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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 1 Title: The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer Motivation Stephen G. Fogarty Alphacrucis College, Sydney Australia Key Words: volunteer motivation, self-determination theory, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, nonprofit leadership, church leadership, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, trust, value congruence

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 1

Title:

The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer Motivation

Stephen G. Fogarty

Alphacrucis College, Sydney Australia

Key Words:

volunteer motivation, self-determination theory, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic

motivation, nonprofit leadership, church leadership, transactional leadership,

transformational leadership, trust, value congruence

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 2

Abstract:

This study examines the impact of organizational leadership on volunteer

motivation in nonprofit organizations by exploring (a) the impact of the

transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on

volunteer motivation within church congregations and (b) the mediating effects of

volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor on this relationship.

Volunteer motivation is conceptualized using self-determination theory, which

posits that people are motivated to satisfy their innate psychological needs for

autonomy, competence, and relatedness and connects these needs to levels of

motivation from extrinsic to intrinsic. The leadership behaviors of senior pastors

are conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership theory

which employs the behavior categories of contingent reward, active and passive

management by exception, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual

stimulation, and individualized consideration. A sample of 790 volunteers attending

28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) rated the leadership behaviors of

their senior pastor as well as their own motivation and their trust in and value

congruence with the senior pastor. Regression analyses indicated that senior

pastors’ transactional leadership behaviors predicted volunteers’ extrinsic

motivation and that transformational leadership behaviors predicted intrinsic

motivation. In addition, volunteers’ trust in and value congruence with senior

pastors partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and

intrinsic motivation. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are

presented and suggestions for future research are discussed.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 3

Introduction

Senior pastors of church congregations have a highly visible leadership role. They

usually rely upon their ability to articulate a value-based vision and to model

appropriate behaviors to motivate the members of their congregation to voluntary

service. How can senior pastors motivate volunteers to higher levels of

commitment and performance? This question focuses on the practical importance

of leadership within nonprofit organizations.

Given the practical importance of this topic, relatively few studies have explored

organizational leadership behavior and outcomes within church congregations or

other volunteer settings (Bae, 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and

Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996; Catano, et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully,

2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007; Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark,

1996; Lichtman and Malony, 1990; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008; Rowold and

Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and none of these studies has focused on the

relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. The present

study aimed at extending our understanding of the impact of organizational

leadership behavior on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations. More

specifically, the impact of the transactional and transformational leadership

behavior of senior pastors on the motivation of volunteers in church congregations

was investigated. Since previous studies have found that follower trust in and value

congruence with a leader may increase their responsiveness to the leader (Jung and

Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al., 1990; Shamir, et al., 1993), this study also

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 4

investigated the mediating impact of these variables on the effects of leadership on

volunteer motivation.

Volunteer Motivation

Volunteers are individuals who provide unpaid help in an organized manner to

parties with regard to whom the volunteer has no obligations (Millette and Gagné,

2008; Snyder and Omoto, 2004; Wilson and Janoski, 1995). Volunteers are eagerly

sought after because they add value to organizations and endeavors (Wilson and

Musick, 1997), and are typically employed in nonprofit organizations including

churches and charities (Phillips and Phillips, 2010, 2011). Because volunteers do

not receive direct personal tangible gains such as a salary, nonprofit organizations

must find other ways to motivate volunteers to work well and to continue in

volunteer activity, and by doing so retain the knowledge and skill resources of the

organization (Millette and Gagné, 2008). Maintaining volunteer motivation at

levels that result in sustained and productive voluntary service is critical to the

effectiveness of nonprofit organizations in fulfilling their stated missions.

Volunteer motivation is conceptualized using self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008), which posits that people are motivated to satisfy their innate

psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers

to the desire to control one’s own behavior and activities in order to experience

personal integration and freedom. Competence is one’s propensity to be effective in

dealing with the environment while attaining valued outcomes within it.

Relatedness refers to one’s desire to be connected to others. According to Deci and

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 5

Ryan, the satisfaction of all three of these needs is “essential for ongoing

psychological growth, integrity, and well-being” (2000, p. 229).

Self-determination theory connects the needs for autonomy, competence, and

relatedness to levels of motivation, from extrinsic to intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation

refers to engaging in an activity for instrumental reasons, such as acquiring a

reward or avoiding a penalty, where the primary motivators are external to the

volunteer. By contrast, intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for its

own sake, because one finds it enjoyable and interesting, where the primary

motivators are internal to the volunteer as s/he seeks to fulfill the needs for

autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Extrinsic motivation has been

demonstrated to predict lower quality task performance and shorter volunteer

tenure whereas intrinsic motivation predicts higher quality task performance and

longer volunteer tenure (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Millette and Gagné, 2008).

Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors

Millette and Gagné (2008) have suggested that supervisory style is likely to be an

important factor impacting the level of volunteer motivation. Transactional and

transformational leadership behaviors have been identified as appropriate and

effective components of supervisory style within nonprofit organizations (Bae;

2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996;

Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007;

Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;

Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003). Therefore, the leadership behavior of

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 6

senior pastors is conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership

theory.

Transactional leadership involves a reciprocal process of exchange between leader

and followers (Bass, 1985; Riggio et al., 2004). It is defined in terms of three inter-

related behaviors: (a) contingent reward, (b) active management by exception, and

(c) passive management by exception (Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Contingent

reward implies the provision of an adequate exchange of valued resources for

follower support (Judge and Bono, 2000). Active management by exception

involves monitoring performance and taking corrective action. Passive

management by exception means intervening only when problems become serious.

Both active and passive management by exception involve enforcing rules to avoid

mistakes (Judge and Bono, 2000). The impact of transactional leadership behaviors

on volunteer workers will be to provide them with a clear understanding of their

tasks and the desired outcomes, to create in them an expectation of the rewards for

achievement, and to assist them in improving their performance.

Transformational leadership “transcends transactional leadership because it is built

around the notion that leaders and followers are held together by some higher-level,

shared goal or mission, rather than because of some personal transaction” (Riggio

et al., 2004, p. 51). It involves a reciprocal process of inspiration between leader

and followers which results in both performing beyond expected levels of

commitment and contribution, and which is based on the leader developing

“positive, rich, emotional relationships with followers that build commitment to a

common purpose or cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 50). Transformational leadership

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is defined in terms of four interrelated behaviors: (a) idealized influence, (b)

inspirational motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (4) individualized

consideration (Riggio et al., 2004; Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Idealized influence

involves leaders serving as idealized role models for followers (Avolio and Bass,

2004; Judge and Bono, 2000; Riggio et al., 2004). Inspirational motivation

“arouses followers’ enthusiasm and sense of team spirit” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 51)

as the leader provides followers with a clear vision of the organization’s future, the

value of high standards of operation, and a sense of meaningfulness in their work

(Avolio and Bass, 2004). Intellectual stimulation involves leaders encouraging

followers to be innovators and creative problem solvers (Avolio and Bass, 2004;

Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Individualized consideration involves the leader’s

attention to the unique gifts and talents of each follower and the leader’s ability to

coach or mentor followers with challenges and opportunities that suit each

individual (Avolio, et al., 1999; Bass, 1985; Yammarino and Bass, 1990;

Yammarino, et al., 1993).

Overall, transformational leadership theory encapsulates a “sense of moral good

and a passionate commitment to the cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 52) that is

essential for leadership in nonprofit organizations which are mission-driven and

which rely on the motivation and performance of volunteers to achieve the

organizational mission. The impact of transformational leadership behaviors on

volunteer workers will be to augment the effect of transactional leadership

behaviors by providing volunteers with vision and values to motivate them to

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continue in voluntary activity at high levels of volition and quality performance

(Bass, 1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004).

Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Motivation

Linking the two literatures of self-determination theory and transactional and

transformational leadership theory is the observation that the augmentation effect of

transformational leadership on the effectiveness of transactional leadership is likely

to be related to volunteers’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Transactional

leadership behaviors are likely to produce extrinsic motivation in volunteers as they

are motivated to attain contingent rewards such as personal recognition or standing

within the organization. Transformational leadership behaviors are likely to

produce intrinsic motivation as volunteers are motivated by identification with and

commitment to the mission of the organization. This personal identification and

commitment is internally driven and volunteers are likely to sense that they are

satisfying the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. A leader’s exercise

of transformational behaviors will augment the impact of his or her use of

transactional behaviors by stimulating volunteer intrinsic motivation and producing

more sustained and higher quality task performance.

Trust and Value Congruence

The effective exercise of leadership is based upon leader–follower relationships

that incorporate followers’ trust in and value congruence with the leader (Yukl,

2006). Trust in a leader is “faith in and loyalty to the leader” (Podsakoff et al.,

1990, p. 113). Value congruence with a leader is belief that the follower’s personal

values are congruent with and aligned with those of the leader (Posner, 2010). Both

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 9

transactional and transformational leadership behaviors can inspire trust and value

congruence in followers.

Transactional leaders build followers’ trust by engaging in consistent behavior and

by honoring agreements (Bass, 1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al.,

1990). They stimulate followers’ value congruence by identifying mutual

aspirations and acknowledging followers’ expertise, experience, and education

(Jung and Avolio, 2000). Transactional leadership behaviors generate followers’

trust in and value congruence with the leader in relation to the nature of the

organization, the task and outcomes required for efficient organizational operation,

and the attendant contingent rewards. Jung and Avolio referred to such trust and

value congruence as being “conditional” because they are established “through a

reliable execution of contracts and exchanges” (p. 952). The trust and value

congruence inspired in followers by a leader’s exercise of transactional leadership

behaviors suffices to ensure a cooperative working relationship and the successful

completion of the necessary tasks. It does not necessarily “change followers’

personal values” nor “develop a deep sense of trust and commitment to the leader”

(Jung and Avolio, 2000, p. 951). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors

by senior pastors is likely to establish and maintain volunteers’ trust in the

competence and fairness of the senior pastor and volunteers’ value congruence with

the practices and desired outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value

congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional

leadership behaviors on volunteers’ extrinsic motivation.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 10

Transformational leaders increase followers’ trust levels by developing their skills

and confidence to perform tasks and assume responsibility, by providing support

and encouragement when necessary in the face of obstacles, difficulties, and

fatigue, and through their own role modeling of desirable behavior and willingness

to engage in sacrifice in order to achieve the organizational vision (Bass and

Avolio, 1990; Yukl, 2006). They influence followers to adopt and internalize the

leader’s values and vision by providing and communicating a desirable vision and

by raising followers’ level of awareness about the importance and value of desired

outcomes (Avolio and Bass, 1988; Jung and Avolio, 2000). Jung and Avolio (2000)

point out that “value congruence achieved through a value internalization process

and demonstrated trust in the leader,” are core mediating aspects of

transformational leadership (p. 950). The practice of transformational leadership

behaviors by senior pastors is likely to increase volunteers’ trust in the character

and competence of the senior pastor and to produce change in volunteers’ values

and to increase their value congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust

and value congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s

transformational leadership behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation.

Study Model

The model presented in Figure 1 is based on self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008) and transactional and transformational leadership theory (Avolio

and Bass, 2004; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 1985, 1998) and incorporates the

mediating variables of volunteer trust (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Jung and Avolio,

2000; Onnen, 1987; Podsakoff et al., 1990) and value congruence (Burns, 1978;

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 11

Jung and Avolio, 2000). The model emphasizes the relationship between the

transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors and the

extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The independent variable is

the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors, and

the dependent variable is volunteer motivation. The relationship between the

independent variable and the dependent variable can be direct or mediated by

volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior pastor.

Figure 1: A model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.

Transactional Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation

Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transactional

leadership behaviors are likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their

Senior pastor transactional leadership

behaviors

Volunteer extrinsic motivation

Volunteer trust in senior pastor

Volunteer value congruence with

senior pastor

Senior pastor transformational

leadership behaviors

Volunteer intrinsic motivation

Volunteer trust in senior pastor

Volunteer value congruence with

senior pastor

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 12

leadership (Druskat, 1994) and to rate them as effective leaders (Butler and

Herman, 1999). Transactional leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers

towards the achievement of desired organizational outcomes (Son, 2003). In the

context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of transactional

leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers clearly understanding their task

descriptions and the desired outcomes for the church that result from the

performance of these tasks. Volunteers will perform their tasks so as to achieve the

expressed expectations of the senior pastor and to receive the associated contingent

rewards including personal recognition and standing within the church. Therefore,

the practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to

reinforce the extrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:

H1: The transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more strongly

related to volunteer extrinsic motivation than will transformational leadership

behaviors.

Trust and Value Congruence

Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader are likely to have a mediating

effect on the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on their performance

(Jung and Avolio, 2000). The leader’s clear specification of tasks, performance

expectations, and contingent rewards builds follower trust in the leader (Bass,

1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000) and value congruence with the leader (Jung and

Avolio, 2000). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors

is likely to establish and maintain volunteer trust in the competence and fairness of

the senior pastor and volunteer value congruence with the practices and desired

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 13

outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value congruence is likely to mediate

the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer

extrinsic motivation. Thus:

H2: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the

impact of the transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors on

volunteer extrinsic motivation.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation

Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transformational

leadership behaviors are also likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their

leadership (Druskat, 1994; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008) and to rate them as

effective leaders (Onnen, 1987; Butler and Herman, 1999). Transformational

leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers towards the achievement of desired

organizational outcomes (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003) and congregational

satisfaction (Bae, 2001; Rowold, 2008). They are also likely to produce increased

volunteer morale and participation (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996), volunteer job

satisfaction (Choi, 2006; Rowold, 2008), and volunteer extra effort and

effectiveness in task performance (Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).

Transformational leadership behaviors are also likely to enhance positive emotions

including joy, pride, admiration, and enthusiasm among volunteers, and to augment

the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer satisfaction, extra

effort, and rating of leaders’ effectiveness (Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).

In the context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of

transformational leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers understanding

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 14

and identifying with the importance of the tasks they are undertaking as

contributions to the mission of the church. Volunteers will perform their tasks to a

degree beyond the expressed expectations of the senior pastor because they are

motivated by the vision and values of the church, the personal meaningfulness of

their involvement, and the sense of goal attainment and positive feelings that they

experience. Therefore, the practice of transformational leadership behaviors by

senior pastors is likely to reinforce the intrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:

H3: The transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more

strongly related to volunteer intrinsic motivation than will transactional

leadership behaviors.

Trust and Value Congruence

Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader have been demonstrated to

have a mediating effect on the impact of transformational leadership behaviors on

their performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir, et al.,

1993). The leader’s clear, attractive, and attainable vision for the organization and

demonstrated commitment to the organization and vision inspires follower trust in

and value congruence with the leader and motivates them to do more than they

originally expected to do (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Avolio and Bass, 1995; Yukl,

2006). The practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is

likely to increase volunteer trust in the character and competence of the senior

pastor and to produce change in volunteer values and to increase their value

congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust and value congruence is

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 15

likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transformational leadership

behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation. Thus:

H4: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the

impact of the transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on

volunteer intrinsic motivation.

Control Variables

In this study, it was likely that the age, gender, and length of tenure of participating

volunteers could influence their assessment of their own motivation and of the

senior pastor’s leadership. It was also possible that the length of tenure of the senior

pastor could influence his or her exercise of leadership behaviors. Also, links

between senior pastors’ leadership behaviors and congregational size have been

demonstrated (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003). Therefore, the study

incorporated the control variables of age, gender, and length of tenure of the

volunteer participant, length of tenure of the senior pastor, and congregational size.

Sample and Procedure

Sample

The sample for this study was drawn from volunteers attending and participating in

28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) congregations in Australia. The

sample consisted of 790 subjects who served in a voluntary capacity within their

congregation and who rated the leadership behaviors of their senior pastor. The

selection of 28 different ACC congregations was designed to provide responses

from volunteers within each of five congregational size categories that ACC

recognizes. ACC, also known as the Assemblies of God in Australia, is a

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 16

fellowship of autonomous churches which had 1,087 registered churches

throughout Australia as of May 17, 2010 (ACC, 2010). The 28 congregations

represent 2.6% of the total number of ACC congregations. ACC conducts an

annual census of all congregations in May. The census collects data on various

church activities, including weekend attendance which is measured as the total

number of attendees at all services from Friday evening to Sunday evening on one

weekend in May each year. ACC categorizes congregational sizes into five

categories: (a) under 100 attendees, (b) 100-199 attendees, (c) 200-499 attendees,

(d) 500-999 attendees, and (c) 1000 and more attendees. In 2010, the average size

of an ACC congregation was 208 attendees. The majority of congregations had less

than 100 attendees. A summary of ACC attendance is displayed in Table 1.

Table 1: ACC Churches by Congregational Size

Year Under 100 100-199 200-499 500-999 1000+ Total

2005 713 162 126 37 24 10622006 734 167 135 31 26 10932007 728 187 143 33 27 11182008 757 170 144 36 26 11332009 754 168 143 36 20 11212010 699 197 125 39 27 1087Note. Adapted from ACC 2010 Church Census Report, by Australian Christian Churches National Office, 2010. Copyright 2010 Australian Christian Churches.

Congregations were approached to participate in the study on the basis that they

contributed to a representative sample of ACC congregational sizes. The 28

participating congregations together represented each of the five ACC

congregational size categories. An average of just over 28 volunteers completed the

survey in each of the 28 participating congregations resulting in a total participation

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 17

of 790 volunteers. A summary of participating congregations and volunteers is

displayed in Table 2.

Table 2: Participating Congregations and Volunteers by Congregational Size

Congregation VolunteersSize n % n %Under 100 8 28.6 127 16.1100-199 6 21.4 129 16.3200-499 6 21.4 185 23.4500-999 4 14.3 198 25.11000+ 4 14.3 151 19.1Total 28 100.0 790 100.0

The sample comprised of 365 males (46.2%) and 425 females (53.8%).

Participating volunteers were well spread over five age categories (Table 3) and

most had served as volunteers in their congregation for more than 5 years (Table 4).

Table 3: Demographics—Volunteer Age Groups

Age group n %

Under 21 90 11.421-30 192 24.331-40 136 17.241-50 123 15.6Over 50 249 31.5

Table 4: Demographics—Volunteer Tenure

Tenure n %

Less than 1 year 68 8.61-5 years 253 22.0More than 5 years 469 59.4

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 18

Procedure

An initial approach was made to the senior pastors of selected potential

participating congregations explaining the study and inviting their participation.

This was followed up with an email detailing the study. As affirmative responses

were received, appointments were made for the researcher and/or research

assistants to attend a Sunday worship service or a midweek leaders meeting in

order to obtain responses from volunteers. During the worship service or leaders’

meeting, a short explanation of the study was made to those in attendance.

Congregational members who served as volunteers in the church were invited to

meet with the researcher and/or research assistants after the service or meeting in

order to participate in the study.

A Volunteer Response Pack was provided to each participating volunteer,

containing: (a) a covering letter, (b) an informed consent form, (c) a personal

demographic form, and (d) the questionnaire. The control variables of age, gender,

and length of tenure of the subject were incorporated into the demographic form.

The researcher and research assistants helped subjects to complete and submit the

survey immediately after the service or meeting.

A Senior Pastor Response Pack was provided to each participating senior pastor,

containing: (a) a covering letter; (b) an informed consent form; (c) a personal

demographic form; and (4) an adapted version of the questionnaire consisting of 32

items measuring their self-rating of their practice of transactional and

transformational leadership behaviors. The control variable of senior pastor tenure

was incorporated into and ascertained from the personal demographic form.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 19

Measures

The survey questionnaire employed 56 items for measuring the various proposed

effects. The effects measured were: (a) volunteers’ self-assessment of their

volunteer motivation, (b) volunteers’ assessment of the senior pastor’s practice of

transactional and transformational leadership behaviors, and (c) volunteers’ self-

assessment of their trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor. The 56

items consisted of 12 items adapted from Millette and Gagné (2008) to measure

volunteer extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, 32 items adapted from the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X; Bass and Avolio, 2000) to measure volunteer

assessment of the senior pastor’s practice of transactional and transformational

leadership behaviors, 6 items adapted from Podsakoff et al. (1990) to measure

volunteer trust in the senior pastor, and 6 items adapted from Posner (1992, 2010)

and Posner et al. (1985) to measure volunteer value congruence with the senior

pastor. Control variables were volunteers’ age, gender, and length of tenure, senior

pastors’ length of tenure, and congregational size.

Volunteer Motivation

Volunteers’ assessment of their own motivation to engage in voluntary activity was

measured using an adapted form of the Volunteer Motivation scale (VMS),

developed by Millette and Gagné (2008), and consisting of 12 items loaded onto

the two scales of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation utilizing a 5-point

Likert scale: 0 (completely disagree), 1 (disagree), 2 (not sure), 3 (agree), 4

(completely agree). The reliabilities were α = .76 for extrinsic motivation and α

= .74 for intrinsic motivation.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 20

Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors

Volunteers’ assessment of the senior pastor’s transactional and transformational

leadership behaviors was measured using an adapted form of the MLQ-5X Rater

Form consisting of 32 items loaded onto the two leadership scales (Avolio and

Bass, 2004) utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0 (not at all), 1 (once in a while), 2

(sometimes), 3 (fairly often), 4 (frequently, if not always). The reliabilities were α

= .68 for transactional leadership and α = .84 for transformational leadership.

Trust

Volunteer trust in the senior pastor was measured using an adapted form of the

Trust in the Leader scale (TLS), developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), consisting of

six items loaded onto the one scale utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0 (completely

disagree), 1 (disagree), 2 (not sure), 3 (agree), 4 (completely agree). The reliability

was α = .76.

Value Congruence

Volunteer value congruence with the senior pastor was measured using an adapted

form of the Values Congruency Index (VCI), developed by Posner (1992, 2010),

consisting of six items loaded onto the one scale utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0

(completely disagree), 1 (disagree), 2 (not sure), 3 (agree), 4 (completely agree).

The reliability was α = .78.

Descriptive Statistics

The mean scores and standard deviations of the independent, dependent, mediating,

and control variables and correlations among the variables are shown in Table 5.

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Table 5: Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Correlations among Study Variables (N = 790)

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Volunteer age 3.32 1.42 –2. Volunteer gender 1.54 .50 .02 –3. Volunteer tenure 2.51 .65 .19** .05 –4. Senior pastor tenure 2.52 .70 -.14** .01 .15** –5. Congregational size 3.15 1.34 -.28** -.01 .06 .53** –6. Transactional leadership 1.69 .58 .03 -.02 .00 .08** -.02 –7. Transformational leadership 3.24 .50 -.07 .03 -.06 -.10** .03 .15** –8. Trust 3.63 .46 -.04 -.01 -.03 -.10** -.03 -.01 .66** –9. Value congruence 3.62 .43 -.01 -.01 .02 -.10** -.01 -02 .61** .77** –

10. Extrinsic motivation 1.27 .78 -.06 -.07 -.03 .01 -.04 .25** .02 -.08** .09** –11. Intrinsic motivation 3.80 .67 -.06 .09* .04 .07 .14** .08** .32** .28** .30** .16*** p < .05. ** p < .01.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 22

Regression Analysis

Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted in order to test the four hypotheses.

Examination of Normal Probability Plots (P-P) and scatterplots confirmed the

normality and homoscedasticity of the regression residuals for the relationships

predicted by all four hypotheses. Examination of the Tolerance and Variance

Inflation Factor (VIF) values for each variable demonstrated the absence of

multicollinearity among the independent and control variables. Congregational size

was dummy coded to provide a series of dichotomous variables in order to measure

its impact on the relationships studied (Hair et al., 2010; Pallant, 2011).

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 1 was supported. The control variables were entered at Step 1,

explaining 1.3% of variance in extrinsic motivation. After entry of transactional

leadership and transformational leadership at Step 2, the total variance explained by

the model as a whole was 7.7% (F [10, 779] = 6.48, p < .001). The two independent

variables of transactional leadership and transformational leadership explained an

additional 6.4% of the variance of extrinsic motivation after controlling for the

other variables (ΔR2 = .064, ΔF [2, 779] = 26.90, p < .001). In the final model, two

variables were statistically significant, with transactional leadership recording the

higher beta value (β = .26, p < .01) and volunteer age the lower beta value (β = -.08,

p < .05). Transactional leadership predicted extrinsic motivation, but

transformational leadership did not do so. The regression analysis model summary

and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 6 and 7.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 23

Table 6: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H1 – Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership Predicting Extrinsic Motivation

Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P

1 .114a .013 .013 .2422 .277b .077 .064 .000a Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000. b Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000, transactional leadership, transformational leadership. c Dependent variable: extrinsic motivation.

Table 7: Regression Coefficients for H1 – Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership Predicting Extrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B Β

Step 1Volunteer age -.04 .02 -.07Volunteer gender -.10 .06 -.07Volunteer tenure -.02 .04 -.02Senior pastor tenure .04 .05 .04Congregational size < 100 (omitted) – – –Congregational size 100-199 -.01 .10 .00Congregational size 200-499 -.12 .09 -.06Congregational size 500-999 -.10 .10 -.06Congregational size ≥ 1000 -.17 .11 -.09

Step 2Volunteer age -.04 .02 -.08*Volunteer gender -.09 .05 -.06Volunteer tenure -.01 .04 -.01Senior pastor tenure .00 .05 .00Congregational size < 100 (omitted) — — —Congregational size 100-199 -.02 .10 -.01Congregational size 200-499 -.10 .09 -.05Congregational size 500-999 -.03 .10 -.02Congregational size ≥ 1000 -.15 .11 -.08Transactional leadership .35 .05 .26**Transformational leadership -.04 .06 -.02Note. Step 1 R2 = .013; Step 2 R2 = .077.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 24

Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Trust and value congruence were regressed

separately on transactional leadership to determine if it predicted either. In both

cases there was no statistically significant effect of transactional leadership. If

transactional leadership had been shown to have a statistically significant effect on

trust or value congruence, then the following step would have been to test the

mediation of trust and value congruence on the relationship between transactional

leadership and extrinsic motivation. The regression analysis model summaries and

regression coefficients are presented in Tables 8 to 11.

Table 8: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Trust

Stepb R R2 ∆R2 P

1 .001a .000 .000 .967a Predictor (constant) transactional leadership. b Dependent variable: trust.

Table 9: Regression Coefficients for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Trust

Variable B SE B Β

Step 1TRL .00 .03 .00Note. Step 1 R2 = .000.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Table 1: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Value Congruence

Stepb R R2 ∆R2 p

1 .022a .000 .000 .540

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 25

a Predictor (constant) transactional leadership. b Dependent variable: value congruence.

Table 2: Regression Coefficients for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Value Congruence

Variable B SE B β

Step 1Transactional leadership -.02 .03 -.02Note. Model 1 R2 = .000.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 3 was supported. The control variables were entered at Step 1,

explaining 3% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of transformational

leadership and transactional leadership at Step 2, the total variance explained by the

model as a whole was 13.3% (F [10, 779] = 11.99, p < .001). The two independent

variables of transformational leadership and transactional leadership explained an

additional 10.3% of the variance of IM after controlling for the other variables (ΔR2

= .103, ΔF [2, 779] = 46.37, p < .001). In the final model, five variables were

statistically significant. Transformational leadership recorded the highest beta value

(β = .32, p < .01). The other four statistically significant variables were

congregational size 200-499 (β = .14, p < .01), congregational size ≥ 1000 (β = .13,

p < .05), congregational size 500-999 (β = .12, p < .05), and volunteer gender (β

= .08, p < .05). Transformational leadership predicted intrinsic motivation, but

transactional leadership did not do so. The regression analysis model summary and

regression coefficients are presented in Tables 12 and 13.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 26

Table 3: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H3 – Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P

1 .174a .030 .030 .0022 .365b .133 .103 .000a Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000. b Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000, transformational leadership, transactional leadership. Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.

Table 4: Regression Coefficients for H3 – Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B β

Step 1Volunteer age -.01 .02 -.03Volunteer gender .12 .05 .09**Volunteer tenure .03 .04 .03Senior pastor tenure -.01 .04 -.01Congregational size < 100 (omitted) – – –Congregational size 100-199 .06 .09 .04Congregational size 200-499 .20 .08 .13*Congregational size 500-999 .21 .09 .14*Congregational size ≥ 1000 .26 .10 .15**

Step 2Volunteer age -.01 .02 -.02Volunteer gender .11 .04 .08*Volunteer tenure .04 .04 .04Senior pastor tenure .03 .04 .04Congregational size < 100 (omitted) – – –Congregational size 100-199 .11 .08 .06Congregational size 200-499 .22 .08 .14**Congregational size 500-999 .19 .08 .12*Congregational size ≥ 1000 .23 .09 .13*Transformational leadership .43 .05 .32**Transactional leadership .04 .04 .03Note. Step 1 R2 = .030; Step 2 R2 = .133.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

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Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 4 was supported. It was tested by conducting initial regression analyses

to determine if transformational leadership predicted trust or value congruence, and

then conducting further regression analyses to determine whether trust and value

congruence had mediating effects on the relation between transformational

leadership and intrinsic motivation. Control variables were not used in these

regressions.

Trust was regressed on transformational leadership to determine if transformational

leadership predicted trust. This regression explained 43.4% of the variance in trust

(ΔR2 = .434, ΔF [1, 778] = 604.39, p < .001). Transformational leadership was

statistically significant, recording a beta value of .66, p < .01. Transformational

leadership significantly predicted trust. The regression analysis model summary

and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 14 and 15.

Table 14: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4 – Transformational Leadership Predicting Trust

Stepb R R2 ∆R2 P

1 .659a .434 .434 .000a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Dependent variable: trust.

Table 15: Regression Coefficient for H4 – Transformational Leadership Predicting Trust

Variable B SE B β

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 28

Step 1Transformational leadership .61 .02 .66**Note. Step 1 R2 = .434.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

In order to test the mediating effect of trust on the relation between

transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation further regression analysis was

conducted. Transformational leadership was entered at Step 1, explaining 10.3% of

variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of trust at Step 2, the total variance

explained by the model as a whole was 11.2% (F [2, 787] = 49.60, p < .001). Trust

explained an additional 1% of the variance of implicit motivation after controlling

for transformational leadership (ΔR2 = .009, ΔF [1, 787] = 8.16, p < .01). In the

final model, transformational leadership (β = .24, p < .01) and trust (β = .13, p

< .01) were statistically significant. The change in the regression coefficient for

transformational leadership indicates the mediation of trust. Transformational

leadership had a regression coefficient of .43 (SE = .05, p < .01) at Step 1 and a

regression coefficient of .32 (SE = .06, p < .01) at Step 2.

The statistical significance of the difference between the two transformational

leadership regression coefficients (.43, .32) was tested by converting the values to a

z score using the formula: z = b1 – b2 / √ SEb1 + SEb2 (Paternoster, Brame,

Mazerolle, and Piquero, 1998). The z score is the standard normal distribution with

a mean of 0 and quantifies the score in terms of the number of standard deviations

from the mean. The result was z = .43 - .32 / √ .0462 + .0602 = 1.47. Using a 95%

confidence level (p = .05), z scores between -1.96 and +1.96 indicate the likelihood

of the null hypothesis (Pallant, 2011). The z score of t = 1.47 falls within this range

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 29

indicating that the change in the transformational leadership coefficient was not

significant although it was substantive.

Because the regression coefficient for transformational leadership was smaller after

entry of trust, but not significantly smaller, and because the betas for

transformational leadership and trust were statistically significant, then trust exerted

a partial mediation on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic

motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the effects of transformational

leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust. The regression analysis

model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 16 and 17.

Table 16: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4 – Transformational Leadership and Trust Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P

1 .321a .103 .103 .0002 .335b .112 .009 .004a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Predictors (constant) transformational leadership, trust. c Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.

Table 17: Regression Coefficient for H4 – Transformational Leadership and Trust Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B β

Step 1Transformational leadership .43 .05 .32**

Step 2Transformational leadership .32 .06 .24**Trust .19 .05 .13**Note. Step 1 R2 = .103; Step 2 R2 = .112.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 30

Value congruence was regressed on transformational leadership to determine if

transformational leadership predicted value congruence. This regression explained

37.4% of the variance in value congruence (ΔR2= .374, ΔF [1, 788] = 471.44, p

< .001). Transformational leadership was statistically significant, recording a beta

value of .61, p < .01. Transformational leadership significantly predicted value

congruence. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients

are presented in Tables 18 and 19.

Table 18: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4—Transformational Leadership Predicting Value Congruence

Stepb R R2 ∆R2 p

1 .612a .374 .374 .000a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Dependent variable: value congruence.

Table 19: Regression Coefficients for H4—Transformational Leadership Predicting Value Congruence

Variable B SE B β

Step 1Transformational leadership .53 .02 .61**Note. Step 1 R2 = .374.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

In order to test the mediating effect of value congruence on the relation between

transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, further regression analysis

was conducted. Transformational leadership was entered at Step 1, explaining

10.1% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of value congruence at Step

2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 10.5% (F [2, 787] =

46.38, p < .001). Value congruence explained an additional .4% of the variance of

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 31

implicit motivation after controlling for transformational leadership (ΔR2= .004, ΔF

[1, 787] = 3.87, p < .05). In the final model, transformational leadership (β = .27, p

< .01) and value congruence (β = .08, p < .05) were statistically significant. The

change in the regression coefficient for transformational leadership indicates the

mediation of value congruence. Transformational leadership had a regression

coefficient of .43 (SE = .05, p < .01) at Step 1 and a regression coefficient of .36

(SE = .06, p < .01) at Step 2.

The statistical significance of the difference between the two transformational

leadership regression coefficients (.43, .36) was tested by converting the values to a

z score using the formula: z = b1 – b2 / √ SEb1 + SEb2 (Paternoster, Brame,

Mazerolle, and Piquero, 1998). The result was z = .43 - .36 / √ .0462 + .0582 = .95.

Using a 95% confidence level (p = .05), z scores between -1.96 and +1.96 indicate

the likelihood of the null hypothesis (Pallant, 2011). The z score of t = .95 falls

within this range indicating that the change in the transformational leadership

coefficient was not significant although it was substantive.

Because the regression coefficient for transformational leadership was smaller after

entry of value congruence, but not significantly smaller, and because the betas for

transformational leadership and value congruence were statistically significant,

then value congruence exerted a partial mediation on the relation between

transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but

not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation

occurred through value congruence. The regression analysis model summary and

regression coefficients are presented in Tables 20 and 21.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 32

Table 5: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4 – Transformational Leadership and Value Congruence predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P

1 .318a .101 .101 .0002 .325b .105 .004 .050a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Predictors (constant) transformational leadership, value congruence. c Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.

Table 6: Regression Coefficient for H4 – TFL, VC, and I Transformational Leadership and Value Congruence Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B β

Step 1Transformational leadership .43 .05 .32**

Step 2Transformational leadership .36 .06 .27**Value congruence .13 .07 .08*Note. Step 1 R2 = .101; Step 2 R2 = .105.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Transformational leadership significantly predicted trust and value congruence.

Trust and value congruence both exerted partial mediation on the relation between

transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but

not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation

occurred through trust and value congruence.

Summary of Findings

The goal of this study was to examine the relationships between the transactional

and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors of church congregations

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 33

and the levels of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation experienced by volunteers

within those congregations. It also sought to investigate whether volunteer trust in

and value congruence with senior pastors mediated the relationships between

leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation. The study expanded on previous

theoretical understanding of transactional and transformational leadership in church

congregations and similar nonprofit organizations and of volunteer motivation by

testing the impact of leadership behaviors on motivation. Previous studies which

employed self-determination theory to examine volunteer motivation or which

examined transactional and transformational leadership in church and nonprofit

settings, had not tested the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer

motivation. Table 22 summarizes the findings of the study.

Table 7: Summary of Multivariate Results

Variable TrustValue

congruenceIntrinsic

motivationExtrinsic

motivationTransformational leadership + + + –Transactional leadership – – – +Trust +Value congruence +Note. + = significant positive relationship, and – = no significant relationship.

Transactional Leadership Behaviors Predict Volunteers’ Extrinsic Motivation

The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the transactional

leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predict volunteer extrinsic

motivation, but that transformational leadership behaviors do not do so. Correlation

analysis also indicated a significant positive correlation between transactional

leadership and extrinsic motivation. These results are consistent with transactional

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 34

leadership theory which posits that such leadership establishes an exchange

relationship with followers offering rewards for services rendered (Bass, 1985;

Burns, 1978). They are also consistent with self-determination theory which

connects extrinsic motivation to external and instrumental motivators (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior

pastors is likely to reinforce extrinsic motivation among volunteers within church

congregations.

It is noteworthy that survey subjects rated senior pastors low in transactional

leadership (M = 1.69) and high in transformational leadership (M = 3.24), and

themselves low in extrinsic motivation (M = 1.27) and high in intrinsic motivation

(M = 3.80). These results indicate that volunteers perceived senior pastors as more

typically exercising transformational rather than transactional leadership behaviors

and themselves as more typically experiencing intrinsic rather than extrinsic

motivation.

Transactional Leadership Behaviors, Trust, and Value Congruence Predicting

Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation

The results of regression analysis indicate that the transactional leadership

behaviors of senior pastors did not significantly predict volunteer trust in or value

congruence with senior pastors. Correlation analysis also indicated no significant

positive correlation between transactional leadership and trust or value congruence.

Because transactional leadership did not have a statistically significant effect on

trust or value congruence, these two variables did not have a mediating effect on

the relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 35

These results are not consistent with the findings of Jung and Avolio (2000) that

transactional leadership predicts trust and value congruence and that these variables

mediate the impact of transactional leadership on follower performance. They are

also not consistent with transactional leadership theory which posits that

transactional leaders build follower trust and value congruence by engaging in

consistent behavior, honoring agreements, sharing mutual values, and

acknowledging the abilities and contributions of followers (Bass, 1985; Podsakoff

et al., 1990).

The absence of a relationship between transactional leadership and trust and value

congruence is likely to be related to the low mean obtained for transactional

leadership (M = 1.69). Survey subjects perceived senior pastors as more typically

engaging in transformational (M = 3.24) rather than transactional leadership

behaviors. It is possible that this significant difference in ratings of

transformational and transactional leadership is in part related to an implicit

leadership theory commonly held by church volunteers (Offermann, Kennedy, and

Wirtz, 1994). Transactional leadership behaviors are practiced by effective senior

pastors in order to enable volunteers to clearly understand their task descriptions

and the desired outcomes that result from the performance of these tasks (Butler

and Herman, 1999; Druskat, 1994; Son, 2003). This is an integral component of

congregational leadership which is augmented by transformational behaviors (Bass,

1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009) and should likely

have been rated more highly by subjects (Onnen, 1987).

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 36

Offermann et al. (1994) observed that “individuals possess their own naïve, implicit

theories of leadership and are readily willing to determine their boundaries and

characteristics” (p. 44). Such theories are developed through socialization and past

experiences, and represent cognitive schemas specifying traits and behaviors that

followers expect from leaders. They are stored in memory and activated when

followers interact with a person in a leadership position (Epitropaki and Martin,

2004). These implicit leadership theories provide the basis for follower

understanding of and response to leader behavior. The possibility that

transformational leadership is the implicit leadership theory for senior pastors

among congregational members is consistent with previous findings that church

volunteers prefer clergy to exercise transformational leadership behaviors (Bae,

2001; Druskat, 1994; Callahan, 1996; Choi, 2006; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008)

and with Christian understandings of leadership as being charismatic and virtuous

(e.g., 1 Corinthians 11:1; Barrett, 1971; Fee, 1987; Morris, 1980).

The existence of an implicit theory of transformational leadership held by church

volunteers in regard to clergy is supported by Onnen’s (1987) finding that laity in

churches seemed to perceive all clergy as being transformational even when the

church was not growing or was declining. She suggested that a “halo” effect was

likely to be present when laity rated clergy. A halo effect is present when a rater

has a general conception of a person as being at a certain level and therefore

possessing certain qualities. In the case of clergy, the role is identified with

charisma and virtue as ministers seek to motivate laity through weekly preaching

and related activities and are understood to exemplify Christian values. The

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 37

position of senior pastor is likely to attract a “halo” which results in higher

transformational and lower transactional ratings of the incumbent by volunteers,

regardless of the actual performance of the senior pastor.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors Predicting Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation

The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the transformational

leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predict volunteer intrinsic

motivation, but that transactional leadership behaviors do not do so. Correlation

analysis also indicated a significant positive correlation between transformational

leadership and intrinsic motivation. These results are consistent with

transformational leadership theory which posits that such leadership establishes a

moral and inspirational relationship with followers which motivates them to work

for transcendental goals and for aroused higher-level needs for self-actualization

(Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). They are also consistent with self-determination theory

which connects intrinsic motivation to internal motivators to fulfill the needs for

autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). The practice

of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to reinforce

intrinsic motivation among volunteers within church congregations.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors, Trust, and Value Congruence Predicting

Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation

The results of regression analysis indicate that the transformational leadership

behaviors of senior pastors significantly predicted volunteer trust in and value

congruence with senior pastors. Correlation analysis also indicated significant

positive correlations between transformational leadership and trust and value

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 38

congruence. Further regression analysis indicated that both trust and value

congruence exerted a partial mediation on the relation between transformational

leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the

effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust

and/or value congruence.

These results are consistent with the findings of Podsakoff et al. (1990), Shamir et

al. (1993), and Jung and Avolio (2000) that transformational leadership predicts

trust and value congruence and that these variables mediate the impact of

transformational leadership on follower performance. They are also consistent with

transformational leadership theory which posits that transformational leaders

inspire follower trust and value congruence by means of personal example and

vision-casting (Bass, 1985; Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Podsakoff et al. 1990).

Survey subjects rated senior pastors high in transformational leadership (M = 3.24),

and themselves high in intrinsic motivation (M = 3.80), trust (M = 3.63), and value

congruence (M = 3.62). As well as the significant positive correlations between

transformational leadership and trust and value congruence, there were also

significant positive correlations between trust and value congruence, trust and

intrinsic motivation, and value congruence and intrinsic motivation. These results

indicate that volunteers perceived senior pastors as typically exercising

transformational leadership behaviors and themselves as typically experiencing

trust in and value congruence with senior pastors, as well as intrinsic motivation.

Overview of Findings

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 39

Senior pastor transactional leadership behaviors have positive relationships with

volunteer extrinsic motivation and transformational leadership behaviors have

positive relationships with intrinsic motivation. Volunteer trust in and value

congruence with senior pastors has a partial mediation effect on the relationship

between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, but not on the

relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation.

These results are consistent with transactional and transformational leadership

theory (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978) and with self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008). They are also consistent with previous studies which have

found that transactional and transformational leadership have positive

organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit organizations (Bae;

2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996;

Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007;

Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;

Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and that trust and value congruence have

mediating effects on the impact of transformational leadership on follower

performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993).

The contribution of this study has been to identify positive relationships between

leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, as well as mediating effects of trust

and value congruence.

Revised Study Model

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 40

A revised study model is presented in Figure 2. It emphasizes the relationship

between the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior

pastors and the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The

relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation can be

direct or mediated by volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior

pastor. The relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation

is direct and not mediated.

Figure 2: A revised model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.

Theoretical Implications

This study contributed to the leadership and motivation literature by: (a) connecting

transactional and transformational leadership theory with self-determination theory

in order to examine the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer

Senior pastor transactional leadership

behaviorsVolunteer extrinsic

motivation

Senior pastor transformational

leadership behaviors

Volunteer intrinsic motivation

Volunteer trust in senior pastor

Volunteer value congruence with

senior pastor

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 41

motivation in a nonprofit setting, and thereby demonstrating (b) positive

relationships between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation and

transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, and (c) mediation effects of

trust and value congruence on the relationship between transformational leadership

and intrinsic motivation.

No previous study had examined relationships between transactional and

transformational leadership and volunteer motivation in a nonprofit setting. Self-

determination theory had previously linked volunteer intrinsic motivation to

situational variables including social environment and work context (Deci et al.,

1994; Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). Environmental conditions that supported

satisfaction of volunteers’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were

found to predict intrinsic motivation. Millette and Gagné (2008) suggested that

leadership behaviour was likely to be an important factor impacting on volunteer

motivation while noting that such research had not been conducted. This study

employed self-determination theory to conceptualize volunteer motivation, and

demonstrated that transactional leadership predicts extrinsic motivation and

transformational leadership predicts intrinsic motivation. This finding builds on and

adds to existing understanding that transactional and transformational leadership

have positive organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit

organizations (Bae; 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999;

Callahan, 1996; Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994;

Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Johnson, 2007; Knudsen, 2006; Onnen, 1987;

Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003).

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 42

While previous studies had identified that trust and value congruence increase

followers’ responsiveness to a leader and task performance (Jung and Avolio,

2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993), none had investigated mediation

effects of these variables on the relationship between leadership behavior and

volunteer motivation. This study demonstrated mediation effects of trust and value

congruence on the positive relationship between transformational leadership and

intrinsic motivation. The relationship between transformational leadership and

intrinsic motivation and the mediation effects of trust and value congruence

indicate that transformational leadership augments the impact of transactional

leadership on volunteer motivation. Such an augmentation effect had previously

been demonstrated in relation to follower performance (Bass, 1985; Judge and

Piccolo, 2004), but not to volunteer motivation. The exercise of transformational

leadership behaviors will augment the impact of transactional leadership behaviors

on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations by inspiring trust, value

congruence, and intrinsic motivation.

Practical Implications

Nonprofit organizations that depend on volunteer workers require leaders who can

inspire intrinsic motivation in volunteers (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Riggio et

al., 2004). The organizational problems of shorter tenure and poorer task

performance are less likely to occur among volunteers in nonprofit organizations

where leaders exercise transformational leadership behaviors directed towards the

enhancement of volunteer trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 43

Therefore, this study provides the following practical implications for nonprofit

organizations: (a) leader selection criteria should incorporate evidence of effective

demonstration of transformational leadership behaviors; (b) leader training should

incorporate transformational leadership behaviors that enhance volunteer trust,

value congruence, and intrinsic motivation; and (c) leadership strategies should

incorporate the goal of building volunteer intrinsic motivation.

Self-determination theory posits that volunteers are motivated to satisfy their innate

psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. As these needs are

met through voluntary activity, a volunteer is more likely to be intrinsically

motivated and to provide higher quality task performance over a longer period of

time (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Millette and Gagné, 2008). This study has shown that

transformational leadership predicts trust, value congruence, and intrinsic

motivation, and augments the impact of transactional leadership. Therefore,

evidence of effective demonstration of the four interrelated transformational

leadership behaviors of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual

stimulation, and individualized consideration should be added to the transactional

leadership behaviors of contingent reward and management by exception

(Yammarino and Bass, 1990) as core criteria for leader selection.

Training in transformational leadership behaviors should be provided to intending

and incumbent organizational leaders. The findings of this study provide

components of a transformational leadership training program. It should include

training in how transformational leaders motivate volunteers and enhance their task

performance. This would counter the tendency to mystify transformational

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 44

leadership by mainly focusing on the leader’s charismatic qualities and personal

characteristics (Jung and Avolio, 2000). Leaders should also be educated in self-

determination theory and assisted in devising and implementing strategies to

inspire volunteers’ intrinsic motivation. Practical training in critical behaviors that

build trust, enhance value congruence, and increase intrinsic motivation should be

built into a transformational leadership training program.

Study Strengths and Weaknesses

A key strength of this study is that it adds to the field of research regarding

leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. Previous research had not studied

transactional and transformational leadership behaviors as predictors of volunteer

motivation (Millette and Gagné, 2008). This study was able to identify positive

relationships between leadership behaviors and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

among volunteers.

Another strength of this study was the sample which consisted of 790 subjects from

28 different churches across a range of congregational sizes and rating the

leadership behaviors of 28 different senior pastors. Although the congregations

were selected to represent different size categories, the subjects were self-selected.

The sample size and its representativeness suggest the findings may generalize to

the broader population of church congregations and nonprofit organizations.

A general weakness of this study was the self-reporting of volunteers’ motivation.

The low rating of extrinsic motivation and the high rating of intrinsic motivation

across subjects might indicate that the existence of socially desirable responses. In

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 45

order to limit social desirability response bias, subjects were guaranteed response

confidentiality and anonymity. However, some subjects may have responded

according to who they would like to be rather than who they actually are. If so, this

would likely result in higher intrinsic motivation self-ratings and lower extrinsic

motivation self-ratings.

A related weakness was the possible existence of an implicit theory of

transformational leadership—a “halo” effect—at work in volunteers as they rated

the leadership of senior pastors. It is likely that subjects gave higher ratings of

senior pastors’ transformational leadership and lower ratings of transactional

leadership because of their implicit perceptions of the appropriate characteristics of

the position of senior pastor.

Another weakness was the quantitative and cross-sectional design of the survey. As

a quantitative study, it lacked the qualitative data that might be obtained from

interviews and observations. This placed a limit on understanding why subjects

provided the ratings that they did. The cross-sectional design did not allow for

changes in the key variables and relationships over time.

Directions for Future Research

The results of this study indicate that future research should examine the existence

of implicit theories of leadership held by congregational members in regard to

clergy and the impact of such perceptions on their ratings of transactional and

transformational leadership behaviors. Studies incorporating leaders’ self-ratings

and peer ratings, as well as volunteer ratings, of nonprofit organizational leaders’

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 46

behaviors are likely to provide greater insight into the exercise of transactional and

transformational leadership behaviors.

The relationships between transactional and transformational leadership, trust and

value congruence, and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation could be further explored

by conducting similar studies in other nonprofit and for-profit organizations. Such

studies across other organizations and industries would be needed to verify the

findings of this study and to demonstrate whether they can be generalized.

A longitudinal study could examine whether the relationships change over a longer

period of time with increasing incumbent tenure. A related longitudinal study could

examine whether interventions in the form of transformational leadership training

produced stronger relationships with trust, value congruence, and intrinsic

motivation.

Finally, future studies should include qualitative research in a mixed methods design

with interviews among volunteers in church congregations and other nonprofit settings.

In-depth interviews of a subsample of subjects would provide a richer perspective on

why volunteers continue in their roles and what leadership behaviors contribute to the

enhancement of intrinsic motivation.

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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 47

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