Dissertation Template (1)

8/10/2019 Dissertation Template (1)

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Co%-ri$ht -Carlos Es%ino.a

/012


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The Thesis of Carlos Es%ino.a is a%%ro,e!3

Committee Chair%erson

Uni,ersit- of California7 Ri,ersi!e


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AC8NO9LED&E*ENTS

First7 I 6o'l! li5e to e:%ress m- !ee% an! sincere $ratit'!e to m- a!,isor7 Dr4

A5'a AsaA6'5'4 She 6as more than an o'tstan!in$ a!,isor7 she has een an ins%iration

thro'$ho't m- ;o'rne- at UCR4 She %ro,i!e! me 6ith an o%en!oor %olic- to $i,e

insi$htf'l $'i!ance an! contin'o's s'%%ort thro'$ho't m- st'!ies4 I 6as ,er- fort'nate

to ha,e ha! s'ch a 6on!erf'l h'man ein$ as an a!,isor4 I 6o'l! also li5e to than5 m-

coa!,isor Dr4 Da,i! Coc5er 6ho %ro,i!e! the o%%ort'nit- to !isc'ss m- %ro$ress

thro'$h 6ee5l- $ro'% meetin$s4 #e $a,e $reat s'$$estions an! $'i!elines on im%ro,in$

m- 6or54 Dr4 &eor$ios 8ara,ala5is 6as also an o'tstan!in$ a!,isor4 #e hel%e! me

'n!erstan! en$ine technolo$ies7 com'stion7 f'el %ro%erties7 an! tren!s in the !ata4 Dr4

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A=STRACT OF T#E T#ESIS

Particle Emissions from Vehicles (SIPFI an! SIDI" at #i$h S%ee! an! From Lar$eOcean&oin$ Vessels

-

Carlos Es%ino.a*aster of Science7 Chemical an! En,ironmental En$ineerin$

Uni,ersit- of California7 Ri,ersi!e7 No,emer /012Dr4 A5'a AsaA6'5'7 Chair%erson

Li$ht!'t- %assen$er cars an! lar$e ocean$oin$ ,essels re%resent t6o %article emission

so'rces that ha,e the ailit- to affect h'man health7 climate chan$e an! air )'alit- in

local comm'nities an! 6orl!6i!e4 Dri,in$ s%ee! an! en$ine technolo$- are t6o factors

that can affect ,ehicle emissions4 In California7 !ri,ers can !ri,e '%6ar!s of >0? at

s%ee!s ao,e the %oste! limits4 This can ca'se hi$h 'ncertaint- 6hen mo!elin$ ,ehicle

emissions4 The first %art of this thesis e:amines oth hi$hs%ee! !ri,in$ an! !irect

in;ection effects on %article concentration an! com%osition 6hile the secon! %art

e:amines the effecti,eness of a scr'er technolo$- to remo,e %artic'late matter (P*"

from lar$e ocean$oin$ ,essel emissions4 The res'lts sho6 that hi$hs%ee! !ri,in$ can

affect oth total %article co'nt an! com%osition si$nificantl- as 6ell as !irectin;ection

technolo$-4 Ocean$oin$ ,essels e)'i%%e! 6ith a scr'er are effecti,e at remo,in$

$aseo's SO/7 ho6e,er7 the- are not as effecti,e at remo,in$ P* or lac5 caron (=C"4

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14/ Vehicle En$ine Technolo$-The contin'o's %rice increase tren! 6ith f'el %rices necessitates the im%ro,ement

of $asoline en$ines7 there is a $ro6in$ mar5et !eman! for f'el efficient cars @4 Car

man'fact'rers ha,e confi$'re! en$ines s'ch that f'el econom- can e increase! thro'$h

the im%lementation of &DI4 The t6o main factors attri'te! to en$ine efficienc- incl'!e

the com%ression ratio7 an! the airf'el ratio4 #i$her com%ression ratios co'l! lea! en$ine

5noc5in$4 *a:imi.in$ efficienc- can e achie,e! - an airf'el ratio that is lean@4 PFI

en$ines are !esi$ne! to o%erate at stoichiometric airf'el ratios an! th's it is not %ossile

to increase f'el econom- 6ith this a%%roach4 &DI en$ines ho6e,er7 can o%erate

!ifferentl- accor!in$ to loa!4 A &DI en$ine can o%erate 6ith a lean airf'el mi:t're

!'rin$ lo6 loa!s an! 6ith a stoichiometric or sli$htl- rich mi:t're at hi$h loa!s@4 In &DI

en$ines7 f'el is in;ecte! !irectl- into the com'stion chamer %rior to i$nition - the

s%ar5 %l'$4 D'rin$ lo6 or me!i'm en$ine loa!s7 the air f'el ratio can ,ar- insi!e the

com'stion chamer7 creatin$ f'el rich .ones an! lean con!itions sim'ltaneo'sl-@4 For

e:am%le7 the airf'el mi:t're ma- e rich near the s%ar5 %l'$ %rior to i$nition an! lean

else6here7 this !ecreases f'el cons'm%tion an! %o6er o't%'t7 th's is onl- %ro$ramme!

!'rin$ lo6 or me!i'm loa! con!itions4 D'rin$ hi$h loa! con!itions7 homo$eneo's7 or

stoichiometric o%eration can ta5e %lace4 F'el is in;ecte! at the inta5e stro5e7 e,a%orate!

an! i$nite!4 The e,a%oration of the f'el ma- increase ,ol'metric efficienc- - increasin$

the com%ression ratio '% to 1/31 an! 'ltimatel- hi$her tor)'e4 =eca'se the f'el is

!irectl- in;ecte! into the com'stion chamer either ;'st %rior to i$nition or !'rin$ the

inta5e stro5e the f'el m'st e in;ecte! at hi$h %ress're to hel% 6ith the ,a%ori.ation

%rocess4 E,en 6ith hi$h %ress'res7 not all f'el has eno'$h time to ,a%ori.e an! can res'lt

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in %iston an! 6all 6ettin$4 In ret'rn7 incom%lete com'stion ma- occ'r the reaction is

!iff'sion limite! an! o:-$en ma- not reach all areas of the c-lin!er7 lea,in$ 'n'rne!

f'el that 'ltimatel- t'rns to soot an! increases %article %oll'tion4

14B Dri,in$ s%ee! tren!s an! emissions mo!elin$In California7 the California Air Reso'rces =oar! (CAR=" estimates emissions

from onroa! ,ehicles from the emission factor mo!el (E*FAC"4 The mo!el 'ses s%ee!

correction factors to a!;'st emission factors for s%ee!s $reater than @ miles %er ho'r

(m%h"4 The correction factors 'se! are ase! on emission,ers'ss%ee! c'r,e fittin$s of

'nifie! correction c-cles 6hose s%ee! ,al'es ran$e from @ to @ m%h4 Stron$ e,i!ence

from the California De%artment of Trans%ortation (Caltrans" Free6a- Performance

*eas'rement S-stem (PE*S" s'$$ests that more than @0? of free6a- ,ehicle miles

tra,ele! (V*T" in California are at s%ee!s ao,e @ m%h4 F'rthermore7 more than 20?

of the total V*T in California occ'r on interstates an! free6a-s7 see Fi$'res 1B41 an! 1

B4/4 =ase! on E*FAC /011 mo!el7 it is clear that mo!elin$ ,ehicle emissions at hi$h

s%ee! in California is still s';ect to lar$e 'ncertainties4 Inacc'rate emission factors co'l!

e 'se! 6hen consi!erin$ s%ee!s $reater than @ m%h an! conse)'entl- mislea! the

!esi$n of co'ntermeas'res to control emissions as 6ell as the enefits of &DI technolo$-4

Therefore7 it is !esirale to meas're emissions from li$ht!'t- ,ehicles 'n!er s%ee!s

$reater than @ m%h an! 'ltimatel- s'%%lement E*FAC /0114

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Fi$'re 1B41 Percent of free6a- V*T at s%ee!s $reater than @ m%h>

Fi$'re 1B4/ Percent of /00/ ann'al V*T - roa!6a- f'nctional class>

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/41 Vehicle Emissions Research Laorator-The Uni,ersit- of California7 Ri,ersi!es (UCR" Center for En,ironmental Research +

Technolo$- (CECERT" is e)'i%%e! 6ith a stateoftheart ,ehicle emissions research

laorator- (VERL" for meas'rin$ li$ht!'t- ,ehicle e:ha'st emissions re%resentati,e of

real6orl! !ri,in$ con!itions4 See Fi$'re //41 this facilit- is e)'i%%e! 6ith a ='r5e E4

Porter 2inch li$ht!'t- chassis !-namometer ca%ale of sim'latin$ !-namic !ri,in$

c-cles4 This facilit- is ca%ale of sam%lin$ e:ha'st from ,ario's ,ehicles an! f'els4 There

are a three se%arate constant ,ol'me sam%ler (CVS" t'nnels ca%ale of %ro,i!in$ !il'te!

sam%le %oints for $asoline7 !iesel an! nat'ral $as e:ha'st4 *'lti%le a!,ance! %article

meas'rement instr'ments are installe! ca%ale of contin'o's %article meas'rement4

F'rthermore7 the la is also e)'i%%e! 6ith anal-tical instr'ments for meas'rin$ re$'late!

an! 'nre$'late! $aseo's emissions4 Fi$'re //41 sho6s the o,erall testin$ schematic4

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Fi$'re 1/41 UCRs VERL set'%

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Fi$'re /B41 TSI UCPC B>> o%eration !ia$ram

This 'nit co'nts aerosol %articles an! is ca%ale of fast aerosol concentration chan$e

res%onse4 It can co'nt '% to B007000 %articlescmBan! is ca%ale of !etectin$ %articles

!o6n to /4B nanometers in !iameter4

In a!!ition to total %article co'nt7 %article si.e !istri'tion meas'rements 6ere ta5en

'sin$ TSIs EEPS mo!el B004 This 'nit is ca%ale of contin'o's %article n'mer

concentration meas'rement from e:ha'st 6ith a fast time resol'tion4 It meas'res the si.e

!istri'tion an! concentration of en$ine e:ha'st 6ithin a ran$e of @4 to @0

nanometers1B4 The instr'ment !ra6s sam%le e:ha'st from the CVS contin'o'sl-4 Sam%le

%articles are %ositi,el- char$e! 'sin$ a corona char$er4 Then7 these ne6l- char$e!

%articles are intro!'ce! to a re$ion near the center of a hi$h,olta$e electro!e col'mn an!

trans%orte! !o6n6ar!s thro'$h filtere! sheath air4 A %ositi,e ,olta$e is a%%lie! to the

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electro!e an! a re%'lsion force is create!4 This re%els the %ositi,el- char$e! %articles

o't6ar! accor!in$ to their electrical moilit-4 Ne:t7 %articles 6ith a hi$h electrical

moilit- stri5e electrometers near the to% 6here %articles 6ith a lo6 electrical moilit-

stri5e near the ottom1B4 This allo6s for sim'ltaneo's concentration meas'rements of

m'lti%le %article si.es4 See Fi$'re /B4/ for a flo6 schematic4 Lastl-7 the EEPS

transforms ra6 !ata into %article si.e an! concentration 'sin$ a realtime !ata in,ersion4

This acco'nts for ,ariailit- in %article char$e4

Partic'late matter an! lac5 caron 6ere oth meas're! for this st'!- 'sin$ an AVL

microsoot sensor mo!el 2B an! a Thermo Scientific *AAP mo!el @01/7 res%ecti,el-4

The AVL microsoot sensor meas'res ,ar-in$ soot concentrations 6ith hi$h sensiti,it-7

ha,in$ a !etection limit of @ G$mB4 The meas'rin$ %rinci%le is %hotoaco'stics4 Sam%le

!il'te! e:ha'st is %'lle! from the CVS an! !irecte! thro'$h a meas'rin$ chamer that is

thermall- animate! - a laser eam4 The mo!'late! heatin$ %ro!'ces %erio!ic %ress're

%'lsation7 6hich is !etecte! - a micro%hone as an aco'stic 6a,e124 This is !e%icte! in

Fi$'re /B4B4

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from the secon!ar- !il'tion (1/31" 6hich !ra6s !irectl- from the CVS4 After %assin$

thro'$h the CS7 %articles %ass thro'$h a coolin$ coil an! are co'nte! - another UCPC

TSI mo!el B>>4 This CS set '% has een sho6n to %erform %racticall- i!entical to the

Particle *eas'rement Pro$ramme (P*P"14

/42 Test Vehicles9hile a roa!er ran$e of li$ht!'t- ,ehicles 6ere selecte! an! teste!7 this st'!- foc'se!

on emissions from s%ar5i$nition !irectin;ection (SIDI" ,ehicles4 These 6ere selecte!

'sin$ on their E*FAC classes an! emission stan!ar!s7 see Tale /2414

Tale /241 Vehicle Classes in E*FAC

Vehicle

ClassFuel Type Code Description

Weight

Class

(lbs)

Abbreviatio

n

1&as7 Diesel7

ElectricPC

Passen$erCars

All LDA

/&as7 Diesel7

ElectricT1

Li$htD't-Tr'c5s

0B>@0 LDT1

B &as7 Diesel T/Li$htD't-

Tr'c5sB>@1@>@0 LDT/

2 &as7 Diesel TB*e!i'm

D't- Tr'c5s@>@1@00 *DV

@ &as7 Diesel T2Li$ht

#ea,-D't-@0110000 L#DT1

&as7 Diesel T@Li$ht

#ea,-D't-1000112000 L#DT/

> &as7 Diesel T*e!i'm

#ea,-D't-12001BB000 *#DT

&as7 Diesel T>#ea,-

#ea,-D't-BB0010000 ##DT

&as7 Diesel O= Other ='ses All O=US10 Diesel U= Uran ='ses All U=US11 &as *C *otorc-cles All *CY

1/ &as7 Diesel S=School='ses

All S=US

1B &as7 Diesel *#*otor#omes

All *#

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Che,- Im%ala LDA B4L V &DI /01B

*erce!es=en. EB@0 Co'%e LDA B4L V SP&DI /01B

To-ota 2R'nner LDT/ 240L V PFI /012

Do!$e Ram 1@00 LDT/ @4 V PFI /00/

Tale /24/ incl'!es $asoline !irectin;ection (&DI"7 %ortf'elin;ection (PFI"7 s%ra-

$'i!e! $asoline !irectin;ection (SP&DI"7 t'rochar$e! $asoline !irectin;ection (T

&DI" an! !iesel !irectin;ection (DDI" ,ehicles4

/4@ Dri,in$ C-clesIn the 10s7 Caltrans alon$ 6ith CAR= estalishe! the CaltransJAR= *o!elin$

Pro$ram (CA*P" in an effort to im%ro,e moile so'rce emissions in,entor- mo!elin$ in

California4 The %ro$ram foc'se! on im%ro,in$ s%ee! correction factors associate! 6ith

mo!elin$ emissions from ,ario's roa!6a-s4 The CA*P %ro;ect aime! to !e,elo% ma;or

rea5thro'$hs in emissions mo!elin$4 Some of the 5e- ones incl'!e !e,elo% sam%lin$

metho!s to collect an! recor! re%resentati,e free6a- !ri,in$ con!itions as 6ell as

!e,elo% a!e)'ate !ri,in$ c-cles an! meas're tail%i%e emissions 6ith a chassis

!-namometer4 This m'lti-ear research %ro;ect concl'!e! 6ith a lar$e !ata set of !ri,in$

an! tail%i%e emissions s%ecific to California4

In CA*P7 se,eral !ri,in$ c-cles 6ere !e,elo%e! 'sin$ fiel! !ri,in$ !ata4 For this st'!-7

the free6a- !ri,in$ c-cles !e,elo%e! are in foc's as hi$h s%ee!s are more li5el- to occ'r

on free6a-s4 These c-cle !e,elo%ments concl'!e! in t6o t-%es of free6a- !ri,in$ c-cles

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'sin$ fiel! !ri,in$ !ata collecte! on Los An$eles free6a-s4 LOS is ase! on traffic

meas'rements ta5en - the Free6a- Performance *eas'rement S-stem (Pe*S"4

The LOS !ri,in$ c-cles re%resent ,ario's traffic con$estion scenarios4 This ran$es from

A (least con$este!" to F (most con$este!"4 The tale elo6 sho6s a !istri'tion of the

!ata 'se! to !e,elo% the !ri,in$ c-cle4 LOS A thro'$h D sho6s hi$h s%en!s7 '% to

m%h7 6here LOS F sho6s a relati,el- slo6er s%ee!7 almost B/ m%h4

Tale /@41 Los An$eles free6a- !ri,in$ !ata - LOS !istri'tion10!"# $o% o&

#econds

Fre'uenc

y ()

!ock"n

*ate ()

Vehicle #peed (+ph)

Min Ma, Mean

A /17/@> 1/40 @4@> 24/ 4> 41= /07BB 1/410 422 0 14> 4>C /2700 124>0 4/ 24B 14> 42D @27/2@ B/410 14> 0 4> B4>E /7B1 1@40 B4 0 14 @@42F /172>> 1/4>0 @42> 0 >242 B14

All 168,793 100.00 91.01 0 91.7 59.7

Tale /@4/ Free6a- !ri,in$ c-cles !e,elo%e! for the CA*P %ro$ram10

Driving

Cycle

Ti+e

(+inutes

)

Distance

(+iles)

Vehicle #peed (+ph) Ti+e at #peed -.

/0 +ph

Min Ma, Mean #econds

LOSA 4@ >4@1 @@4 >4@ >4 /> >14?LOSAT 42/ 104 @B4> 14 41 B 4>?LOS= 410 40 @14> >4B 4 /B2 B4?

LOSC >42> 4/ 2>4 >4> 4@ B1/ 4?LOSD >4// >4@ 24/ >>4 @4B //2 @14>?LOSDT 400 4> 204 >@4B 24@ />> @14B?LOSE >4@ >42 141 >242 @>4/ 1B@ /4>?

LOSET 40/ 42 /4@ >>40 @>4@ 1/0 //4/?LOSF 4B 24@ B4 B4 B/4 0 040?#1232 4%56 1%77 2 /0%5 10%3 1 2%3

#3262 6%30 1%67 11%2 52%2 30%5 2 2%2

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#6252 4%47 5%30 0%1 06%4 63%7 2 2%2

#5202 /%/6 0%20 37%/ /6%1 50%4 2 2%2

#02/2 7%/6 7%15 6/%2 /0%5 0/%/ 14 6%6

#/242 7%67 8%13 0/%2 46%6 /0%6 34/ 05%8

#4272 7%/2 12%50 //%/ 73%6 43%8 01/ 122%2

Tale /@4/ ao,e s'mmari.es the !ri,in$ c-cle characteristics !e,elo%e! for the CA*P

%ro$ram4 The col'mn laele! as !ri,in$ c-cle re%resents the name of the !ri,in$ c-cle

!e,elo%e!4 *o,in$ across the tale se,eral characteristics are sho6n7 incl'!in$ ,ehicle

s%ee! in a minim'm7 ma:im'm an! mean ,al'e as 6ell as the time this c-cle s%en!s at a

s%ee! hi$her than or e)'al to @ m%h !is%la-e! as a %ercenta$e4 The tale sho6s that

c-cle LOS A has the hi$hest mean s%ee! amon$ the LOS $ro'%4 LOS A has a mean s%ee!

of >4 m%h for 6hich >/? of the time the c-cle acco'nts for a s%ee! of @ m%h or

$reater4

In this st'!-7 a total of !ifferent !ri,in$ c-cles 6ere selecte!4 From Tale /@4/7 S10/07

S/0B07 SB0207 S20@07 S@007 S0>07 S>00 6ere selecte!4 The fi$'res elo6 re%resent a

s%ee! trace 6ith m%h on the -a:is an! time in secon!s on the :a:is4 Another c-cle7

c-cle DSID1@ 6as also chosen as this c-cle has a mean s%ee! of > m%h 6hile 100? of

the time the s%ee! is ao,e @ m%h4 This c-cle 6as !e,elo%e! - the U4S4 En,ironmental

Protection A$enc-s *otor Vehicle Emission Sim'lator (*OVES"4

=oth !ri,in$ c-cles S>00 an! DSID1@ ha,e een chosen !'e to the characteristics of

their s%ee! an! !'ration4 The c-cles ecome the t-%e of hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$ on free6a-s

that is of interest for this st'!-4

Tale /@4B Dri,in$ c-cles 'se! in this st'!- Cycle 1 Cycle 2

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#peed !o9 :igh !o9 :igh

Ca+p Cycle

;hases

S10/07S/0B0

S>007DSID1@

SB0207S20@0

S@007S0>0

Tale /@4B sho6s t6o !ifferent s%ee! %hases %er c-cle 'se! for this st'!-4 C-cle 1 lo6

s%ee! consists of CA*P s%ee! c-cles S10/0 an! S/0B07 6hile C-cle 1 hi$h s%ee!

consists of CA*P s%ee! c-cle S>00 an! *OVES s%ee! c-cle DSID1@4 C-cle / lo6

s%ee! consist of CA*P s%ee! c-cles SB020 6hile C-cle / hi$h s%ee! consists of CA*P

s%ee! c-cle S@00 an! S0>04 The fi$'res elo6 re%resent a s%ee! trace of the !ri,in$

c-cles7 s%ecific to lo6 an! hi$h s%ee!4 These also sho6 a transient nat're for oth c-cles4

9hile c-cle 1 e:hiits a more !ramatic !ifference et6een lo6 an! hi$h s%ee! than c-cle

/4

Cycle 1 !o9 #peed

Fi$'re /@41 C-cle 1 Lo6 S%ee! Trace

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Cycle 1 :igh #peed

Fi$'re /@4/ C-cle 1 #i$h S%ee! Trace

Cycle 3 !o9 #peed

Fi$'re 124B C-cle / Lo6 S%ee! Trace

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Cycle 3 :igh #peed

Fi$'re 1242 C-cle / #i$h S%ee! Trace

B4 Res'lts an! Disc'ssionThe res'lts are %resente! - first e:aminin$ the effects of lo6 ,ers's hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$

an! their im%acts on %article emissions from a fleet of &DI an! PFI ,ehicles4 The res'lts

are %resente! o,er a ran$e of !ifferent meas'rements 6hich can e affecte! - the

amo'nt of ,olatile an! non,olatile com%osition of aerosol4

B41 Total Particle N'mer

Total %article n'mer 6as meas're! an! re%orte! in this st'!- in 'nits of %article n'mer

%er mile4 The a,era$e %article n'mer concentration for lo6 an! hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$

meas're! from the CVS7 6as m'lti%lie! - a !il'tion factor of 1/31 an! - the total

,ol'me of air thro'$h the CVS correcte! for stan!ar! tem%erat're an! %ress're !'rin$

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each c-cle %hase4 This res'lte! in the total %article co'nt for lo6 an! hi$h s%ee!4 From

this7 the total %article co'nt %er %hase 6as !i,i!e! - the total miles tra,ele!7 $i,in$ the

o,erall total %articles %er mile4 A s'mmar- of the total %article n'mer %er mile for the

fleet as a f'nction of s%ee! for c-cle 1 an! / is $i,en in the fi$'re B141 an! fi$'re B14/4

The fi$'res ao,e sho6s that for >>? of the ,ehicles7 oth &DI an! PFI technolo$-

%ro!'ce! hi$her %article co'nt !'rin$ hi$h s%ee!s44 F'rthermore7 a more !ramatic effect

can e seen if 6e com%are the lo6 s%ee! an! the hi$h s%ee! emissions for c-cle 1 than

for c-cle /7 this can e attri'te! to the nat're of the c-cle4 C-cle 1 has a lar$er

!ifference et6een the lo6 an! hi$h s%ee!4 The a,era$e s%ee! for the lo6 %hase of c-cle

1 is /@ m%h 6hile the a,era$e s%ee! for the hi$h s%ee! %hase is >@ m%h7 thats a @0 m%h

!ifference4 In c-cle / ho6e,er7 the lo6 s%ee! a,era$e is @@ m%h 6hile the hi$h s%ee!

a,era$e is >@ m%h7 thats a /0 m%h !ifference4

If 6e com%are total %article co'nt et6een a &DI an! PFI ,ehicle as a f'nction of s%ee!

6e can see that PFI ,ehicles emit hi$her total %article n'mer than &DI4 For the slo6

s%ee!7 PFI ,ehicles emitte! an a,era$e of 1:10> total %articles %er mile com%are! to

:10%articles %er mile for the &DI ,ehicles4 #o6e,er !'rin$ hi$h s%ee!7 PFI ,ehicles

emitte! /4:10>%articles %er mile 6hile the &DI emitte! 14B:10>%articles %er mile4 That

is a /1? an! @/? !ifference et6een ,ehicles for lo6 an! hi$h s%ee!s res%ecti,el-7 See

fi$'re B14B4 Pre,io's st'!ies ha,e sho6n that %article n'mer emissions from $asoline

en$ines ten! to increase si$nificantl- 6hen o%erate! 'n!er hi$hloa! an! transient

con!itions7 this is eca'se en$ines 'n!er hi$h s%ee! o%erate in f'el rich ratios7 this is to

ma:imi.e tor)'e an! re!'ce 5noc5104 F'rthermore7 P* emissions from PFI en$ines ha,e

21


28/77

een sho6n to e )'ite 'nstale104 St'!ies ha,e fo'n! that PFI ,ehicles can ha,e ran!om

s%i5es in P* emissions an! these s%i5es 6ere fo'n! to e ,olatile %articles of less than

B0nm in !iameter104

Pre,io's st'!ies 'sin$ a chassis !-namometer test ha,e re%orte! an a,era$e

concentration of : 10%articlesJcmBfor ol!er PFI ,ehicles4 In contrast7 similar st'!ies

con!'cte! - the same a'thors fo'n! that a mo!ern PFI ,ehicle can emit an a,era$e

%artic'late n'mer concentration ran$in$ from 10@ %articlesJcmB at li$ht loa! to 10>

%articlesJcmBat hi$h loa!114 Particles release! !'rin$ these s%i5es 6ere meas're! to e

nearl- all ,olatile less than B0nm in !iameter4 It is elie,e! that these %articles are forme!

thro'$h the n'cleation of h-!rocarons release! !'rin$ com'stion chamer !e%osit

rea5'%114 A similar %henomenon ma- ha,e occ'rre! !'rin$ this st'!- as meas'rements

sho6 the ol!er PFI ,ehicles e:hiit hi$h %article n'mer co'nt !'rin$ hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4

The s%i5es can e seen in the realtime !ata %lot in fi$'re B1427 6here the PFI en$ine is

in l'e an! the &DI en$ine is in re!4 F'rthermore7 correlations et6een total %article

n'mer an! P* mass sho6 a hi$her correlation than soli! %article n'mer an! P* mass7

s'$$estin$ that the s%i5es ma- contain ,olatile %articles4

A !iesel ,ehicle 6as also teste! an! it res'lte! in %article emissions that are elo6 oth

the PFI an! &DI en$ines4 The !iesel ,ehicle emitte! an a,era$e of 142 : 10 %articlesJcmB

!'rin$ the lo6 s%ee! %hase of c-cle 1 an! /7 an! an a,era$e of B40 : 10 %articlesJcmB

!'rin$ the hi$h s%ee! %hase of c-cle 1 an! t6o4 A ar $ra%h is sho6n in fi$'re B14@7

com%arin$ the a,era$e &DI7 PFI an! Diesel %article !ensities in re!7 l'e an! $ol!

res%ecti,el-4 The !iesel ,ehicle 6as e)'i%%e! 6ith a !iesel %artic'late filter an! th's is

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e:%ecte! to ha,e lo6er %article !ensities than its $asoline co'nter%arts4 F'rthermore7 a

realtime %lot is sho6n in fi$'re B14 6hich !is%la-s the !iesel ,ehicle ha,in$ the lo6est

co'nt et6een the PFI an! &DI ,ehicles4

Fi$'re B141 Total %article n'mer %er mile for lo6 an! hi$h s%ee! c-cle 1

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30/77

Fi$'re B14/ Total %article n'mer %er mile for lo6 an! hi$h s%ee! c-cle 1 an! /

Total Particle Number

GDI PFI

Fi$'re B14B Total %article n'mer co'nt com%arison for &DI an! PFI ,ehicles

Fi$'re B142 Total %article n'mer realtime c-cle 1 %lot

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32/77

Fi$'re B14 Total %article n'mer for a &DI7 PFI7 an! !iesel ,ehicles

B4/ Soli! Particle N'merSoli! %article n'mer im%ortant for re$'lations4 Unli5e the Unite! States7 E'ro%e e$an

re$'latin$ soli! %article n'mer from li$ht !'t- %assen$er ,ehicles for s%ar5i$nition

!irectin;ection ,ehicles in /01/4 The !efinition of soli! is in analo$- to that of P*4 Soli!

%articles are !efine! in E'ro%ean re$'lations as an o%erational one4 That is to sa- that the

!efinition is ase! on con,entions an! limitations im%ose! - the sam%lin$ %rotocol4

Soli! %articles are %articles 6hich are co'nte! 6ith a %article n'mer co'nter that has a

@0? co'ntin$ efficienc- at /Bnm at a tem%erat're of B00 !e$rees Celsi's4 The catal-tic

stri%%er s-stem 6as a!!e! to se,eral 6ee5s after the testin$ cam%ai$n ha! starte!7 an!

th's not all ,ehicles 6ere meas're!4 This st'!- fo'n! that for oth &DI an! PFI ,ehicles7

soli! %article n'mer increase! 6ith increasin$ s%ee!7 this can e seen - com%arin$ the

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33/77

lac5 ar to the stri%%e! ar in fi$'re B1414 A st'!- con!'cte! 'sin$ this s-stem also

concl'!e! that emission le,els !e%en! on the !ri,in$ c-cle an! hi$h s%ee! correlates 6ell

6ith an increase in soli! %article n'mer14 A$ain this !ifference ma- not e seen !'rin$

c-cle / !'e to the lo6er !ifference et6een lo6 an! hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4 9hen !irectl-

com%arin$ the &DI to PFI fleet7 &DI sho6s a hi$her soli! %article co'nt than the PFI4

This tren! is e:%ecte! as &DI ten! to %ro!'ce hi$her soot than con,entional PFI

,ehicles14 See fi$'re B/4B4 A realtime %lot of soli! %article emissions can e seen in

fi$'re B/427 6hich in!icates that the &DI ,ehicle is s'stantiall- hi$her than the PFI

,ehicle4 F'rthermore7 it is im%ortant to note that the !iesel ,ehicle 6as s'stantiall-

lo6er than oth the &DI an! PFI4

Fi$'re B/41 Soli! %articles %er mile for c-cle 1 as a f'nction of lo6 an! hi$h s%ee!

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Fi$'re B/4/ Soli! %articles %er mile for c-cle 1 an! / as a f'nction of lo6 an! hi$h s%ee!

Fi$'re B/4B &DI an! PFI soli! %article com%arison

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Solid Particle Number for a GDI aPFI and Diesel Vehicle

MPH 2.0 I! PFI

2.! I! GDI ".0 V# DDI

Fi$'re B/42 Realtime soli! %article co'nt for a &DI an! PFI ,ehicle

GDI $s PFI

GDI PFI DDI

Fi$'re B/4@ Soli! %article co'nt for a &DI7 PFI an! Diesel ,ehicle

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36/77

B42 =lac5 Caron an! Soot *ass

=lac5 caron an! soot %articles are im%ortant for climate chan$e effects4 =lac5 caron

can ha,e a 6armin$ effect that ri,als that of methane $as4 For this st'!-7 lac5 caron

an! soot 6ere meas're! 'sin$ the %hotometr- an! %hotoaco'stic %rinci%les4 A ar $ra%h

!is%la-in$ lac5 caron concentrations %er mile is sho6n as f'nctions of s%ee! in fi$'re

B2414 This !is%la-s that lo6 s%ee! !ri,in$ e:hiits hi$her lac5 caron concentration

than hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4 This is also a%%arent !'rin$ c-cle /4 The meas'rement techni)'e

in,ol,es shinin$ a >0 nm li$ht thro'$h the filter %a%er to oser,e its reflectance4 At this

6a,elen$th7 it is %ossile to meas're ro6n caron (=rC" 6hich has een sho6n to

asor 6a,elen$ths in the ran$e of 220>0 nm/B4 It ma- e %ossile that the hi$h lac5

caron rea!in$s consistentl- !'rin$ c-cle 1 an! / ma- e !'e to =rC4 Photoaco'stic

meas'rements sho6e! a !ifferent tren!4 #i$her s%ee! !ri,in$ e:hiite! hi$her

concentrations of soot than lo6er s%ee!s4 This can e seen in fi$'re B24B4 For c-cle /7

the !ata is closer to$ether an! th's the tren! is not sho6n4 &ra,imetric soot meas're!

thro'$h collectin$ material on a Teflon filter sho6s a similar tren! to the %hotoaco'stic

soot4 #i$her s%ee! !ri,in$ e:hiits hi$her soot concentrations7 ho6e,er the !ifference

et6een hi$h an! lo6 s%ee! soot is not as !ramatic as either the lac5 caron

meas'rements or the %hoto aco'stic soot meas'rements4 This can e !'e to the

meas'rement techni)'e7 in 6hich Teflon filters can ha,e or$anic material 6hich 6o'l!

not e meas're! 6ith the other instr'ments4 It is im%ortant to note that 6hen com%arin$

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37/77

&DI to PFI ,ehicles7 &DI ,ehicles e:hiite! hi$her concentrations of lac5 caron an!

soot for lo6 an! hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4 The $ra,imetric soot ho6e,er !is%la-e! the PFI

,ehicles to ha,e more soot than the &DI ,ehicles7 a$ain this can e acco'nte! - the

or$anic material %resent in Teflon filters4 See fi$'res B24> thro'$h B244

Fi$'re B241 =lac5 caron meas'rements across the fleet !'rin$ c-cle 1

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Fi$'re B24/ =lac5 caron meas'rements across the fleet !'rin$ c-cle 1 an! /

Fi$'re B24B Soot meas'rements across the fleet !'rin$ c-cle 1

32


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40/77

Fi$'re B24 Filter soot meas'rements across the fleet !'rin$ c-cle 1 an! /

%lac& 'arbon GDI $s PFI

GDI PFI

Fi$'re B24> =lac5 caron com%arison et6een a &DI an! PFI ,ehicle

34


41/77

MSS Soot GDI $s PFI

GDI PFI

Fi$'re B24 Photoaco'stic (*SS" soot com%arison for a &DI an! PFI ,ehicle

'(cle ) Gra$imetric Soot

GDI PFI

Fi$'re B24 Filter soot mass com%arison et6een a &DI an! PFI ,ehicle4

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B4@ Particle Si.e Distri'tion

In this st'!- %article si.e !istri'tions 6ere ta5en 'sin$ an en$ine e:ha'st %article si.er7

TSI mo!el B004 The res'lts sho6 that oth &DI an! PFI ,ehicles e:hiits hi$her %article

co'nt !'rin$ hi$her s%ee! !ri,in$4 *oreo,er7 the &DI ,ehicle has a lar$er acc'm'lation

mo!e !'rin$ hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$ than !'rin$ lo6 s%ee! !ri,in$7 in!icati,e of hi$her soli!

%article co'nt !'rin$ hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4 F'rthermore7 the &DI ,ehicle has a lar$er

acc'm'lation mo!e than the PFI ,ehicle4 9hile the PFI ,ehicle e:hiite! a lar$er

n'cleation mo!e !'rin$ hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$ than lo6 s%ee! !ri,in$7 f'rther in!ication of a

hi$h amo'nt of ,olatile %articles 6hen the ,ehicle is s';ect to hi$h s%ee!s or hi$h loa!4

These can e seen in fi$'res B@41 an! B@4/4

Particle Si*e Distribution for a GDI Vehicle

o+ S,eed Hi-h S,eed

Fi$'re B@41 Particle si.e !istri'tion for a &DI ,ehicle

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44/77

an! emer$in$7 &DI7 ,ehicle technolo$ies 6ere teste! in an effort to 'n!erstan! f't're

emission im%acts from a !-namic fleet of ,ehicles4 O,erall the res'lts sho6 that hi$h

s%ee! or hi$h loa! infl'ences ,ehicles of oth technolo$ies si$nificantl-4 The res'lts

sho6 that s%ee! increases emissions si$nificantl-7 this can e attri'te! to hi$her f'el

cons'm%tion !'rin$ hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$7 f'rthermore7 PFI ,ehicles 6ere sho6n to ha,e a

lar$er total %article co'nt than the &DI ,ehicles7 6hich can e attri'te! to a hi$h amo'nt

of ,olatile com%onents %resent !'rin$ hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4 Soot 6as also increase! for

hi$h s%ee! !ri,in$4 F'rthermore7 &DI ,ehicles 6ere sho6n to emit hi$her soli! %articles

than PFI ,ehicles !'rin$ oth hi$h an! lo6 s%ee! !ri,in$4 These res'lts aim to ai! f't're

6or5 on emission control strate$ies for emer$in$ &DI en$ines an! 'ltimatel- lo6er

health effects of lon$ term e:%os're to emissions4

@4 References14 National #i$h6a- Traffic Safet- A!ministration4 K/01>/0/@ *o!el Year Li$ht

D't- Vehicle & Emissions an! CAFE Stan!ar!s3 S'%%lemental4K STPStandard temperature and pressure TC Torque converter TCC Torque converter

clutc(/011"4

/4 Alson7


45/77


46/77

14 TSI Incor%orate!4 The En$ine E:ha'st Particle Si.er S%ectrometer *o!el B004

N4%43 TSI Incor%orate!7 n4!4 Print4

14 AVL4 AVL *icro Soot Sensor Transient #i$h Sensiti,e Soot *eas'reme4 N4%43

AVL7 /0104 Print4

/04 Pet.ol!7 An!reas7 et al4 KE,al'ation of m'ltian$le asor%tion %hotometr- for

meas'rin$ aerosol li$ht asor%tion4K Aerosol Science an! Technolo$- B41

(/00@"3 20@14

/14 Nt.iachristos7 Leoni!as7 et al4 Use of a catal-tic stri%%er as an alternati,e to the

ori$inal P*P meas'rement %rotocol4 No4 /01B011@B4 SAE Technical Pa%er7

/01B4//4 Trans%ortation Statistics Ann'al Re%ort /01/4 Re%4 U4S4 De%artment of

Trans%ortation7 /01/4 9e4

/B4 Fen$7 Y47 V4 Ramanathan7 an! V4 R4 8otamarthi4 K=ro6n caron3 a si$nificant

atmos%heric asorer of solar ra!iation4KAtmosper$c Cem$str% and

P%s$cs1B41> (/01B"3 0>/14

40


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48/77

F'rthermore7 the !e%osition of =C !ar5ens sno6 an! ice s'rfaces7 contri'tin$ to

accelerate meltin$ of Arctic sea ice4

14/ Emission Re$'lationsP* relate! !eaths near %orts has een correlate! 6ith shi%%in$ emissions4 Accor!in$l-7

%ort a'thorities ha,e %rom'l$ate! control meas'res to limit emission e:%os're to the

s'rro'n!in$ %ort comm'nities an! th's re!'ce the health im%act on its resi!ents4 One of

the more common re$'lations is the control of s'lf'r le,els in the f'el4 This is !one -

s6itchin$ from a resi!'al f'el oil to a !istillate f'el14 #o6e,er7 this metho! can e

e:%ensi,e an! 'n!esirale - the shi%%in$ com%anies4 In a!!ition to the actions at the

re$'lator- le,el7 the shi% o6ners7 thro'$h or$ani.ations li5e the International *aritime

Or$ani.ation (I*O"7 ha,e in,este! in reso'rces to etter 'n!erstan! the im%act of

shi%%in$ on oth the re$ional an! $loal en,ironments4 Their to%ics co,er the $amit of

en,ironmental concerns7 incl'!in$ the emer$in$ iss'es associate! 6ith the release of

=lac5 Caron (=C" from shi%s an! the s'se)'ent !e%osition on Arctic ice/4

I*O has a *arine En,ironment Protection Committee (*EPC" 6hose %ers%ecti,e

matches that of o'r c'rrent 5no6le!$e of climate chan$e/4 As a conse)'ence7 *EPC of

I*O a$ree! to !e,elo% a 6or5 %lan to a!!ress the im%act of caron emissions from shi%s

an! instr'cte! the S'Committee on ='l5 Li)'i!s an! &ases (=L&" to !e,elo% a

!efinition for lac5 caron emissions from international shi%%in$4 The $ro'% is to

consi!er meas'rement metho!s for =C - i!entif-in$ the most a%%ro%riate metho! for

meas'rin$ lac5 caron emissions from international shi%%in$7 in,esti$ate a%%ro%riate

control meas'res to re!'ce the im%acts of lac5 caron emissions from international

shi%%in$ in the Arctic7 an! s'mit a final re%ort to *EPC @ in /0124

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14B Emission miti$ation from ocean$oin$ ,esselsThe International *aritime Or$ani.ation (I*O" is an a$enc- of the Unite! Nations that

%romotes maritime safet-4 Shi% emission r'les are containe! in the International

Con,ention on the Pre,ention of Poll'tion from Shi%s7 also 5no6n as *ARPOL @4

*ARPOL7 6hich incl'!es Anne: VI7 contains t6o sets of emission an! f'el )'alit-

re)'irements4 The first set o'tlines $loal re)'irements an! the secon! set has more

strin$ent re)'irements a%%licale to shi%s in emission control areas (ECA"4 ECA can e

!esi$ne! to control for SO:7 %artic'late matter (P*"7 NO: or all three4 C'rrentl- there

are fo'r control areas7 one of 6hich is in North America7 incl'!in$ most of the U4S4 an!

Cana!as coast4 This area is !esi$ne! to control for NO: an! SO: emissions from shi%s4

I*O7 %ort comm'nities7 an! shi%%in$ com%anies share a $oal3 to lo6er the air %oll'tion

im%act from shi% e:ha'st@4 One 6a- to achie,e this is to 'se f'els 6ith a lo6er s'lf'r

concentration7 th's Anne: VI re$'lations incl'!e ca%s on s'lf'r content of f'el to control

SO: emissions7 an! in!irectl- P*4 C'rrentl- there is no e:%licit P* emission limits @4

S'lf'r limits an! im%lementation !ates are ill'strate! in Tale 1B41 an! Fi$'re 1B41

elo64

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Tale 1B41 *ARPOL Anne: VI &loal an! ECA F'el S'lf'r Limits (A=S"

Fi$'re 1B41 *ARPOL Anne: VI &loal an! ECA F'el S'lf'r Limits

#ea,- f'el oil (#FO" is a commonl- 'se! f'el an! is allo6e! %ro,i!e! it meets the s'lf'r

limits4 That is7 a com%lete s6itch to !istillate f'els is not re)'ire!@4 The %rocesses

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51/77

re)'ire! !ecrease s'lf'r content in f'el7 are e:%ensi,e7 an! th's there is an increase

interest in achie,in$ the $oal thro'$h the 'se of scr'er technolo$-4 As sho6n in Tale

1B417 in /01@7 the ECA s'lf'r limit in f'el 6ill e 041?4 The SO: emission limits 6ill

re)'ire shi%s to achie,e a SO: re!'ction at least e)'i,alent to a f'el 6ith 041? s'lf'r or

essentiall- W>? SO: remo,al - scr'in$7 ass'min$ a f'el 6ith B4@? s'lf'r@4

Scr'er technolo$- has een %ro,en to e effecti,e !'e to the lar$e n'mer of

commercial installations4 #o6e,er7 there are a n'mer of a!,ocates 6ho claim that the

a%%lication of scr'er technolo$- for the remo,al of $ases an! soot from the e:ha'st of

!iesel en$ines on shi%s is still in the learnin$ %hase eca'se onl- fe6 ,essels ha,e

im%lemente! s'ch remo,al technolo$-4 The testimon- in the Parliament Trans%ort

Committee7 E,i!ence from *aritime U8 (SES 0B"7 in!icates iss'es 6hen scr'ers are

installe! for commercial o%eration on shi%s4

For this st'!-7 the scr'er technolo$- ein$ teste! is installe! on the APL En$lan!7 a

@7@00 t6ent-foot e)'i,alent 'nits (TEU" container ,essel tra!in$ et6een Asia an! the

U4S4 The s-stem ein$ teste! is ass'me! to allo6 APL to contin'e 'sin$ lo6er cost

resi!'al f'els7 6hile re!'cin$ emissions7 as %er the I*O ECA r'les4 The scr'er is

e:%ecte! to re!'ce 0@? !iesel P* emissions7 4? SO: emissions7 more than 0

%ercent of ,olatile or$anic com%o'n!s (VOC" an! '% to an a!!itional 10 ? re!'ction in

NO:>4

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142 P* Control a scr'er a%%roachThe APL En$lan! is e)'i%%e! 6ith three similarl- si.e!7 fi:e! RP* en$ines 114 The

scr'er s-stem !esi$ne! for this a':iliar- en$ine incl'!es three ,ent'ri P* im%action

.ones an! one P* remo,al .one114 Th's7 each en$ine is e)'i%%e! 6ith a se%arate ,ent're

im%action .one7 -et the comine! en$ine e:ha'st manifol! s'%%orts the three en$ines4

Scr'er s-stems are air %oll'tion control !e,ices 'se! on ,ario's in!'strial a%%lications

as a 6a- to remo,e %articles an! $ases from e:ha'st streams 7 114 See Fi$'re 12414

Fi$'re 1241 Scr'er s-stem1/

Scr'ers are one of the %rimar- !e,ices 'se! to control $aseo's emissions71/4 There are

man- confi$'rations of 6e scr'ers an! scr'er s-stems4 *oreo,er7 a 6et scr'er

!escries a scr'er that 'ses li)'i!s to remo,e %oll'tants4 9et scr'ers remo,e

%articles - ca%t'rin$ them into li)'i! !ro%lets4 &ases are remo,e! - !issol,in$ or

asorin$ them into the li)'i!7 1/4 In this case7 !irt- in!'strial e:ha'st streams are

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53/77

ro'$ht in contact 6ith the scr'in$ li)'i! - forcin$ it thro'$h a %ool of s'ch li)'i! or

thro'$h a li)'i! s%ra- s-stem1/4 These %ro,i!e $oo! contact et6een the li)'i! an!

e:ha'st stream4 The scr'er 'se! in the APL En$lan! is a ,ent'ri scr'er !esi$n 117

6hich can e seen in Fi$'re 124/4 Un!er this confi$'ration7 another !e,ice calle! the

entrainment se%arator is 'se! to se%arate an- !ro%lets that are in the fl'e $as from the

clean e:ha'st4 *oreo,er7 in a ,ent'ri scr'er set '%7 the entrainment se%arator is calle!

a c-clonic se%arator1/4

Fi$'re 124/ A ,ent'ri scr'er !esi$n1/

This ,ent'ri scr'er is !esi$ne! to achie,e hi$h %article collection efficienc-1/4 This

consists of three main sections3 a con,er$in$ section7 a throat section7 an! a !i,er$in$

section7 as sho6n in Fi$'re 124/4 The in!'strial e:ha'st enters the ,ent'ri thro'$h the

con,er$in$ section an! then %asses thro'$h a narro6er throat4 A li)'i! sol,ent is then

47


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55/77


56/77

Fi$'re 1242 APL En$lan! scr'er s-stem11

B4 E:%erimental set'%The meas'rement a%%roach closel- follo6e! the International Or$ani.ation for

Stan!ar!i.ation (ISO" %rotocol metho!s4 The ISO 1> is an international stan!ar! for

meas'rin$ e:ha'st emissions from ,ario's offroa! en$ine a%%lications7 104 ISO 1>1

an! ISO 1>/ s%ecif- the meas'rement an! e,al'ation metho!s for $aseo's an!

%artic'late e:ha'st emissions 6hen comine! 6ith cominations of en$ine loa! an!

s%ee! %ro,i!e! in IS0 1>Part 23 Test c-cles for !ifferent en$ine a%%lications4

B41 Testin$ ProtocolThe selecte! a':iliar- en$ine teste! is a B4/ *9 Sams'n$*AN =+9 en$ine7 mo!el

>lB/J207 incl'!in$ a $enerator man'fact're! - #-'n!ai4 The APL En$lan! has B main

a':iliar- en$ines an! each is confi$'re! 6ith a scr'er114 Tale B141 %ro,i!es technical

s%ecifications of the selecte! en$ine4 Tale B14/ %ro,i!es information on the ,ario's

loa!s teste!4 mo!es 6ere teste! %re an! %ost scr'er o,erall4 Each !'rin$ hi$h7

50


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me!i'm an! lo6 loa!s an! Tale B14B is a f'el re%ort %ro,i!e! - the APL En$lan!7 in

6hich the s'lf'r content 'se! is elo6 1? - mass4

Tale B141 S'mmar- of selecte! a':iliar- en$ine s%ecifications

Tale B14/ Test matri: for the teste! a':iliar- en$ine

Tale B14B A':iliar- en$ine test f'el re%ort %ro,i!e! - the APL En$lan!

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B4B Testin$ Set U%A 6ell !esi$ne! sam%lin$ s-stem is im%ortant to acc'ratel- collect sam%le e:ha'st4

Testin$ on the APL En$lan! follo6e! stan!ar! ISO %ractice for on,essel emissions

testin$4 A schematic of ISO 1>/ can e seen in Fi$'re BB414

52


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VNTT uart

'F/

P

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Fi$'re BB4/ *eas'rement la-o't on a':iliar- en$ine e:ha'st

B42 Partic'late *atter *eas'rement Techni)'es

P* meas'rements 6ere ta5en 'sin$ a m-ria! of techni)'es4 Sam%les 6ere collecte!

'sin$ 9hatman Teflo filters for total P* an! M'arts fier filters for com%osition4 =oth

'se! the NIOS# an! I*PROVE anal-tical metho!s for offline laorator- anal-sis4 Real

time instr'ments 6ere also 'se! to meas're lac5 caron emissions4 These 6ere AVLs

microsoot sensor (*SS" mo!el 2B7 the Thermo Scientific *'ltiAn$le Asor%tion

Photometer (*AAP" mo!el @01/7 an! *a$ee Aethalometer (AEBB" mo!el AEBB4 These

instr'ments alon$ 6ith their meas'rement techni)'es are o'tline! in Tale B2414

Tale B241 *eas'rements 'tili.e! an! their meas'rement %rinci%le/2

Instr'ment *o!el Princi%le O't%'t 9a,elen$h

*icro =alance U*/&ra,imetric net6ei$ht chan$e

Total P*/4@meas'rement

S'nset Laorator-Caron anal-.er

La OCECFlame

Ioni.ationDetection (FID"

O%erationall- !efine!or$anic an! elemental

caron ,ia transmittance

*icro Soot Sensor(*SS"

*SS 2BPhotoaco'stic

(PA"=C mass from real timeinsit' si$nal (m$JmB"

0 nm

*'tliAn$leAsor%tionPhotometer (*AAP"

*AAP@01/

Aerosolasor%tion

=C mass from

transmissions an!scatterin$ correction

($JmB"

>0 nm

Aethalometer AEBBFilter %a%ertransmission

=C mass fromtransmission ($JmB"

B>07 2>07@/07 @0707 07an! @0

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It is im%ortant to note that lac5 caronaceo's material is re%orte! ase! on its

meas'rement techni)'eB4 There are ,ario's meas'rement techni)'es a,ailale an! the

terminolo$- can e mi:e!4 The terms lac5 caron7 elemental caron an! soot refer to the

li$htasorin$ %article com%onents -et their meas'rements can !iffer4 Th's7 !ifferent =C

meas'rement techni)'es are im%ortant to learn ao't the nat're an! )'antit- of e:ha'st

=C4

=C meas'rement instr'mentation incl'!es o%tical7 thermal or incan!escence metho!s1>4

=C in,entories are ase! on emission factors !eri,e! from thermalo%tical metho!s4

These !etect =C e,ol,in$ from a heate! filter sam%le4 On the other han!7 atmos%heric

monitorin$ stations 'se o%tical asor%tion metho!s to meas're =C14 The *AAP7

Aethalometer an! PAsoot all meas're =C from li$htasor%tion meas'rements4 The

*AAP an! Aethalometer 'se filter ase! metho!s to meas're an! re%ort =C

contin'o'sl-4 PAsoot is a %hotoaco'stic meas'rement 6hich meas'res the intensit- of a

so'n! 6a,e $enerate! - the contraction an! e:%ansion of $as molec'les 6hen =C is

%'lse! - a laser14 This metho! then 'ses a con,ersion factor !eri,e! from $ra,imetric

metho!s to soot content4 PAsoot ase! =C has the lar$est ran$e of meas'rement an! can

meas're '% to @07000 $JmB7 6hile the *AAP an! Aethalometer can meas're '% to 100

$JmB4

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B4@ M'alit- ControlM'alit- control is an im%ortant factor attri'tin$ to !ata ,ali!ation in offroa! emissions

meas'rements4 This section !escries the stan!ar! %ractices 'se! for caliration7

,erification an! control chec5s %erforme! efore7 after an! !'rin$ testin$4

Prior to loa!in$ an! %ac5in$ instr'mentation all s-stems 6ere ,erifie! an! cleane!4 The

*AAP7 Aethalometer7 an! PA s-stems 6ere all %re%are! for the testin$ cam%ai$n -

,erif-in$ s-stem s%ecifications4 The PA s-stem 6as cleane! an! ,erifie! to e '% to

s%ecification - cleanin$ the internal %oll'tion 6in!o6 an! %erformin$ a s%an caliration

'sin$ an internal %oll'tion 6in!o64 NIST traceale caliration tan5s 6ere 'se! to

%erform %re an! %osttest calirations4 ero chec5s for all P* instr'ments 6ere

%erforme! ho'rl- thro'$ho't the !'ration of the test4 Prior to each sam%le %oint7 lea5

chec5s 6ere %erforme! for the P* s-stem4 The !il'tion ratio 6as ,erifie! at the

concl'sion of the test cam%ai$n - remo,in$ the sam%le %roe from the !il'tion t'nnel

%lacin$ it in the e:ha'st %i%e an! meas'rin$ !irectl-4 This 6as 'se! in a!!ition to

o%eratin$ t6o $as anal-.ers4

=ra5es%ecific f'el cons'm%tion 6as ,erifie! 6ith re%orte! man'fact'rer s%ecifications4

These 6ere !one in an effort to ,ali!ate the !ata collecte! on the APL En$lan! a':iliar-

en$ine o't emissions 6as acc'rate an! re%resentati,e of the f'nctionin$ s-stem4 This

in,ol,e! corres%on!in$ 6ith the en$ine man'fact'rer to !isc'ss the emission asis

res'lts4 The ra5es%ecific f'el cons'm%tion res'lts 6ere 6ithin reason of man'fact'rer

s%ecifics an! th's s'$$est emission !ata collecte! 6as ,ali!4

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24 Res'ltsEmission res'lts for the test cam%ai$n on the APL En$lan!s a':iliar- en$ines e)'i%%e!

6ith a scr'er P* re!'ction s-stem are or$ani.e! in three sections3 Re$'late!

Emissions7 P* Emissions an! Scr'er Performance4

241 Re$'late! EmissionsRe$'late! emissions (P*7 NO:7 CO/" for the a':iliar- en$ine are sho6n as a f'nction of

time in Fi$'re 22414 Per the test cam%ai$n7 the %ostscr'er e:ha'st 6as sam%le! an!

teste! first imme!iatel- follo6e! - %rescr'er e:ha'st4 Dil'te NO:7 CO/ an! P*

concentrations ,arie! from 100 B00 %%m7 14@? /4@? an! 04B m$Jm B B m$JmB7

res%ecti,el-4

The stars in Fi$'re /241 in!icate 6hen filter atch Teflon an! M'art. filter me!ia 6ere

collecte!4 Three atch sam%les are i!eal4 #o6e,er7 !'e to time constraints some tests

onl- collecte! t6o filter sam%les4 Fi$'re 2241 also sho6s lar$e s%i5es in the $aseo's

emissions7 6hich are a res'lt of !il'tion ratio )'antification4 It is im%ortant to note that

the s-stem e:%erience! a !ata recor!in$ $litch startin$ at 11300 A4*4 to 1/3/0 P4*4

D'rin$ this time the s-stem !i! not recor! realtime $aseo's emissions !ata4 #an!

recor!s 6ere instea! 'tili.e! to recor! the !ata4 These recor!s in!icate that NO: an! CO /

concentrations 6ere stale4 PAsoot meas'rements sho6e! to e 'nstale !'rin$ mo!e B7

6hich is 6hen the en$ine is r'nnin$ at its lo6est loa! mo!e4 The en$ine 6as staili.e!

'n!er this mo!e for 6ell o,er an ho'r an! it is 'nclear 6hat ca'se! this instailit- to

occ'r4

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Fi$'re 2141 Real time P*soot7 NO:7 an! CO/emission meas'rements/2

=ra5es%ecific re$'late! emission res'lts are ta'late! in Tales 2241 an! 224/4 En$ine

loa! 6as ,arie!7 Z0? /0? for %re an! %ostscr'er tests4 The res'lts sho6 that the

ra5es%ecific NO: (sNO:" emissions 6ere stale !'rin$ all en$ine loa!s for oth %re

an! %ostscr'er test %oints4 sNO: emission 6as calc'late! an! a,era$e! to 104B

$J59hr4 CO/ra5es%ecific emissions (sCO/" 6ere calc'late! to e >/0 $J59hr !'rin$

hi$h loa! an! /0 $J59hr !'rin$ lo6 loa!4 These ,al'es a$ree 6ith %'lishe! literat're

!ata 6here hi$her ra5es%ecific f'el cons'm%tion at lo6 loa!s is %resent4 F'rthermore7

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sCO/emission res'lts 6ere similar for %re an! %ostscr'er test %oints7 s'$$estin$ the

t6o test con!itions a$ree4

Tale 2141 =ra5es%ecific emission res'lts for the a':4 en$ine ($J59hr asis"

Tale 214/ Time s%ecific emission res'lts for the a':4 en$ine ($Jhr asis"

24/ P*/4@an! Or$anic Caron (OC"=ra5es%ecific P* (sP*" emissions 6ere calc'late! for %re an! %ostscr'er test

%oints4 These res'lts are ta'late! in Tale /24B Total P* meas'rements incl'!e P*/4@

an! ECJOC P* from the NIOS# an! I*PROVE metho!s4 The res'lts sho6 that en$ine

o't sP*/4@ ran$e! from 21 m$J59hr at li$ht loa! to 200 m$J59hr at hi$h loa!4 #i$her

sP*/4@ emissions at lo6 loa!s a$ree 6ith t-%ical !iesel marine en$ine emission rates14

NIOS# OC P* 6as calc'late! to e hi$her than I*PROVE OC P*4 The NIOS# OC

P* ran$e! from 1B m$J59hr to / m$J59hr 6here the I*PROVE OC P* ran$e!

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from 1@ m$J59hr to 1>B m$J59hr for e)'i,alent en$ine loa! con!itions4 The res'lts

sho6 that the NIOS# OC P* metho! 6as '%6ar!s of 20? hi$her than the I*PROVE

metho! at the lo6 loa! test con!ition4 *arine en$ines t-%icall- 'rn hi$h s'lf'r f'els>7

e4$4 marine f'el oil (*FO"4 These ten! to ha,e P* e:ha'st that is !ominate! - OC an!

s'lfate14 EC [ OC masses 6ere Z@0? of total P*/4@4 Altho'$h s'lfate P* 6as not

!irectl- meas're!7 this can e inferre! from SO/ concentrations in the e:ha'st14 The

!ifference in P*/4@ an! the s'm of EC an! OC is a%%ro:imatel- the s'lfate P* mass4

Th's7 total P* com%osition is 2@? s'lfate7 2@? or$anic caron an! 10? elemental

caron7 6hich is in a$reement 6ith %re,io's st'!ies14

Tale 2/4B Total P*7 =C7 an! ECJOC ra5es%ecific P* emissions

24B =lac5 CaronElemental caron an! lac5 caron are meas're! 6ith ,ar-in$ techni)'es an!

%rinci%les1>4 Des%ite their correlations7 some scientists re;ect the motion that EC

emissions can e re%resentati,e of =C emissions4 Th's7 it is !esire! to e,al'ate =C

emissions from ,ario's meas'rement techni)'es4 For this st'!-7 =C meas'rements 6ere

ma!e 'sin$ oth the asor%tion %hotometer an! %hotoaco'stic techni)'es4 The res'lts

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242 Scr'er PerformanceP* 6as meas're! %re an! %ostscr'er4 The !ata in Tale 2241 sho6s P* re!'ctions

across the scr'er4 All meas'rement metho!s in!icate! a P* %ostscr'er re!'ction4

Ne$ati,e %ercenta$es re%resent a re!'ction in P*4 A ran$e of P*/4@ re!'ction 6as

calc'late! to ,ar- et6een @0? at hi$h loa! an! 20? at lo6 loa!4 OC P* 6as also

re!'ce!7 6ith oth the NIOS# an! I*PROVE metho! !is%la-e! re!'ctions ran$in$ from

? to @@? an! @@? to 2@?7 res%ecti,el-4 =oth OC P* metho!s a$ree7 sho6in$ a hi$h

re!'ction in P* %ostscr'er at hi$h loa!s4

Tale 2241 Scr'er P* emission re!'ctions

PAsoot P* !is%la-e! a re!'ction ran$e of 1? to B? for hi$h an! lo6 en$ine loa!s4

U%on a%%l-in$ statistical anal-sis to the !ata set7 the stan!ar! !e,iation of the lo6 loa!

meas'rement !iscre!ite! an- re!'ction in PAsoot P*4 A$ain7 EC an! PAsoot

meas'rements ha,e een !oc'mente! to correlate 6ell124 This also occ'rs in this st'!-7

6here EC re!'ctions 6ere similar to PAsoot4 EC 6as re!'ce! across oth the NIOS#

an! I*PROVE metho!s an! 6as ao't 0? at hi$h loa!s an! less at lo6 loa!s4

Fi$'re 2241 sho6s %re an! %ostscr'er %artic'late matter (P*"7 %hoto aco'stic soot

(PAsoot"4

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'1e%'

/'

estSulfate

PM2.3

Fi$'re 2241 P*7 =C7 an! ECJOC emission factors/2

Fi$'re 224/ sho6s a P* re!'ction across the scr'er - all meas'rement metho!s4 PA

soot P* sho6e! a re!'ction from 1? at hi$h loa! to B? at li$ht loa!7 s'$$estin$ that

the scr'er !oes not re!'ce =C at li$ht loa!s as it !oes at hi$h loa!s4

4)5

"25

"5

S/2

PM2.3

/'

e%'

'

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Fi$'re 224/ &as an! P* scr'er re!'ctions/2

The res'lts sho6 that this %ro%erl- o%erate! P* scr'er s-stem fails to re!'ce =C at

lo6 loa! com%are! to hi$h loa! en$ine con!itions4 This is s'$$este! thro'$h the ,ali!

PAsoot meas'rements7 6hich remaine! stale thro'$ho't most of the st'!-4 EC an! =C

re!'ction - scr'ers is ase! on the %rinci%les of im%action an! !iff'sion 1/4 For this

scr'er s-stem7 for small %articles (\100nm" to e remo,e! the- m'st tra,el at

s'fficient ,elocit- in the ,ent'ri im%action .one4 At lo6 loa!s7 these small %articles

e:%erience lo6 Re-nol!s n'mer f'ele! - lo6 ,elocit-4 This creates lo6 t'r'lence in

the ,ent'ri im%action .one an! th's ma- not e eno'$h to remo,e s'ch %articles4 #ence7

=C remo,al efficienc- is !ramaticall- re!'ce! 6hen en$ines are o%eratin$ at lo6 loa!

con!itions as sho6n - this st'!-4

This 6or5 s'$$ests scr'er %erformance an! efficienc- sho'l! e accom%anie! -

o%erator e!'cation to ma:imi.e its re!'ction ca%ailities4 T-%icall-7 !iesel en$ines are

not !esi$ne! to o%erate 'n!er lo6 loa! con!itions4 This is as an effort to ma:imi.e f'el

econom- an! efficienc-4 Lo6 loa! con!itions ma- e a,oi!e! as an effort to increase =C

remo,al efficienc-4

@4 =lac5 Caron *eas'rement Recommen!ationsThis test cam%ai$n incl'!e! researchin$ an! %ro,i!in$ recommen!ations for =C

sam%lin$ an! meas'rement a%%roaches for offroa! en$ines4 The c'rrent stan!ar!

a%%roach to sam%le an! meas're P*/4@ is !escrie! in ISO 1>4 This a%%roach re)'ires

con!ensation an! tem%erat're control achie,e! - a !il'tion t'nnel4 ISO 1>

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recommen!s a minim'm !il'tion of 2 to 1 as 6ell as acc'rate ,erification 7104 This st'!-s

meas'rement a%%roach to sam%le an! meas're =C 6as to 'se the same $'i!elines

'n!erline! in ISO 1> for P*/4@4 Un!er these con!itions7 the PAsoot =C instr'ment

6or5e! 6ell an! no a!!itional mo!ifications are recommen!e!4 Unli5e the PAsoot =C

instr'ment7 the *AAP an! Aethalometer !i! not 6or5 6ell 'n!er s'ch $'i!elines7 th's

recommen!ations can e ma!e4 An a!!itional !il'tion as hi$h as /00 has een estimate!

to e s'fficient for the *AAP an! Aethalometer to o%erate 6ithin their !etection ran$e4

To achie,e s'ch hi$h !il'tion acc'rate flo6 meas'rements are re)'ire! %er ISO 1>4

Fi$'re @141 !is%la-s a sim%lifie! la-o't of ISO 1> %roce!'res for en$ine e:ha'st

sam%lin$4 A small '%!ate is recommen!e! to mo!if- =C ISO 1> to ens're %ro%er

sam%lin$ techni)'es an! ,ali! !ata4 There is no %roce!'re chan$e for PAsoot

instr'ments an! other hi$h concentration ca%ale instr'ments4

Fi$'re @141 =C sam%lin$ recommen!ations for offroa! en$ine e:ha'st testin$

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4 Concl'sionOffroa! emissions testin$ can e challen$in$ an! com%le:7 not all tools are rea!il-

a,aiale an! th's hea,- %lannin$ is necessar-4 D'rin$ this st'!- lac5 caron an!

re$'lator- emissions 6ere sam%le!7 meas're! an! characteri.e! from an a':iliar- en$ine

e)'i%%e! 6ith a P* control !e,ice7 a scr'er4 Scr'er %erformance 6as ase! on SO:7

NO:7 CO/7 T#Cs7 an! P* (P*/4@7 EC7 OC an! =C" characteri.ation4 Se,eral realtime

an! atch meas'rements 6ere 'tili.e! to sam%le en$ine e:ha'st4 E:istin$ ISO 1>

sam%lin$ $'i!elines are 6ell s'ite! for hi$h concentration ca%ale instr'ments 6hile lo6

concentration !etection limits for amient instr'ments 6o'l! re)'ire a sli$ht ISO 1>

chan$e4

In s'mmar-7 =C meas'rements 6ere s'ccessf'l for realtime PAsoot t-%e instr'ments

't faile! for atch t-%e s-stems7 6hich reache! their !etection limit ca'se! - hi$h =C

concentration in e:ha'st streams4 PAsoot7 ECNIOS#7 ECI*PROVE all sho6e!

similar P* re!'ction efficienc- at oth hi$h an! lo6 loa! en$ine con!itions4

F'rthermore7 ra5es%ecific CO/ emissions a$ree 6ith t-%ical ,al'es for lar$e

!is%lacement stea!-state !iesel $enerators7 s'$$estin$ ,ali! test con!itions an! th's !ata

6as recor!e!4 A ? re!'ction in SO: 6as oser,e!7 6hich f'rther s'$$ests tests

,ali!ation %er e:%ecte! SO: %erformance for scr'ers/B4 The OCNIOS# metho!

!is%la-e! hi$her OC re!'ction than the I*PROVE metho!4 Scr'ers !o not achie,e

hi$h =C re!'ction 6hen o%eratin$ 'n!er lo6 loa! en$ine con!itions4

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1@4 =ethea7 R4 *4 1>4 Air Poll'tion Control Technolo$-4 Ne6 Yor53 Van Nostran!

Reinhol!4

14 ='onicore7 A4 @

/>414 Pet.ol!7 An!reas7 an! *ar5's Schnlinner4 K*'ltian$le asor%tion %hotometr-

^a ne6 metho! for the meas'rement of aerosol li$ht asor%tion an! atmos%heric

lac5 caron4K


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