Role playing job incidents with playback

by a recording device(c) Completing programed materials de-

veloped in cooperation with trade associa-tions or training departments of distribu-tive organizations

(d) Role playing decision-making(e) Participating in employment interviews(f) Independent study in a product areaA student with limited social skills might be givena project involving interviews with members ofthe advisory committee and thus develop hisease in adapting to others. Another student witha job objective in food service might be givenpractice projects in memorizing prices or suggest-ing entrees.

5. Simulated and Directed Occupational Experi-ence

THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER-COORDINATORIN THE PROJECT METHOD

The teacher-coordinator using the project meth-od is responsible for developing and using school,community, and distributive resources for occu-pationally related learning experiences. Coordina-tion of classroom instruction with project traininginvolves identifying, making arrangements for, di-recting, and evaluating projects in relation to thecompetencies to be developed in the curriculum.The teacher-coordinator becomes the adjunct train-ing director for future employers by providing pro-jects which give students an opportunity to ex-perience theory in practice and to test their qualifi-cations as they prepare themselves for their occu-pational objectives. Identifying suitable projectsinvolves conferences with students and selected re-source people in the school and community. Mak-ing arrangements for projects and their evaluationcan become quite detailed, depending upon facil-

ities needed, duration of the project, number ofpeople involved, scheduling considerations, andwhere the experience is to take place. Adequatetime must be provided to enable the teacher-coordi-nator to conduct his coordination activities. Inthis method where all project activities are directedby the school, the need for sufficient coordinationtime becomes particularly acute.

Vocationally Directed Teaching in the Classroom

In presenting the units of instruction, teacher-coordinators for cooperative students or for projectstudents employ teaching techniques which requiregroup participation. This classroom instruction isfrequently referred to as a control class. Here allaspects of the subject matter are provided, and apreview is given of experiences which will be ex-tended in on-the-job training or project training.Vocationally directed learning in this class makesuse of group and individualized participation andthe activities of the Distributive Education Clubsof America.

TEACHING TECHNIQUES UTILIZINGSTUDENT PARTICIPATION

Every instructor in the distributive educationprogram is in fact a teacher-coordinator. Teachingtechniques he uses must tie job practices to prin-ciples found in the subject matter. Each studentmust be encouraged to bring to the control grouphis experiences in cooperative or project trainingso that all may benefit. Teaching techniques usedmust help each student relate what he is learningin the classroom to the employment objective heholds.

There are many techniques which teacher-co-ordinators are using successfully with high schoolstudents to stimulate participation and transferof theory to practice. These include such learningactivities as the following:

1. Role playing realistic job situations2. Demonstrating job-related skills3. Generalizing from critical incidents4. Pooling individual thinking in order to reach

a mutually satisfying solution5. Discussing advantages and disadvantages of

different procedures6. Identifying problems inherent in case studies

7. Making and supporting decisions8. Observing and evaluating films, job activities,

and processes9. Brainstorming for creative ideas

10. Analyzing the effect of local developments onbusiness

11. Evaluating reports, events, and practices

COCURRICULAR ACTIVITIES OF THE DISTRIBUTIVEEDUCATION CLUBS OF AMERICA

The program of work of the Distributive Educa-tion Clubs of America enriches and supplementsthe subject matter and provides opportunities forstudent members to demonstrate and refine com-petencies required in distributive occupations. Thepurpose of this youth organization is to promotevocational understanding, civic consciousness, socialintelligence, leadership development, and satisfac-tion in a job well done. The teacher-coordinatorserves as sponsor to the local DECA chapter andencourages student initiative and direction of clubactivities. Distributive education students partici-pate in local, district, State, and national contestsrelated to the competencies being developed in thecurriculum. There are regularly scheduled clubmeetings and significant annual occasions, such asemployer recognition banquets. These and otherclub activities of civic, benevolent, and fund-raisingpurpose have bona fide educational values. Theyalso are effective in interpreting the distributiveeducation program to businessmen, faculty, parents,and other students.

Diagrams of Cooperative and Project Methods

Figure 5 is a diagram of the cooperative methodused in secondary schools. It illustrates the co-ordination of vocationally directed teaching in theclassroom which is supported by teaching tech-niques using student participation and DECA"cocurricular" activities, plus regular part-time em-ployment related to students' occupational objec-tives. The cooperative training agreement is in-cluded as an important factor in assuring applica-tion of classroom instruction to progressive learn-ing experiences on the job. This diagram showsalso that the cooperative method enables studentsto become qualified for distributive employment, de-veloping needed competencies at the level of their

35

FIGURE 5

THE COOPERATIVE METHOD IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

VOCATIONALLY DIRECTED TEACHINGIN THE CLASSROOM

Marketing

SellingSales PromotionBuyingOperationsMarketing ResearchManagement

Social Skills

Business Social SkillsEthicsHuman RelationsSupervisory Skills and

Leadership

Product or Service Technology

Product Knowledge and TechniquesService Knowledge and Techniques

Basic Skills

Application of MathematicsApplication of Communications

Distribution in the Economy

Channels of DistributionJob Opportunities in DistributionDistribution in a Free Enterprise

System

IMO

TechniquesUtilizing Student

Participation

Immomiarmorwriprorwr

Cocurricular Activitiesof DECA

Regular Part-time JobsRelated to Students'

Occupational Objectives

viaamicarmair

CooperativeTraining

Agreement

COOPERATIVE METHOD

Coordination of classroom instruction with a series ofon-the-job learning experiences related to each stu-dent's occupational objective

Employment Qualifications

(Competency at level of specific occupationalobjectives)

ICareer Development Jobs I

FIGURE 6

THE PROJECT METHOD IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

iiitiNOVRE

IMO

VOCATIONALLY DIRECTED TEACHINGIN THE CLASSROOM

Marketing

SellingSales PromotionBuyingOperationsMarket ResearchManagement

Social Skills

Business Social SkillsEthicsHuman RelationsSupervisory Skills and

Leadership

Teaching TechniquesUtilizing Student

Participation

111111all

Production or Service Technology

Product Knowledge and TechniquesService Knowledge and Techniques

Basic Skills

Application of MathematicsApplication of Communications

Distribution in the Economy

Channels of DistributionJob Opportunities in DistributionDistribution in a Free Enterprise

System

Cocurricular Activitiesof DECA

Regularly Scheduled ProjectsRelated to Students'

Occupational Objectives

ProjectTrainingRecord

PROJECT METHOD

Coordination of classroom instruction with a series ofindividually designed learning activities or projects re-

lated to each student's occupational objective

Employment Qualifications

(Competency at level of specific occupationalobjectives)

4

111111P3

Career Development Jobs

specific occupational objectives. In secondaryschools, the cooperative method is utilized to pre-pare students for career development level jobs.

Figure 6 illustrates the project method in secon-dary schools, showing the coordination of voca-tionally directed teaching in the control class andregularly scheduled projects related to students' oc-cupational objectives. Teaching techniques makinguse of student participation and DECA activitiesare diagrammed again in this method as support-ing vocationally directed teaching in the controlclass. The project training record, which is anidentifying feature of project training, is included inFigure 6 as a valuable tool and assures that class-room instruction will be applied in project training.When the project method is utilized in basic orcareer development job curriculums in secondaryschools, it provides students an opportunity to de-velop competencies needed in distributive occupa-tions at the basic or career development job levels.

Summary

The cooperative method, the project method,and vocationally directed teaching in the class-room which includes student participation plusactivities of the Distributive Education Clubs areinterrelated in their function of assuring transferof learning to employment requirements. Thisconcept has been shown in the preceding charts.These methr'fls involve experiences of application,

38

participation, and practice to facilitate the learningprocess and provide the vocational approach toteaching and learning. Students and teachers thusare able to measure progress towards individualoccupational objectives.

Classroom instruction plus cooperative trainingor project training is school centered and schoolapproved. In this way, it certifies to students, theirpotential employers, and school patrons the re-liability and validity of preparatory curriculums indistribution and marketing.

References

(I)

(2)(3)

(4)

HILDA TABA, Curriculum Development: Theoryand Practice (New York: Harcourt, Brace &World, Inc., 1962), p. 87.

Ibid., p. 87.MARY V. MARKS, "The Vocational Approach in

Education for Disi, ibution," Implementation ofVocational Educe-ion in Distribution, Universityof Wisconsin (Madison: Wisconsin DistributiveEducation Association, 1967), p. 29.

BENJAMIN S. BLOOM (ed.) et al., Taxonomy ofEducational Objectives, Handbook I: CognitiveDomain, Handbook II: Affective Domain, Hand-book III: Psychomotor Domain (New York:David McKay Company, Inc., 1964).

CARTER V. GOOD (ed.), Dictionary of Education(2nd ed.; New York, Toronto, London: Mc-Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959), p. 421.

MARY V. MARKS, "The Project Method in Distrib-utive Education" (unpublished presentation tothe Gregg Methods Conference for BusinessTeachers, Tampa, Fla., June 25, 1965).

CHAPTER V

IMPLICATIONS OF LEVELS OF TRAININGOPPORTUNITIES

An individual can participate in the distributiveeducation program at progressive levels of job re-quirements. In fact, this is to be encouraged sinceoccupational choices mature; procedures and pro-ducts change; and successful marketing itself de-pends upon innovations and shifts in personnelresponsibilities, organization, and operation.

The accompanying two diagrams, Figures 7 and8, illustrate the continuum of training oppor-tunity ( / ) available to those preparing for em-ployment in distribution. It should be noted thatthis continuum has implications not only in rela-tion to job objectives, but also for vocational guid-ance, the use of advisory committees, and the com-ponents of organization for preparatory instruc-

tion.

Facing Changes in Employment

In curriculums designed for high school ageyouth, a projection should be made of training op-portunities for which they may be eligible uponcompletion of the current course of study. Thereare a variety of training opportunities throughwhich competencies may be gained or maintainedfor different levels of distributive employment.From the beginning of their occupational interestand work lives, individuals should be helped to ac-cept training as a valued aspect of employment.

High school students initiating vocational train-ing in the 10th, 1 1 th, or 12th grades mustrealize that they determine what job preparationthey seek, how much they will undertake, and forhow long; and later, how often they will turn todistributive education to add to their employmentqualifications. For example, a potential high schooldropout may complete a basic job curriculum anddecide to broaden his employability beyond therequirements of this level by enrolling in a careerdevelopment job curriculum. Even at the corn-

pletion of this curriculum, he may decide to delayfull-time employment and enter a post high school

specialist job curriculum. Another individual maybegin his job preparation in a career developmentjob curriculum and upon completion of this se-quence of training become employed in a careerdevelopment job. Periodically thereafter, he mayreturn to distributive education for updatingcourses in order to maintain his employment quali-fications.

This variety of beginning, continuing, and stop-ping points in job preparation and developmentprovides a realistic base for employment security.Those in basic job or career development job cur-riculums should find in distributive education'straining opportunity a constructive bulwark againstlimited or obsolescent qualifications.

Vocational Guidance

In view of individual differences, diverse occu-pational objectives, the variety of curriculums, andthe levels of training opportunity, vocational guid-ance becomes increasingly important. Teacher-coordinators and guidance personnel in local

schools must assume responsibilities which involve:1. Identifying and encouraging the enrollment

of individuals needing distributive education2. Providing the individuals with information

necessary for realistic vocational planning3. Assisting them while pursuing the plan4. Aiding them in vocational placement5. Conducting followup procedures to determine

the effectiveness of the vocational instructionand guidance and counseling program.

Counseling in relation to distributive occupationsand preparatory instruction should reflect the ap-propriateness of the project plan or the coopera-tive plan for individual high school students. Forease of identification, potential students are sepa-rated here into the two categories which follow.

Categories of Students for the Project Plan

Students to be served by the project plan may beclassified as:1. Trainees who plan to follow the complete se-

quence of project plan training involving oneor both levels of preparatory curriculums suit-

39

FIGURE 7

DIAGRAM OF TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

UpdatingCourses

BASIC JOB CURRICULUMS

BASIC LEVEL JOB

AdvancementCurriculums

JobPromotion

UpdatingCourses

Career DevelopmentJob Curriculum

SpecialistJob

Curriculum

SPECIALISTLEVELJOB

UpdatingCourses

able for high school students2. Individuals who plan to participate in a se-

quence of training, culminating in the coopera-tive plan, in preparation for their occupationalobjectives.

40

CAREERDEVELOPMENT LEVEL

JOB

UpdatingCourses

1Career

DevelopmentJob Curriculum

CAREERDEVELOPMENT

LEVELJOB

UpdatingCourses

AdvancementCurriculums

JobPromotion

UpdatingCourses

a. Some of these students will complete abasic job curriculum with the project planand then continue tlElir training in a careerdevelopment job curriculum with the co-operative plan.

b. Other students will begin in a career de-velopment job curriculum under a projectplan and transfer in this job curriculum tothe cooperative plan.

c. Still others will complete project plan train-ing in a career development job curriculumand, following graduation or completion ofthe curriculum, move to a specialist jobcurriculum utilizing the cooperative plan.

3. Persons whose distributive objective is real, butnot primary, at the time of counselinga. Some students cannot work part time on a

regular basis under a cooperative plan be-cause of academic requirements or schedul-ing problems related to college entrance.

b. The vocational objectives of other studentsrequire supporting courses in distribution

or marketing which may be completed ina short block of time.

4. Students attending schools located in areaswhich lack a sufficient number of approvableemploying businesses, thus preventing the de-velopment of cooperative training agreements

5. Individuals who have academic, socioeco-nomic, or other 'handicaps which keep themfrom having the personal eliployability re-quisite to part-time employment (These per-sons generally will be enrolled initially in basicjob curriculums.)

Categories of Students for the Cooperative Plan

Students to be served by the cooperative planmay be classified as :1. Individuals who meet standards of employ-

FIGURE 8

DIAGRAM OF TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

CAREER DEVELOPMENT JOB CURRICULUMS

SpecialistJob

Curriculum

1SPECIALIST

LEVELJOB

UpdatingCourses

CAREERDEVELOPMENT LEVEL

JOB

UpdatingCourses

AdvancementCurriculums

JobPromotion

UpdatingCourses

SpecialistJob

Curriculum

SPECIALISTLEVEL JOB

UpdatingCourses

BASIC LEVEL JOS

Advancement UpdatingCurriculums Courses

CAREERDEVELOPMENT

LEVEL JOB

UpdatingCourses

41

ability related to social, arithmetic, and Englishlanguage competenciesa. Some students' personal employability has

been developed in a basic job curriculum.b. Other students' school and home experi-

ences have contributed to maturity andseriousness of purpose.

c. Still other students' anecdotal records showsuccess in applied learning.

2. Persons whose occupational objectives may beachieved in career development job curricu-lums

a. Some students become eligible for careerdevelopment job curriculums after com-pleting basic job curriculums under a pro-ject plan.

b. Other students' after-school employersrecommend them for career developmentjob curriculums.

c. Still other students meet admissions cri-teria developed by advisory committees andschool administrators.

The Use of Advisory Committees

A distributive education advisory committee hasbeen defined as:

A group of persons engaged in the distributiveoccupations (employers and/or employees) whoare appointed by a school or educational unit toact in an advisory capacity for a local, State,or national distributive education program:(2)A broader interpretation states that:

The advisory committee composed of school per-sonnel and local leaders in distribution serves tobridge the interests of the business communityand the school to achieve conditions which willaccrue, above all, to the benefit of the student.The chief purpose of the advisory committee isto assist in establishing a desirable environmentfor distributive education in the community. Itsmajor task is to arrive at a consensus on objec-tives, needs, and plans of action that will resultin an improved program of instructioni,3)

Both school and distributive personnel should un-derstand the sequence of training opportunities

42

available in the distributive education programfor youth and adults. They should be made awareof the job levels and the types of jobs at each levelfor which students are being prepared. Both groupsshould recognize the requirements of such a broadlyconceived program which provides a variety of offer-ings, not just a course.

Using school personnel on advisory committeesbecomes increasingly important with the additionof the project plan. Their contributions are par-ticularly significant in planning projects of simu-lated occupational experience and in certain as-signments involving practice and independentstudy. The advisory services of distributive per-sonnel will be essential in identifying, implement-ing, and evaluating projects. Their assistance maymake the difference between receiving cooperationin project training and being prevented from con-ducting meaningful projects, Distributive business-men will need orientation concerning the role of theschool and their own involvement in project train-ing. The advice of teachers and administrators, aswell as distributive personnel, is needed also in de-veloping certain areas of instruction in both projectand cooperative plans. Other vocational fields andspecialists in distributive occupations may be in-volved in teaching the product or service tech-nology area. Teams of teachers may contribute toinstruction in social skills. General educationteachers of English, speech, mathematics, and socialstudies may assist the teacher-coordinator in theinstructional areas of basic skills and distribution inthe economy. The counsel of these teachers andothers will be valuable in the development of pre-paratory instruction.

Depending upon the scope of program offeringsin a community, there may be one or a number ofadvisory committees. It is possible to have an edu-cational advisory committee and a distributive ad-visory group or one committee composed of repre-sentatives of both fields. Where preparatory in-struction is offered in secondary and postsecon-dary schools in the same locality, each institutionmay have its own advisory committee (s) . Enroll-ment of students with jcb goals in the same occu-pational areas may be sufficiently large in a schoolto warrant specialized instruction for each group.If so, it may be desirable to appoint advisory com-mittees to correspond to each occupational group.

Components of Organization forPreparatory Instruction

In order to establish and maintain training op-portunities for high school youth, certain compo-nents of organization for preparatory instructionshould be considered. Some of these componentsare flexibility in scheduling, level of job objectivesto be achieved in curriculum offerings, number ofcurriculums, and teaching staff needed. Decisionsconcerning these factors will be influenced by thenature of the high school (comprehensive or vo-cational), its location (urban, suburban, or ruralarea) , and the population of the school. The avail-ability of training opportunity to prepare for dis-tributive employment suggests the possibilities ofhaving more than one curriculum at each job leveland of grouping students who share a common oc-cupational objective. In many school districts,especially those with large enrollments, similar cur-riculums might be offered, some using the coopera-tive plan and others using the project plan. Thisprobably would be the best way to reach all stu-dents wishing to enroll.

Preparatory instruction should be organized sothat students are allowed flexibility in movingtoward the achievement of their occupational ob-jectives. Examples of flexible situations follow:1. A group of students who enter a 2- semester

curriculum leading to the development of basicjob competencies achieve personal employabil-ity at the end of one semester. They are per-mitted to move from project training to co-operative training for the second semester ofinstruction.

2. A group of trainees who have socioeconomicor other handicaps are placed in a separatesection of a basic job curriculum and givenhighly individualized instruction. At the endof the first semester, they move into the regularbasic job curriculum which utilizes projecttraining under the project plan.

3. During the first year of a 2-year career de-velopment job curriculum, students are sec-tioned into a) a project plan class, b) a co-operative plan class, or c) a class which is pre-paration for either the Project Plan or Co-operative Plan in which the student may enrollin the second year.

AI&

CURRICULUMS FOR SPECIFIC PRODUCT ORSERVICE AREAS

In order to be realistic in serving students ofhigh school age in terms of employment oppor-tunities and the firmness of their occupationalchoices, a training sequence usually will progressfrom general to specific. However, with same stu-dents a more specific job may be the motivatingforce needed for them to complete vocational prep-aration before leaving school.

Curriculums may be designed according to re-quirements for a cluster of closely related jobs ina product or service area, or they may focus on asingle job title. Basic job curriculums may bedeveloped, for example, to prepare for a clusterof basic jobs in food service or to train waitresses.

A basic job curriculum not only should be pre-paratory for a specific occupational area at thebasic job level, but should also point the way to thecurriculum for the same classification of enterpriseat the career development job level. Correspond-ingly, the content of instruction should progress indepth and complexity from basic job to career de-velopment job curriculums. For the program ofstudy in food retailing, for example, a basic jobcurriculum could prepare students for such jobs asstock clerk or checker in grocery stores and super-markets. A career development job curriculum forfood retailing could train them for such positions asassistant produce manager or assistant manager fordry groceries.

A special purpose curriculum could be developedfor any of the O.E. 04 coded instructional programs,If only one curriculum at each job level is to beintroduced, the general merchandise classifica-tion is the logical choice because it is comprehensiveenough to enable the teacher-coordinator to adaptclassroom instruction and project or cooperativetraining to individual occupational objectives.Large schools, however, probably will find sufficientnumbers of students with the same job goal andadequate employme!it opportunities to justify sec-tioning by classifications such as home furnishings,gasoline service stations, wholesale trade, and ap-parel and accessories. If a student's occupationalobjective changes, it is possible for him to com-plete a basic job curriculum centered around aspecific product or service and to progress to a ca-reer development job curriculum which focuses

43

on another instructional program classification.Vocationally directed classes should be avail-

able for students who need to acquire distributivecompetencies supporting job goals which are relatedprimarily to other vocational subject matter fields.

For example, students who are training as meatcutters would have available to them classes em-phasizing food distribution and practices. A special

class could be provided for them or, if appropriate,they could enter classes offered for students withdistributive occupational objectives.

Types of secondary school curriculums for train-ing in diitribution and marketing are illustrated bythe following outline showing regular curriculums,usually representative of the general merchandiseclassification and those for specific product or ser-

vice areas:

A. Basic Job Curriculums

1. Regular CurriculumGeneral Merchandise

2. Curriculums for Specific Product or Services

a. Food Retailingb, Home Furnishingsc. Wholesale Traded. Advertising Servicese. Petroleum

3. Curriculums for Youth With Special Needs

B. Career Development Job Curriculums

1. Regular Curriculum--General Merchandise

2. Curriculums for Specific Products or Services

a. Food Retailingb. Automotivec. Wholesale Traded. Food Service

44

e. Apparel, Accessoriesf. Hardware, Farm Equipment

Summary

Distributive education now is involved in an un-paralleled era of training opportunity. The programmaintains training opportunities starting with pre-paratory instruction at the secondary level and con-

tinuing to serve members of the labor force

throughout their work life. This abundance oftraining opportunity in distribution and marketinghelps to further employment security. Vocationalguidance becomes increasingly important in identi-fying individuals who can benefit from distributivetraining. Teacher-coordinators work closely withschool and community advisory committees in plan-ning and implementing the instructional program.Preparatory programs are organized so that indi-vidual learning experiences can be stimulated byappropriate grouping of students. Job objectives,both tentative and firm, general and specific, canbe achieved in regular or special purpose curricu-lums.

References

(1) MARY V. MARKS, "Training Opportunity ThroughDistributive Education" (unpublished presenta-tion to the Curriculum Workshop, Bozeman,Montana, August 13, 1964).

CARTER V. GOOD (ed.), Dictionary of Education(2nd ed.; New York, Toronto, London: Mc-Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959) p. 112.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-fare, Office of Education, A Study of CurriculumDevelopment in the High School CooperativeProgram, 0E-82000 (Washington: U.S. Govern-ment Printing Office, 1960), p. 9.

CHAPTER VI

ORGANIZING AND ADMINISTERINGPREPARATORY INSTRUCTION INTHE HIGH SCHOOL

Expansion of the distributive education programin current schools and its extension into many newschools in major cities and rural areas present ad-ministrative challenges requiring imaginative atten-tion. Authority for vocational training for 2mploy-ment objectives in distribution has been so broad-ened that individuals and schools formerly deprivedof such services may now enjoy their advantages.The services of the distributive education super-visor and other State vocational leaders should beused by school administrators to help plan and im-plement local programs. The location and train-ing of teachers, the orientation of new local anddistrict personnel, and promotions from within willbe necessary to achieve the purposes of the Vo-cational Education Amendments of 1968.

Policies for the administration of preparatoryinstruction should embrace principles of organi-zation which correspond to provisions and require-ments of the Amendments. These principles in-clude standards to assure soundness and quality ofinstruction, provided within the framework of co-operative and project plan organizational patterns.The principles of organization suggest proceduresfor developing preparatory instruction. An outlineof these procedures is followed by discussion of theprinciples of organization.

Procedures for Developing PreparatoryInstruction in High Schools

Procedures for do,' tiloping preparatory instruc-tion in high schools may be summarized as follows:1. Analyze distributive employment data available

from the employment service, trade associa-tions, and local press.

2. Conduct a community survey to determine op-portunities for cooperative and project train-

ing experiences after conferring with an ad-visory committee.

3. Conduct a student survey to determine the in-terests, needs, and abilities of prospective en-rollees, using student records, applications foradmission to distributive education programs,advisory committee composed of school per-sonnel, vocational guidance through individualconferences, conferences with parents, and list-ing of categories of students to be served bythe project plan and the cooperative plan.

4. Make organizational decisions about job levelsto be served, number of curriculums needed,naming of curriculum offerings, and use ofcooperative and/or project plans.

5. Determine teacher personnel needs, includingnumber and type of teachers, qualifications,responsibilities, and schedules.

6. Determine pattern for scheduling instruction,considering flexibility in prerequisites; level of"school leavers"; regular, summer, eveningschedule; nongraded classes; and time ar-rangements for laboratory experience.

7. Determine facilities and instructional materialsneeded.

8. Make budgetary decisions.9. Make plans to implement the program in the

school system.

Principles of Organization

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

Establishing preparatory instruction should bebased upon statistical evidence showing the im-mediate and projected employment requiremmtsdistributive occupations and population mobilitypatterns in the community or area served by theprogram. This principle is set forth in the Voca-tional Education Amendments of 1968 which pro-vide that policies and procedures to be followed bythe State in the distribution of funds to local edu-cational agencies will assure that:

Due consideration will be given to the results ofperiodic evaluations of State and local vocationaleducation programs, services, and activities inthe light of information regarding current andprojected manpower needs and job opportunities,particularly new and emerging needs and oppor-

45

tunities on the local, State, and nationallevels. ( / )

INTERESTS, NEEDS, AND ABILITIES OFPROSPECTIVE STUDENTS

Gathering and studying data about the schoolpopulation, including those enrolled in nonpiofitprivate schools, will provide information necessaryto planning instructional programs and counsellingto facilitate occupational choices. The Amend-ments require that:

Persons of all ages in all communities of the State. . . will have ready access to vocational trainingor retraining . . . which is suited to their needs,interests, and ability to benefit from such train-ing. (2)Youths in school and those returning to school

who desire to prepare for distributive employmentmust be able to benefit from the instruction. Eligi-bility to enroll in regular curriculums designed forthe large majority of students should be based uponsuch factors as age, maturity, interests, generalability, specific aptitudes, physical condition, andwork motivation. Some students from impoverishedbackgrounds or who have had difficulty with cer-tain academic subjects will be included in thisgroup.

Persons who have academic, socioeconomic, orother handicaps which prevent them from succeed-ing in the regular distributive education classes mayrequire special grouping. Instruction for these stu-dents should strengthen weaknesses, identify cul-tural attributes, focus on known employment op-portunities, and be flexible in permitting individ-ualized attention. Where feasible, specially traineuteachers who understand the needs of disadvan-taged youth should be utilized. Experimental andpilot programs should be planned and conducted,perhaps in cooperation with other vocational fields,to develop those practices needed to serve thesestudents effectively.

Full-time students whose occupational objectivesinvolve limited knowledge and skills and for whomspeed of preparation is important may be servedbest through demonstration projects. Schedulingin these projects should be handled separately, withclasses ungraded and instruction intensive, (3)Youths who are over-age for their grade level couldbe included in such projects if desired.

46

STANDARDS TO ASSURE SOUNDNESS ANDQUALITY OF INSTRUCTION

Instruction designed to prepare individuals forgainful employment according to their occupationalobjectives should meet standards which assuresoundness and quality of instruction. Historically,vocational educators have been guided by standardssimilar to those that follow:1. Instruction will consider the skills and knowl-

edge required in the occupation for which theinstruction is being provided.

2. Instruction will be developed and conducted inconsultation with potential employers and/orgroups of individuals having skills in and sub-stantive knowledge of the occupational fieldrepresenting the occupational objective.

3. Instruction will include the most up-to-dateknowledge and skills required in the occupa-tional field in which the individual is being pre-pared.

4. Instruction will be sufficiently long and inten-sive within a scheduled unit of time for thestudent to develop competencies necessary tofit him for employment in the occupationalfield for which he is being trained.

5. Instruction will combine and coordinate relatedwork, including remedial learning or other vo-cational experience which is appropriate to thevocational objective of the students. Such in-struction will be supervised, directed, or co-ordinated by a person qualified under the Stateplan.

Consultation with persons employed in the dis-tributive occupations representative of student's oc-cupational objectives will help to insure that in-struction is based on competencies needed in the

cupational field and that up-to-date principlesand practices are included. The curriculum con-cept of developing competencies in five areas ofinstruction represents a design for achieving andmaintaining these standards. Coordination activi-ties supporting the cooperative and project methodsprovide opportunities for firsthand observation ofprocedures and policies.

Space, equipment, teaching materials, and li-brary resources should be available sufficiently tomeet the instructional standards. Well-planned,well-equipped laboratories in the school and/orcommunity will be required to approximate the en-

vironment of specific distributive employment,especially for students not enrolled for cooperativetraining.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL PLANSTO BE AVAILABLE

Preparatory instruction is organized accordingto cooperative or project plans. Figures 9 and 10show that these organizational plans at the secon-dary education level consist of curriculums designedfor specific levels of job preparation, which aredeveloped through the cooperative method orthe project method.

The values of cooperative training have beendemonstrated, and this plan of organization hasbeen recognized in recent vocational educationlegislation. It will be desirable to provide both thecooperative and project plans, however, where en-rollments and other conditions permit. A goodrule to follow is one that says where sufficient op-portunities for regular part-time employment exist,

the cooperative plan should be utilized.Decisions concerning the organization of project

plans should be based on such things as:1. Opportunity to verve a broader spectrum of

students of high school age.2. Availability of training to youths not yet 16

years of age.3. Inadequate opportunities for paid, part-time

employment continuing through the trainingperiod.

4. Less than minimum personal employability of

prospective enrollees.5. Requirements for graduation.6. The nature of the job objective for which a

specific curriculum has been prepared.7. "Closed Campus" school policy.

It would not be a desirable practice to place bothcooperative and project trainees in the same class.

If this is unavoidable, the class should be organizedaccording to a project plan. Regularly scheduledpart-time employment then is considered a contin-uing project with multiple objectives, noted andevaluated on the project training record.

Provision for coordination time for teacher-co-ordinators using the project method and the co-operative method is essential in order to maintainthe standards which assure soundness and quality of

instruction. Students' schedules must also be ar

ranged to permit sufficient time for project or co-operative training experiences.

QUALIFICATIONS OF PROGRAM PERSONNEL

The need for qualified personnel to direct andimplement the instructional program is empha-sized in the Vocational Education Amendments.

The quality of vocational instruction requiresteacher-coordinators and instructional staffs capableof planning and individualizing the subject matter.There are many, therefore, who feel that it is de-sirable for project plan teacher-coordinators to have

the same qualifications as cooperative plan teacher-

coordinators. Local administrators may wish toconsider the employment of teacher-coordinatorsexperienced in the cooperative method in orderto safeguard vocational emphases when on-the-jobtraining is not scheduled.

COOPERATIVE AND PROJECT PLANS

Each type of plan may be structured in severaldifferent ways. Organizational decisions should bebased upon the types of plans and scheduling pat-terns which are adaptable to a particular schooland which best meet the needs of students and cur-

riculums. Individual State plans indicate the ex-tent of flexibility and patterns of organizationwhich may be supported under vocational educa-tion.

In discussing the organization of distributive edu-

cation programs, State supervisors considered prob-

lems in traditional, modular, and block scheduling.They agreed that basic job curriculums and thosefor youth with special needs should be providedwithin the project plan. They recognized the suit-

ability of both cooperative and project plans forcurriculums leading to career development jobs.With this in mind, they suggested more flexibility

in organization and introduced some changes which

would make instruction at different job levels more

readily available.(4) Recommendations of thisgroup are used in organizing the following co-operative and project plans at the secondary level:

A. Cooperative Plan (Career Development JobCurriculums)

1. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 2 school years, providing an average of

at least 1 class period per day and regularly

47

FIGURE 9

THE COOPERATIVE PLAN IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Cooperative Plan

Organizational pattern for preparatory instruction inwhich regularly scheduled part-time employment evesstudents an opportunity to experience theory in prac-tice while developing competencies through trainingon a job related to their distributive occupational ob-jectives.

Career Development Job Curriculums

Teaching TechniquesUtilizing Student

Participation

Vocationally DirectedTeaching in

the Classroom

Regular Part-time JobsRelated to Students'

Occupational Objectives(Laboratory)

1111111001111111

Cocurricular Activitiesof DECA

Cooperative TrainingAgreement

Cooperative Method

Coordination of classroom instruction with a seriesof on-the-job learning experiences related to each stu-dent's occupational objective.

Employment Qualifications(Competency at level of specific occupational

objectives)

FIGURE 10

THE PRPJECT PLAN IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Project Plan

Organizational pattern for preparatory instructionwhich involves a regularly scheduled series of individ-ually designed activities that give students an opportu-nity to apply theory in practice while developing com-petencies through projects related to their distributiveoccupational objectives.

Basic Job CurriculumsCareer Development Job Curriculums

Teaching TechniquesUtilizing Student

Participation

Vocationally DirectedTeaching in

the Classroom

1

Regularly ScheduledProjects Related to EachStudent's Occupational

Objective(Laboratory)

Cocurricular Activitiesof DECA

Project Method

Coordination of classroom instruction with a series ofindividually designed learning activities or projects re-lated to each student's occupational objective.

Employment Qualifications

(Competency at level of specific occupationalobjectives)

Basic Jobs ilareer Development Jobs.]4ssisilmanitiONONI pl

scheduled periods for cooperative trainingboth years.

2. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 1 school year, providing an average of atleast 2 class periods and regularly scheduledperiods for cooperative training during theyear.

3. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 2 school years, providing an average ofat least 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for cooperative trainingduring the second year and enrolling onlythose who have completed 2 semesters of

vocational instruction in a precooperativeclass in distribution or those who have com-pleted 2 semesters of vocational instructionin distributive subjects under the projectplan.

4. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 1 school year, providing an average ofat least 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for cooperative trainingduring the year and enrolling only thosewho have completed 4 semesters of voca-tional instruction in an occupational curricu-lum approvable under the State plan.

B. Project Plan (Career Development Job Cur-riculums)1. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-

ing 2 school years, providing an average ofat least 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for project training bothyears.

2. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 1 school year, providing average ofat least 2 regular class periods per day andregularly scheduled periods for project train-ing during the year.

3. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 2 school years, providing an average ofat least 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for project training dur-ing the second year and enrolling only thosewho have completed 2 semesters of voca-tional instruction in a preproject class indistribution or those who have completed 2semesters of vocational instruction in distri-butive subjects tinder the cooperative plan.

4. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-

50

ing 1 school year, providing an average of atleast 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for project training dur-ing the year and enrolling only those whohave completed 4 semesters of vocationalinstruction in an occupational curriculumapprovable under the State plan.

C. Project Plan (Basic Job Curriculums)1. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-

ing 1 school year, providing an average of atleast 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for project trainingthroughout the year.

2. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing less than 1 year, providing an average ofat least 1 class period per day and regularlyscheduled periods for project training forthe duration of instruction and enrollingonly those whose primary occupational ob-jective is in another vocational field.

3. Vocational instruction in distribution cover-ing 1 school year, a combination providingan average of at least 1 class period per dayfor 18 weeks and an average of 1 class periodper day in project training for 18 weeks.

(It will be noted that project plans for basic jobcurriculums are complete in themselves. Theyrepresent the sequence of study usually necessaryfor achieving basic job level objectives. They arenot prevocational, nor are they necessarily pre-requisite to enrolling in a career development jobcurriculum.)

ORGANIZATION FOR THE OCCUPATIONAi. MIX

Occupational mix is the "tendency for a specificoccupati to require competencies which overlapnormally accepted areas of vocational educa-tion." (5) The organization of instruction designedfor students, whose occupational objectives requirecompetencies developed through other vocationalprograms, has been suggested under cooperativeplan A4 and project plan 134 and C2. Demonstra-tion projects involving team teaching might also bean approach to shared responsibilities of the voca-tional staff.

ADAPTING THE ORGANIZATION TO THE SCHOOL

High schools have been identified as comprehen-sive, technical, and area vocational. Since judg-

ment skills and marketing concepts are built onstrengths in language arts, mathematics, and eco-nomics, distributive education can fit into any com-prehensive high school where need for it has beendetermined. Technical schools and area vocationalschools frequently have less breadth in the academicareas. However, they fill a vital need in makingdistributive education available to large numbersof youths.

The nature of the school district in which aschool is situated also affects the organizationalpattern for preparatory instruction. Schools varyin size from very small to very large; from servingrural youth to serving central-city youth. It maybe determined that (1) all the high schools in ametropolitan school district will offer the regularcurriculum for basic and career development jobsin general merchandise, that (2) certain of theseschools will also provide curriculums preparing forother occupational objectives, and that (3) youthwith special needs may be served better by provid-ing curriculums for them only in schools havingconsiderable flexibility in scheduling arrangements.Both project and cooperative plans for participa-tion activities may be followed by students. On theother hand, a small rural high school may meet theneeds of its students best by scheduling "occupa-tional mix" curriculums leading to distributive ob-jectives, utilizing skills and knowledges introducedin such programs as vocational agriculture, homeeconomics, and trade and industrial education. Theproject plan for participation activities will be of.fered since the location of the school makes regu-larly scheduled cooperative training an impracticalarrangement.

For purposes of illustration, Figures 11-14 showdifferent aspects cf preparatory instruction in thedistributive education program. Organizationaloptions in the regular curriculum for general mer-chandise job objectives are given in Figure 11. Sug-gested options in curriculums for youth with specialneeds are shown in Figure 12. Organizational op-tions for different objectives appropriate in cur-riculums for career development level jobs areshown in Figure 13, followed by Figure 14, whichuses the same structure to show plan and gradelevel of curriculums for career development jobs.

STUDENT SCHEDULING PATTERNS

Students' schedules will be determined primarilyby the type of plan and specific curriculum forwhich they wish to enroll. Scheduling should beflexible. A nongraded basic job curriculum, forexample, could be available for 10th, 1 1 th, and12th grade students alike. Or, if permissible fromthe point of view of the local school administrationand not prohibited in the State plan for vocationaleducation, students could begin their training inthe summer so that basic job orientation wouldbe completed by the fall term. This might enablethem to become eligible for project or cooperativetraining in a career development job curriculum.Adjustments also could be made for the blockingof project or cooperative training to take advantageof seasonal distributive activities. Sample studentschedules are shown in Figure 15 to illustrate pos-sible patterns in the regular curriculum and incurriculums for youth with special needs.

TEACHER-COORDINATOR SCHEDULING PATTERNS

Staffing distributive education will depend uponseveral factors such as: (1) anticipated enroll-ments, (2) capabilities of students, (3) the varietyof curriculum offerings, (4) organizational plan (s)for laboratory experiences, (5) responsibilities as-signed instructional personnel, and (6) the climatefor innovative teaching devices. Large high schoolsmay be assumed to have depaaments of distributiveeducation with several faculty members. Smallerschools may have one teacher-coordinator with re-sponsibility for both preparatory classes and sup-plementary instruction for employed adults. Schoolsserving a small and geographically scattered stu-dent body may offer a distributive education cur-riculum only in alternate years, thus requiring ateacher-coordinator qualified in an additional sub-ject matter field. Schedules shown in Figure 16give possible time allotments for teacher-coordina-tors, including provisions for the supervision andcoordination of cooperative and/or project train-ing.

Summary

The organization and administration of prepara-tory instruction should be based on an understand-ing of requirements of the State Plan for Voca-

51

FIGURE 11

REGULAR CURRICULUM

General Merchandise Options *

General Merchandise I (Project)(Basic JobsO.E. 04.08)

Pattern Cl (1 school year, 1 class period,project period, nongraded)

General Merchandise II

(Career Development JobsO.E. 04.08)

Pattern A3/B3 (First Year, 1 class period,11th grade, pre-coop/preproject controlclass)

General Merchandise II (Cooperative)

(Career Development JobsO.E. 04.08)

Pattern Al (First year, 1 class peviod, 2cooperative periods, 11th grade)

General Merchandise Ill (Cooper/(Career Development JobsO.E. 04.08)

Pattern Al (Second year, 1 class period,2 cooperative periods, 12th grade)

General Merchandise II (Project)(Career Development JobsO.E. 04.08)

Pattern 01 (First year, 1 class period, 1project period, 11th grade)

General Merchandise III (Project)(Career Development JobsO.E. 08)

Pattern B1/03/04 (Second year, 1 classperiod, 1 project period, 12th grade)

GENERAL MERCHANDISE 11111(Cooperative)

(Career Development JobsO.E. 04.08)

Pattern A2 (1 school year, 2 class periods,2 cooperative periods, 12th grade)

* Arrow with solid line indicates usual sequence. Stu.dents completing General Merchandise II must proceedto a section of General Merchandise III in the careerdevelopment job sequence. Students completing basicjob preparation may progress to the career development job curriculum.

FIGURE 12

YOUTH WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Sample Curriculum Options *

General Merchandise I(Basic JobsO.E. 04.08)

Multi-patterns (1 or more class periods,1 or more project periods, regular or modular schedule, non-graded project plan)

Food Services I(Basic JobsO.E. 04.07)

Multi-patterns (1 or 2 semesters, 1 ormore class periods, 1 or more project pe-riods, 12th grade, project plan)

Service Station I(Basic Jobs(i.E. 04.16)

Multi-patterns (1 or 2 semesters, 1 or moreclass periods, 1 or more project periods,12th grade, project plan)

Distribution 1(0.E. 04.20)

Regular or modular pattern (Control class,10th or 11th grade; prerequisite to careerdevelopment job curriculums)

Curriculum for a Career Development JobsObjective

STOCKKEEPING I

(Basic JobsO.E. 04.08)

Multi-patterns (1 or 2 semesters, 1 ormore class periods, 1 or more project pe-riods, non-graded, project plan)

* Arrow with solid line indicates required sequence.Students completing basic jobs preparation may prog-ress to a career development job curriculum in the highschool or a postsecondary institution.

FIGURE 13

ORGANIZATIONAL OPTIONS FOR DIFFERENT OBJECTIVES

Curriculums for Career Development Jobs

Home Furnishings I!O.E. 04.10

(Project Plan)

JIMI11111111111e

Wholesaling IIO.E. 04.31

(PrerequisiteControl Class)

,._1111MMIIMIRI_ I

Home Furnishings III Home Furnishings III Wholesaling III Wholesaling II!O.E. 04.10 O.E. 04.10 O.E. 04.31 O.E. 04.31

(Project Plan) (Cooperative Plan) (Cooperative Plan) (Project Plan)

Home Economics(Prerequisites)

Home FurnishingsO.E. 04.10

(Cooperative Plan)

Home FurnishingsO.E. 04.10

(Project Plan)

Food Distribution IIO.E. 04.06

(Cooperative Plan)

Food Distribution IIIO.E. 04.06

(Cooperative Plan)

Petroleum 11.111O.E. 04.16

(Cooperative Plan)

Food Distribution IIIO.E. 04.06

(Project Plan)

FIGURE 14

SUGGESTED ORGANIZATIONAL OPTIONS *

Curriculums for Career Development Jobs

PROJECTPLAN

11th Grade

COOPERATIVE PROJECT

PLAN PLAN

12th Grade 12th Grade

FOCCUPATIONAL MI COOPERATIVE

(Support Course) PLAN11th Grade

PREREQUISITECLASS

11th Grade

COOPERATIVEPLAN

12th Grade

PROJECT OR COOPERATIVE11th or 12th Grade

04.0

COOPERATIVE PLAN12th Grade

PROJECTPLAN

12th Grade

1COOPERATIVE

PLAN12th GradeTwo Periods

PROJECT PLAN12th Grade

* More than one organizational peftern for preparatoryinstruction may be used simultaneously in one school

for the same occupational classification. Likewise pre-paratory,-cumiculums-for one or more occupationalclassifications may be scheduled in the same high

school.

FIGURE 15

SAMPLE STUDENT SCHEDULES

Period

1

23456

Period

1

23456

1

23456

Period

1

23456

REGULAR CURRICULUMSGENERAL MERCHANDISE OPTION

Basic JobPattern C1-10th Grade

Career Development Jobs

Subject

MathematicsEnglishStudyArtGeneral Merchandise IProject Training

Pattern A3-11th Grade

Subject

EnglishHistoryPhysical EducationGeneral Merchandise IIStudyAlgebra

12th Grade

GovernmentEnglishGeneral Merchandise IIIElectiveCooperative TrainingCooperative Training

Career Development JobsPattern B2-12th Grade

1st semester

Subject

EnglishGovernmentGeneral Merchandise IIGeneral Merchandise IIProject TrainingProject Training

2nd semester

Subject

EnglishGovernmentGeneral Merchandise IIIGeneral Merchandise illProject TrainingProject Training

FIGURE 15

SAMPLE STUDENT SCHEDULES (Continued)

YOUTH WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Basic JobsService Station I-12th Grade

Period

1

23456

Basic JobsFood Service INonGraded

Period

1

23rf56

PrerequisiteDistribution I --10th Grade

Period

1

23456

Basic JobsGeneral Merchandise INonGraded

Period

1

23456

Subject

Special EnglishPsychologyService Station OperationsService Station SainsProject TrainingProject Training

First Semester

Subject

Home Economics (Foods)Physical FitnessTable ServiceFood Service OperationsEconomics of WorkProject Training

Second Semester

Subject

EnglishDistribution IDistribution IMathematics ReviewPhysical FitnessElective

Subject

Consumer EconomicsSpecial EnglishBusiness MathematicsGeneral Merchandise IGeneral Merchandise IProject Training

Second Semester

Subject

Food Service SalesMoney ManagementHuman RelationsProject TrainingProject TrainingProject Training

FIGURE 16

TEACHER-COORDINATOR SCHEDULES

REGULAR CURRICULUM:

YOUTH WITH SPECIAL NEEDS CURRICULUM:

REGULAR CURRICULUM:

Preparatory and Supplementary

1, Load is heavy. Would need a teacher-aide." General Merchandise Pattern 82, same stu-

dents.

Teacher A

Supervision and CoordinationGeneral Merchandise I (Project)General Merchandise II (Project)**General Merchandise III (Project)**Supervision and CoordinationSupervision and Coordination

Teacher B *

Supervision and Coordination (Cooperative)General Merchandise it (Project)General Merchandise II (Cooperative)neneral Merchandise III (Cooperative)Supervision and Coordination (Cooperative)Supervision and Coordination (Project)

Teacher C (Inschool youth)

Distribution IService Station OperationsService Station SalesSupervision and CoordinationSupervision and CoordinationSupervision and Coordination

Teacher D (Out -of-

Food Service OperationsTable ServiceSupervision and CoordinationSupervision and CoordinationFood Service SalesPhysical Fitness

(Project)(Project)(Project)school youth)

(Project)(Project)

Teacher E

Wholesaling IIWholesaling III (Cooperative)Supervision and Coordination (Cooperative)Supervision and Coordination (Cooperative)Supplementary Instruction (Adult)Supplementary Instruction (Adult)

s

tional Education. Principles of organization shouldtake into account (1) employment opportunity;(2) the interests, needs, and abilities of prospectivestudents; (3) standards to assure soundness andquality of instruction; and (4) participation activi-tws involving cooperative or project training.Standards to assure soundness and quality ofinstruction are concerned with (1) up-to-dateinstruction based on competencies needed toachieve students' occupational objectives, (2) theavailability of adequate space, equipment, teach-ing materials, and library resources; (3) organiza-tion according to a cooperative plan or projectplan; and (4) qualifications of program personnel.Cooperative and project plans provide for flexibilityin organization, adapted to the type of school andschool district in which preparatory instruction is tobe offered. Preparatory curriculums set up fordemonstration and study, such as those designed forstudents whose occupational objectives icquirecompetencies developed through other vocational

programs, are encouraged. Students schedulingpatterns are varied, depending upon the type ofplan and specific curriculum for which studentswish to enroll. Teacher-coordinator schedulingpatterns also will differ, depending upon thecapabilities of students, curriculum offerings, andadministrative policies of the school district.

References

(1)

(2)(3)

Vocational Education Amendments of 1968, PublicLaw 90-576, 90th Congress, H.R. 18366, 1968,Sec. 123. (a) (6) (A)

Ibid., Sec. 101."Program Planning in Distributive Education"

(unpublished report prepared by the NationalAssociation of State Supervisors of DistributiveEducation), p. 4.

(4) National Association of State Supervisors of Dis-tributive Education, op. cit., p. 3.

(5) Jo7N A. BEAUMONT, Program Organization, apresentation at the National Clinic on Distribu-tive Education, Washington, D. C., October1963, p. 1.

59

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BEAUMONT, JOHN A. Distributive EducationToday andTomorrow, a presentation at the Governor's Confer-ence on Education for Distribution, Indianapolis, Ind.,April 14, 1964.

Program Organization, a presentation at the Na-tional Clinic on Distributive Education, Washington,D.C., October 1963.

BLOOM, BENJAMIN S. (ed.) et al. Taxonomy of Educa-tional Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain;Handbook II: Affective Domain; Handbook III: Psy-chomotor Domain. New York: David McKay Com-pany, Inc., 1964.

Cox, REAVIS ; GOODMAN, CHARLES S.; and FICHANDLER,Thorns C. Distribution in a High-Level Economy.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965.

DAVIS, KEITH. Human Relations in Business. New York:McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1957.

DAVIS, RALPH C. The Fundamentals of Top Manage-ment. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951.

ELY, VIVIEN K. "The Importance of Distribution inAmerica" (unpublished course outline, DistributiveEducation Service, State Department of Education,Richmond, Virginia, 1965).

Fianna, Enwix B. Principles of Personnel Management.New York, Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc., 1961.

Goon, CARTER V. (ed.) Dictionary of Education, 2nd ed.New York, Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc., 1959.

JOHNSON, ARNO H. The Decade of Opportunity-1965to 1975, an analysis presented before The RochesterAdvertisers, Rochester, N.Y., January 12, 1965.

MARKS, MARY V. "Characteristics of Employment in Dis-tributi'n," Distributive Education Branch, Division ofVocational and Technical Education, U.S. Office ofEducation, August 30, 1962.

= --."The Future of Distributive Education," a pres-entation at the Southern California Distributive Educr,-tion Conference, La Mirada, Calif., October 1(), 1964.

--."The Vocational Approach in Education for Dis-tribution," Implementation of Vocational Educationin Distribution, University of 'Wisconsin (Madison:Wisconsin Distributive Education Association, 1967).

60

."Training Opportunity Through Distributive Edu-cation" (unpublished presentation to the CurriculumWorkshop, Bozeman, Montana, August 13, 1964).

."The Project Method in Distributive Education"(unpublished presentation to the Gregg Methods Con-ference for Business Teachers, Tampa, Florida, June25, 1965).

NELSON, EDWIN L. "Basis for Curriculum Development inDistribution," Implementation of Vocational Educationin Distribution, University of Wisconsin (Madison: Dis-tributive Education Association, 1967).

PHILLIPS, CHARLES F. and DUNCAN, DELBERT J. Market-ing Principles and Practices. Homewood, Illinois: Rich-ard D. Irwin, Inc., 1960.

"Program Planning in Distributive Education" (unpub-lished report presented by the National Association ofState Supervisors of Distributive Education).

SANDERS, GEORGE "The Basis of Occupational Goals, "Im-plementation of Vocational Education in Distribution,"University of Wisconsin (Madison: Wisconsin Distribu-tive Education Association, 1967).

TABA, Hum. Curriculum Development: Theory andPractice. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.,1962.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,Office of Education. A Study of Curriculum Develop-ment in the High School Cooperative Program, OE-82000. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,1960.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,Office of Education. Standard Terminology for Cur-riculum and Instruction in Local and State SchoolSystems, State Education Records and Reports Series:Handbook VI (Preliminary Edition), Fourth 'Draft,0E-23052, January 1969.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,Office of Education. Vocational Education and Occupa-tions, 0E-80061 (Washington: U.S. Government Print-ing Office, 1969).

U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Hand-book, 1966.67 Edition, Bulletin No. 1450. Washington:U.S. Government 1-rinting Office, 1967.

Vocational Education Amendments of 1968, Public Law90-576, 90th Congress, H.R. 18366, 1968.

WARD, VIRGIL S. "Toward a Theory of Education forThese Times," Education Review, University of Vir-ginia, Vol. Two, Charlottesville: 'University of VirginiaEducation Review Association, 1964.

The World Book .encyclopedia, Vol. 4. Chicago: FieldEnterprises, Inc., 1953.

GLOSSARY

1. Advancement CurriculumsA series of short u&tsor courses for employed adults, emphasizing the de-velopment of competencies which upgrade currentemployment qualifications or are necessary to qualifyfor a specific level of job opportunity; sometimes re-ferred to as diploma programs or packaged coursesfor supplementary instruction.

2. Areas of InstructionClassificaticn of instructionalareas in the preparatory curriculum identified withcompetencies needed in distributive employment:marketing, product or service technology, social skills,applied mathematics and English, and economic un-derstandings.

3. Basic Job CurriculumsInstructional programswhich prepare students for elementary or basic dis-tributive occupations, involving minimal employmentresponsibility, and emphasize fundamental techniquesin sales and sales-supporting services, simple market-ing concepts, social competencies, and basic skills incomputations and communications.

4. Career Development Job CurriculumsInstruc-tional programs which prepare students for career-type positions, involving competencies and responsi-bilities necessary for self-direction, and emphasizethe functions of marketing, merchandising, and man-agement within the discipline of distribution.

5. Club ActivitiesProgram of work of the Distribu-tive Education Clubs of America which provides op-portunities for members to demonstrate and to refinethe competencies required in employment and incitizenship.

6. Control ClassAn arrangement for group instruc-tion in mitich enrollment is limited to students hav-ing an occupational objective appropriate to the pur-poses of instruction.

7. Cooperative MethodCoordination of classroom in-struction with a series of on-the-job learning ex-periences related to each student's occupational ob-jective.

. Cooperative PlanOrganizational pattern for pre-paratory instruction which involves regularly sched-uled part-time employment that gives students anopportunity for experience through supervised train-ing on a job related to their distributive occupationalobjectives.

9. Cooperative Training ,Learning experiences en-countered in on-the-job instruction and applicationduring regular part-time employment.

10. CoordinationThe process of integrating into aharmonious relationship the administrative, organi-zational, and instructional activities of the distribu-tive education program to the end that the studentreceives realistic preparation for entry employmentand progression in the area of his career interest.

11. DECADistributive Education Clubs of America, anational youth organization providing a program ofwork which compkments and enriches the instruc-tional program for high school and post high schoolstudents enrolled in distributive education classes.

12. DistributionThe second step in a series of eco-nomic processes which bring goods and services fromthose who make them to those who use them; :n-eludes all the methods by which goods arc sent fromproducers to consumers; may be used synonymouslywith marketing.

13. Distributive EducationA program of vocationalinstruction in marketing, merchandising, and relatedmanagement, designed to meet the needs of personswho have entered or are preparing to enter a distri-butive occupation or an occupation in which a dis-tributive function appears; includes preparatory andsupplementary instruction.

14. Distributive unctionsActivities that direct theflow of goods and services, including their appro-priate utilization, from the producer to the con-sumer or user; includes selling and such sales-sup-porting activities as buying, transporting, storing,promoting, financing, market research, and man-agement.

15. Distributive OccupationAn occupation that isfollowed by proprietors, managers, or employees en-gaged primarily in marketing or merchandising ofgoods or services; found in such areas of economicactivity as retail and wholesale trade, finance, in-surance, real estate, services and service trades, manu-facturing, transportation, utilities, and communica-tions.

16. MarketingThe performance of business activitiesdirected toward and incident to the flow of goodsand services from producer to consumer or user;may be used synonymously with distribution.

17. Nongraded Class A class available to eligible stu-dents regardless of their grade level.

18. Occupational ExperienceActivities performed bytrainees during employment arranged as part of theproject laboratory learning experiences.

19. Occupational Mix The combination of occupa-tional competencies representative of two or moretraditional vocational services.

20. Occupational Objective A specific recognized oc-cupation or cluster of closely related occupations indistribution, selected by the student, the attainmentof which is the purpose for his vocational instruction

61

ti

in distribution and marketing.21. Preparatory InstructionPreemployment instruc-

tion generally provided on a full -time basis to pre-pare youth or adults to enter and advance or retrainfor distributive employment; may be organized underthe cooperative or project plans.

22. Project--Any individually designed realistic learn-ing activity, which may include short-term employ-ment, that has a behavioral objective related to anindividual's distributive occupational goal and is tobe accomplished in a specified length of time; anin .ependent activity completed in a laboratory en-vironment. These activities may be simulated in theschool and performed in the community or in em-ployment.

23. Project Method. Coordination of classroom instruc-tion with a series of individually designed learningactivities or projects related to each student's oc-cupational objective.

21. Project Plan =Organizational pattern of instructionwhich involves a regularly scheduled se:ries of indi-vidually designed realistic learning activities that givestudents an opportunity to apply theory in practicewhile developing competencies related to their dis-tributive occupational objectives.

23. Project Training Learning experiences encoun-tered in the project laboratory environments andapplicable to individual occupational goals.

26. Specialist Job CurriculumsInstructional pro-grams which prepare students for distributive spe-

62

cializations in functions, product areas, or servicefields involving leadership competencies and man-agement responsibilities in relation to personnel, ;i-nane% and merchandise or service.

27. Supplementary InstructionVocational instructionin distribution and marketing generally provided inday or evening classes on a part-time basis for em-ployed adults wishing to refresh, update, or upgradecompetencies needed in their employment or for ad-vancement in responsibility; includes updatingcourses and advancement curriculums.

28. Teacher-Coordinato A member of the localschool staff who teaches distributive aud related sub-ject matter to students preparing for employmentand coordinates classroom instruction with on-the-job training or individually designed learning activi-ties; may be responsible for administering the totaldistributive education program, including sponsorshipof the local chapter of DECA.

29. Updating Courses Supplementary instruction em-phasizing current practices in the employment situa-tion of adults; courses may be part of an advance-ment curriculum but usually are more limited in pur-pose; units of instruction are of a length appropriateto part-time ttudy.

30. Vocational Training FacilitiesInstructional andauxiliary rooms and space in which approved pro-grams of distributive education may be offered; mayinclude but is not limited to adult education critters,store-front classrooms, business and association train-ing rooms, or mobile units.

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970 0-354.694