A Pragmatic Approach to Defining Experiential Marketing: Hedonism Versus Logic?

Guilherme Addor Torres Ribeiro12356294

BA (Hons) Business & MarketingThe University of Lincoln

13th April 2015Word Count: 11,133

A Pragmatic Approach to Defining Experiential Marketing: Hedonism Versus Logic?

Guilherme Addor Torres Ribeiro

Acknowledgements

Thank you to my mother and father, for supporting and funding my studies at The University of Lincoln, and for unconditional love and support.

Thank you to my tutor, Peter Mount, for guidance and aid.

Abstract: The late 20th century saw both a period of crisis and one of emerging ideas and methodologies in the field of marketing. This turbulence led to the creation of a new Experiential Marketing approach; however, as this method developed rapidly over the years, confusion arose amongst marketers as to its nature and potential. Thus, the purpose of this paper was to clearly define modern experiential marketing, and design a solution. The research set out to critically analyse the literature through an inductive archival research style following grounded theory. Via literary analysis, five research questions were postulated, centred around the nature and origins of experience creation, the influential factors involved within this process, and the consequential results of successful experience creation. The final result was the creation of a holistic conceptual model titled ‘The Experiential Control Model’. In summary, the model allows for a better understanding of the experiential approach and its consequences, a framework of measurement for future research, and a guide for practical application of experiential theories. However, its greatest weakness is perhaps its theoretical nature, thus the researcher hopes further research will be conducted to test the validity and rigidity of the model in practical applications.

Table of ContentsList of Tables, Figures and Graphs 2 Introduction 3

Problem Statement 3 Purpose of Research 4 Research Questions 5 Significance 6 Summary of Conceptual Framework 6

Literature Review 8 Background Analysis of Experiential Marketing 8 RQ1. How are brand experiences influenced by controllable stimuli? 15 RQ2. How are brand experiences influenced by uncontrollable stimuli? 19 RQ3. How do external social systems impact brand experiences? 20 RQ4. What is the role of brand loyalty within the experiential model? 24 RQ5. How is purchase intention affected by the experiential model? 26 Proposed Conceptual Framework 27 Strengths and Limitations of the Model 28

Methodology Section 29 Introduction 29 Definition of Research 29 Definition of Paradigms 30 Ontology 31 Epistemology 33 Research Approach and Methodology 34 Axiology 38

Findings, Implications and Conclusion 40 Literary Findings in Relation to the Research Questions 40 Implications of the findings 41 Conclusions Based upon Literary Analysis 42 Recommendations for Future Research 43

Reference List 44 Bibliography 51 Appendices 66

Appendix A: Ethical Approval Form 1 66 Appendix B: Research Material 70 Appendix C: Lengthy Quotations 72

List of Tables, Figures and Graphs

• Figure 1: Overly simplified experiential control model, meant to visually draw a comparison between experiential marketing and the Fishbein and Ajzen reasoned action approach (2009).

p.16• Figure 2: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled

Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb) and Social Norms, building off the work of Schmitt (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen (2009).

p.19• Figure 3: The relationship between Brand Experience and Controlled

Environmental Stimuli, Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli and Social Norms.

p.20• Figure 4: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience and Social Norms,

based off Schmitt’s (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen's (2009) work.

p.23• Figure 5: The relationship between Social Norms and Uncontrolled

Environmental Stimuli, External Social Systems and Brand Experience.

p.24• Figure 6: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled

Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb), Social Norms, and Brand Loyalty, building off the work of Schmitt (1999), Fishbein and Ajzen (2009), and Dick and Basu (1994).

p.24• Figure 7: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience, Social Norms and

Brand Loyalty, based upon the work of Dick and Basu (1994).

p.25• Figure 8: The Experiential Control Model.

p.27

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IntroductionProblem Statement

The late 20th century saw both a period of crisis and one of emerging ideas and methodologies in the field of marketing. Hirschman (1981, 1982, 1983) and Holbrook (1997) explored and debated the then current and traditional views of consumer behaviour and marketing strategies, proposing new methods of considering consumers, the consumption process and the marketing field in general.

Soon, through their work and those of others (Brakus et al., 2009; Brown, 1993; Hirschman, 1981, 1983; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook, 2000, 2001; Klaus and Maklan, 2012; Smith, 1999) they were successful in spreading this new experiential approach, one which saw consumers as emotional beings, as opposed to strictly rational, logical decision makers; drawn to products by their affective symbolisms, the product’s incorporation into the consumer’s lifestyle was not merely a purchase, but a consumption experience.

This view however, had a few flaws - it did not account for the entire human spectrum of psychological responses, omitting the rational side of consumer behaviour; it implied that every consumer-organisational interaction that involved the creation of experiences had to be extraordinary; and it also implied that because every consumer was intrinsically unique, no one experience could be replicated onto others.

Thus, a purely subjective experiential model implied an approach that was unmeasurable by researchers, uncontrollable by organisations and ultimately futile. At the same time, however, multiple authors saw the broader applications of the experiential approach to any and every product; in truth, Addis and Holbrook conclude a research paper by stating that the experiential approach should, “Include the automatic teller machine. The household pet. The personal computer. The Internet. The sun. The moon. The stars” (2001, p.64).

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However, when faced with its limitations, many often simply stated that while the experiential approach was not complete nor perfect at totally encompassing consumer behaviour, neither was the traditional model, and therefore a combination of the two should be used, but no effort was given as to how this might work (Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982).

Purpose of Research

Therefore, the purpose of this study, is to consider the propositions of the previous works on the experiential approach, in order to evaluate the validity of their claims. Many authors misinterpret the potential for experiential marketing theories, believing that their values lie within a firm’s ability to produce over-the-top extraordinary experiences, rather than to make long-lasting emotional bonds with consumers.

Therefore, through further and careful analysis of the literature material, it was found that when addressing the experiential approach, it was perhaps best to consider the Fishbein and Ajzen (2005, 2009) behavioural models; one may see a similarity in the way in which internal subjective or objective beliefs and attitudes can be controlled and studied logically by an organisation or researcher.

Thus, if one considers a parallel between experiential and behavioural models, one can begin to see how initial environmental stimuli within the experiential approach - those which influence consumers and create the experiences - draw similarities with the initial beliefs within the reasoned action approach; hence, by the same reasoning, the organisation or researcher, is able to influence and shape experiences via control of the stimuli at hand.

Let it also be noted that this research follows an archival or ‘desk’ research style; this method is characterised by analysis of secondary data, where enough sufficient information on a subject area already exists. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to induce a conceptual solution to the stated experiential problem.

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Research Questions

Allow one to consider that all environmental stimuli which are responsible for the direct influence of the consumer’s experience, from an organisational point of view, are either internal or external; controllable or uncontrollable. With this in mind, five appropriate research questions were drawn up. Firstly, how are experiences influenced by the controllable factors, what control does the organisation have over these, and what are their consequences? This is summarised in RQ1 below:

“How are brand experiences influenced by controllable stimuli?”

Therefore logically, the next consideration was to examine the effects of the uncontrollable factors, how do they manifest and what are their potential influences over experiences, summarised in RQ2 below:

“How are brand experiences influenced by uncontrollable stimuli?”

It was then considered that perhaps in some cases, one may have control over influencing stimuli which are external to the organisation, such as access to and influence over social systems. Therefore, RQ3 attempts to first understand the relationship between social spheres and experiences, and then comprehend the organisation’s control over them:

“How do external social systems impact brand experiences?”

Analysis of the literature led to the conclusion that brand preference creation and purchase intention, were the only true forms of measuring a positive - or negative in the case of their absence - brand experience. Therefore, RQ4 and RQ5 look at the relationship between these two elements and the overall experiential model:

“What is the role of brand loyalty within the experiential model?”

“How is purchase intention affected by the experiential model?”

Lastly, with the findings from the five research questions, coupled with the material within the literature analysis, this paper was able to propose an integrated experiential approach model.

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Significance

The purpose of the research, as mentioned, was to better understand the experiential approach; in doing so, this paper has constructed a holistic and intrinsic conceptual model, which follows the experiential approach from its most basic influencing stimuli, down to its eventual consequences on purchase behaviour and brand loyalty. Although merely theoretical, the researcher hopes that future investigations and applications of the model to empirical research will show its validity and value on a practical level. If successful, one may deduce the implications for this model to be increased knowledge of the scope of control an organisation needs to have when designing an experiential marketing strategy.

Summary of Conceptual Framework

Following the research questions, the study began with the understanding that all stimuli responsible for influencing a consumer’s experience - whether the smell of a retail environment, the texture of a product, the supportiveness of staff, the social connotations of purchasing a product, etc. - could be classified into two broad classes: controlled environmental stimuli (ESa) and uncontrolled environmental stimuli (ESb).

Firstly, it was considered that solely these two stimuli classifications existed. However, it eventually became clear that social norms could be affected by brand experiences, and therefore influenced by an organisation. This revelation appeared when conducting inquiry for research questions two and three. Therefore, it was concluded that in order to explain this phenomenon, there must be three basic stimuli providers: controlled, uncontrolled, and social systems.

Thus, the creation of external social systems (Exss), resulted from the consideration that social norms are not completely constructed by the organisation, but they are also not outside the firm’s realm of influence. Therefore, social spheres were neither controllable nor uncontrollable, and hence must originated from their own basic stimuli provider. Briefly, external social systems

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encapsulate all socio-cultural contexts surrounding an individual. It is responsible for the creation of social identities and thus social influences.

The fourth research question led rise to the influential effects brand experiences and social norms have upon brand loyalty. A mixture of positive or negative brand experiences coupled with supporting or opposing social norms could lead to the creation or deterioration of a consumer’s preference towards a brand. It was also found that once this preference had been established, it too played a vital role in the consumption of future experiences and/or the influencing affects of social spheres.

Lastly, it was seen that these elements were also vital in inclining or deterring a consumer’s intention to purchase; naturally, negative experiences or surrounding norms would deter one from purchase. Whilst, multiple literary sources, attested to the strength brand loyalty had upon shielding the consumer from these situations.

In conclusion, an overall a conceptual model was designed to encapsulate the above findings from the research questions. ‘The Experiential Control Model’ is a holistic and theoretical solution for visually understanding and controlling the experiential process; it can be inspected in Appendix B, under Figure 8.

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Literature ReviewBackground Analysis of Experiential Marketing

Schmitt (1999), in his article aptly titled ‘Experiential Marketing’, builds upon the ideas of Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), following a consensus at the time held by marketing practitioners and academics, that ‘traditional marketing’ theories and ideologies were to become an outdated way of viewing the “broader business environment” (Schmitt, 1999, p.53).

‘Traditional Marketing’ can be defined as those methodologies and principles encompassing the promotion of product features and benefits (Schmitt, 1999; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). This view sees consumers, products and competition analytically and rationally, and omits the psychological and sociological side of consumption behaviour, choosing to follow a more decision-making approach of problem recognition, information search, evaluation, purchase decision and post-purchase behaviour (Kotler and Keller, 2012). Whereas the experiential method is not limited merely to some pre- or post-purchase activity, but involves a series of actions which influence consumers’ decisions and future behaviour (Vézina, 1999, in Carù and Cova, 2003). Essentially, experiential marketing would see a change in the way organisations viewed and marketed towards consumers, focusing on the creation of experiences, rather than relying on products’ features and benefits (Schmitt, 1999).

According to Schmitt (1999) this movement from a traditional to an experiential point of view occurred due to three increasingly important environmental developments: advancements in information technology, the importance of brands, and the growing presence of communicational tools and entertainment.

Through the use of literature from futurists, Schmitt (1999) predicted that the future would hold mass technological advancements, lending to faster, smaller,

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integrated devices, combining television, mobile phones and computers, allowing users to access anything at the touch of a button.

He also predicted that through these changes, brands would become increasingly transparent and present on a global scale. This would result in the branding of all products, even those not traditionally regarded as such. He claimed that when features were no longer relevant, brands served to “provide and enhance customer experiences” (Schmitt, 1999, p.54). Evidence of this may be seen today, from Harley Davidson, Apple and Nike whose offerings are no longer motorcycles, computer and footwear, but experiences (Penaloza, 1998).

Lastly, Schmitt argued that brands would form a new method of communication; their logos would represent the organisation’s ideals, and as such could be attached to anything in order to transmit an image. One of many examples of this would be RedBull and their sponsorships. By placing their logo on selected events and individuals they are communicating their brand’s ideals through them, expressing that RedBull is more than a drink, it is a lifestyle.

The developments iterated by Schmitt, seem to follow the work of Pine and Gilmore (1998), who argue that over time, services would become commoditised. Following a “progression of economic value” commodities became products, products grew into services, and now services were to become experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 1998, p.2).

However, the ‘experiential’ approach is not merely stressed by Schmitt, other authors in the marketing field have attested to this new ideology, including, Holbrook (2000), Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), and many more. Also, this new school of thought is not exclusive to the field of marketing, many researchers in consumer behaviour (Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Arnould and Price, 1993; Babin et al., 1994; Bellenger and Korgaonkar, 1980; Campbell, 2003; Hirschman, 1982; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook, 1997; Thompson, 1996; Thompson and Haytko, 1997; Thompson and Hirschman, 1995), economy (Pine and Gilmore, 1998) and sociology (Miller, 1998; Ritzer, 2005; Falk and Campbell, 1997) have

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substantiated the idea that creating meaningful experiences with consumers is the next step in penetrating an excessively saturated market environment.

Holbrook, Hirschman and Campbell are a few of many who saw consumption behaviour as hedonic experiences meant to stimulate consumers’ emotionally. Holbrook claims, “hedonism, romanticism, and modern consumption have converged via their common pursuit of pleasure resulting from the imaginative evocation of emotional experience” (Holbrook, 1997, p.100).

This coincides with Brown’s view that postmodern marketing, departs from modernism’s view of an objective, entirely rational world to a more subjective, artistic and inherently emotional one (Brown, 1993). Therefore, according to these authors, current consumption and marketing strategies should revolve around stimulating consumers’ emotions and creating hedonic experiences that are pleasureful and extraordinary.

This view however has two essential flaws - (1) it does not account for the entire human spectrum of psychological responses, omitting the rational side of consumer behaviour, and (2) it implies that every experience must be extraordinary.

Firstly, the above view contradicts Schmitt’s definition of ‘experiential marketing’ in which he explicitly states that consumers are both emotional and rational beings. He understands that while consumption behaviour may at times be hedonic in nature, consumers are also enticed by intellectual intrigue, problem-solving, and logically-driven intentions (Schmitt, 1999).

Secondly, the purpose of providing consumers with experiences is to create a brand with which consumers “can relate to” and a product “that they can incorporate into their lifestyles” (Schmitt, 1999, p.57), the end-goal of which (from an organisational perspective) is to increase purchase intention and brand preference.

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Therefore, perhaps originally, experiences needed to be extraordinary to remove consumers from everyday monotony. However, this does not always ring true; positive experiences can also be mundane in nature (such as a quiet and peaceful experience to break from life’s constant routine) and hence do not need to be extraordinary, surprising or over-the-top.

Authors Carù and Cova (2003) write a critique of the ‘experiential’ approach, and attempt to show that it will lead to an over-saturation of experiences and decreased contemplative time. They begin their argument by postulating that just as relationship marketing deteriorated the definition of relationships, experiential marketing will do the same to experiences (see Appendix C, Quote 1).

Hetzel believed that the concept of experience was marketing’s escape from the limitations of relationship-based marketing ideas (Hetzel, 2002 cited within Carù and Cova, 2003); in effect, customer relationship management (CRM) lent a false appreciation of the customer.

As argued by some authors, such as Blois (1997, cited within Carù and Cova, 2003), this led to the misassumption that all customer-to-business relationships - whether intense or irrelevant - were special, and thus debased the definition of relationships. Carù and Cova (2003) build upon this view, and propose the same will occur with experiential marketing; the over-saturation of extraordinary experiences will lend to the corruption of experiences themselves.

They believe that experiential marketing’s roots lie in North American thinking and culture, creating an “obsession with extraordinary experience” (Carù and Cova, 2003, p. 9) and hence choose the use of an euro-centric perspective to deconstruct this way of thinking.

French author Bruckner believes that the marketing of experiences constitutes as a “search for perpetual euphoria” creating an ideology within our society of “continual entertainment” in which there is an “obligation to be happy” (Bruckner, 2000 within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.9).

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Bruckner even goes as far as to state that this “forces everything to be assessed in terms of pleasure and displeasure […] which leaves those who do not agree in shame and discomfort” (Bruckner, 2000, p.17 within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.9).

Cassano, an Italian author, agrees with these statements, believing that this obsession with the extraordinary will lead to a life of constant exaltation, in which consumers will fear boredom and empty time, craving more “astonishing experiences” (Carù and Cova, 2003, p.9).

Building upon the foundations of another Italian, Manzini, Carù and Cova argue that experiential marketing is leading to the disappearance of contemplative time. Manzini defines this as a period in which one does nothing, but “is not empty nor meaningless” (Manzini, 2001 within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.10); therefore, contemplative time symbolises an introspective and meditational period during one’s day.

Manzini (2001) accredits this disappearance to two issues, the saturation of free time (the need to fill every waking moment with activities from fear of not doing so) and an accelerated pace of life (the need to perform everything quickly, in order to free up time for further activities).

Thus, Carù and Cova conclude that “experiential marketing could lead to a degraded context of life” by bringing upon a “negative auto-reinforcing cycle” in which consumers crave experiential products and services, which lead to less contemplative time, lending to a degraded life context, which spurs further wanting for the consumption of experiences (Manzini, 2001, within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.11).

However, this view once again overlooks the notion that experiences can be mundane in nature and must not always be extraordinary. The authors misinterpret experiential marketing theories, believing that their values lie within a firm’s ability to produce over-the-top experiences, rather than memorable ones which create long-lasting emotional bonds.

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Indeed, Hirschman and Holbrook’s work on experiential consumption was built upon their original theories of hedonic consumption, characterised as “those facets of consumer behaviour that relate to the multi-sensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of one’s experience with products” (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982, p.92). This definition might lead one to believe that every experience thus needs to be extraordinary in order to be memorable (Pine and Gilmore, 1998).

However, the authors simply intended for this definition to clearly identify the differences between the then current school of thought in consumer behaviour and the new ‘experiential’ approach. This can be clearly seen in a later article by Holbrook and Hirschman, in which they explain experiential consumption as a diverging theory from “the information processing model” (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982, p.132). They define this model as one which considers the consumer as a logical problem-solver who rationally makes purchase decisions, baring similarities to Schmitt’s definition of ‘traditional marketing’.

Claiming stark differences between the two methodologies, Holbrook and Hirschman include a figure which attempts to illustrate the key characteristics of both views, such as “tangible benefits versus symbolic benefits”, “problem-solving versus hedonic responses”, “attitudes versus emotions”, “preferences versus feelings”, or “left-brain versus right-brain” (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982, p.133). Again, the authors allude to the view that experiential and traditional marketing are incompatible. However, the article concludes with the belief that, the point is not to usurp the traditional view, but to supplement and enrich existing theories with a mixture of both, although no further explanations are provided (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982).

Hirschman (1983) in particular, questions the validity of the traditional marketing concept, in quantifying artistic and ideological products. Hirschman postulated that the traditional model, excluded two broad classes of producers: artists and ideologists (Hirschman, 1983).

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She claimed that these producers, could and do create for their own personal exaltation, or the judgement of their peers, rather than for public needs; therefore, Hirschman developed four proposals aimed at marketing researchers when evaluating public opinion of an artwork or ideological piece (Hirschman, 1983).

In short these were: (1) consumers must evaluate the object first-hand; responses to a representation of the object - such as a photograph - should not be seen as equal to that of the actual stimuli. (2) consumers’ responses should not have to follow a logical path or justification; affective responses should not follow logical assumptions, because they are subjective in nature. (3) Verbal communication of consumers’ responses may be limited, and as such, recognised by the researcher. Lastly, (4) no response can be objectively seen as ‘better’ or ‘worse’ than another (Hirschman, 1983, p.53).

The implications for these proposals can see reflective effects on experiential marketing due to the similar way in which each experience is intrinsically unique to the individual, and thus assessed subjectively.

Thus, following Hirschman’s proposals, firstly, an experience must be lived first-hand; an account of said experience - even by relevant others - will not necessarily equate to the consumer’s own response, even though the opinions of reference groups can influence and affect the individual.

Secondly, as the experience is subjective, responses do not need to be rationally justified by the consumer. Often times, one will enjoy an experience and be aware of the fact, but not be able to explain why logically. This relates to Schmitt’s SEMs (1999), where more explicit systems (THINK, SENSE and ACT) will be better understood by consumers, over intrinsic systems like FEEL or RELATE.

Schmitt (1999) explains that marketers construct experiences through the use of what he refers to as “Strategic Experiential Modules” or SEMs (Schmitt, 1999, p.60). These SEMs refer to the different degrees with which experiences can be created and delivered to consumers; these include “sensory experiences

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(SENSE), affective experiences (FEEL), creative cognitive experiences (THINK), physical experiences, behaviours and lifestyles (ACT), and social-identity experiences that result from relating to a reference group or culture (RELATE)” (Schmitt, 1999, p.60); these will be further developed within the research questions.

Continuing with Hirschman’s proposals, the third states that consumers may find difficulty in expressing their experiences verbally or coherently; thus heavy reliance on verbal feedback or standardised response forms can be ineffective. Logically, if a consumer enjoyed an experience, they would purchase the product, or wish to undergo the experience again; therefore, a tangible measurement of consumers’ responses is through purchase behaviour or the creation of brand preference.

Lastly, due to the subjective nature of responses, no experience can be measured against another; comparisons between consumers’ responses are unpredictable and may lead to inaccurate results. It is more effective to attempt to understand the significance of the stimuli which created the experience. This way correlations can be established between stimuli and experiences - cause and effect - allowing for the direction of experiences through control of the stimuli.

Although it may seem that the implications of the above statements lead one to believe that the subjective nature of experiential marketing makes it nearly unquantifiable, perhaps behavioural change theories may provide some evidence towards the contrary.

RQ1. How are brand experiences influenced by controllable stimuli?

Fishbein and Ajzen’s theories, all attempt to understand, predict and alter the intensity of internal and external influences on consumer behaviour. Central to them, is the belief that performing a given behaviour (such as purchasing a product) is directly influenced by the intention to do so (Ajzen, 2005; Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009).

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Within their latest Reasoned Action Approach, it is proposed that behavioural intention is influenced by three factors - the consumer’s attitude towards the behaviour, the perceived norms surrounding performing the behaviour, and their perceived control over performing the behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009). The development of these constructs is a direct result of the consumer’s beliefs of each corresponding aspect - attitude, norms and control (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009).

Thus, the authors have been able to prove that by tracing one’s initial beliefs, the researcher can direct an individual’s behaviour, through careful selection and manipulation of their intentions (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009; see Appendix C, Quote 2 for further details).

Therefore, if one considers the initial beliefs within the reasoned action approach to equate the initial environmental stimuli within the experiential approach, then by the same reasoning, one may consider that by influencing these stimuli, an organisation is able to direct the consumer’s experience [see Figure 1].

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Figure 1: Overly simplified experiential control model, meant to visually draw a comparison between experiential marketing and the Fishbein and Ajzen reasoned action approach (2009).

Beliefs

Attitudes

Norms

Control

Intentions Behaviour

Stimuli

Cognitive

Affective

Experience Intention Behaviour

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The basis for this assumption, is that the initial stimuli responsible for experiences are controlled by the organisation. These controllable stimuli, draw comparisons to Schmitt’s SEMs; as briefly mentioned earlier, these strategic experiential modules consist of five subgroups, SENSE, FEEL, THINK, ACT and RELATE.

SENSE techniques include “sight, sound, touch, taste and smell” and can be used for a variety of desired effects, such as product differentiation, added value, and increasing consumer trial or purchase motivation (Schmitt, 1999, p.61).

Anggie and Haryanto (2011) iterate the importance of these techniques, by analysis the presence of olfactory cues within a retail context. They define olfactory as “the presence of scent in a store environment” (Lindstorm, 2005 in Anggie and Haryanto, 2011, p88).

Using research from multiple sources (Baron and Bronfen, 1994; Bone and Jantrania, 1992; Lindstorm, 2005; Mitchell et al., 1995; Spangenberg et al., 2006; Sullivan and Adcock, 2002) the authors establish a connection between aromas and the nervous system of the brain, and its effect on memory recall, social behaviour and time spent within a store.

They argue that the aroma must mimic or compliment the shopping environment, as to say, an inappropriate scent will negatively affect consumer retention, establishing olfactory stimuli as an important factor in customer approach behaviour.

Research from Mehrabian and Russel (1974), quoted within Sullivan and Adcock (2002 within Anggie and Haryanto, 2011) show that characteristics of approach behaviour include the desire to remain in the environment, increased participation and increased purchase intention, with avoidance behaviour displaying opposite characteristics.

As such, this research serves to illustrate the capacity and potential with which controllable environmental stimuli can have upon the consumer’s experience.

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FEEL techniques refer to consumers’ affective responses; as Schmitt describes, the range of these may vary from “mildly positive” to “strong emotions of joy and pride” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61). The effectiveness of these techniques are highly dependant on an understanding of which stimuli can trigger specific emotional responses, and the “willingness of the consumer to engage in perspective-taking and empathy” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61).

Colombo concludes that empathy and caring is the “the source of both feeling emotions and complying with [social] norms” (Colombo, 2014, p.45). The relevance of this, is the notion that campaigns utilising FEEL characteristics often fall short when implemented on a global scale, “because both the emotion-inducing stimuli and the willingness to empathise in a given situation often differ from culture to culture” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61), demonstrating the fragility of proper implementation.

THINK systems are designed to appeal to intellect, creating interest by engaging consumers’ creatively and through problem solving, and enabling “convergent and divergent thinking” via “surprise, intrigue and provocation” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61).

Convergent thinking is defined as “the mode of human cognition that strives for the deductive generation of a single, concrete, accurate, and effective solution” whilst divergent thinking refers to “imagination, provocation, unstructured syntheses, serendipitous discovery, and answers that break with conformity” (Müller-Wienbergen et al., 2011, p.3). Therefore, THINK techniques appeal to both the rational and creative aspects of consumers.

ACT systems target lifestyles, seeking to enrich consumers’ lives; they attempt to open consumers to “alternative ways of doing things” as well as “alternative lifestyles and interactions” usually through the use of inspiring and motivational stimuli - often a person or group the consumer regards highly (Schmitt, 1999, p.62).

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Lastly, RELATE systems refer to aspects of all previous SEMs, but expand further into the external social environment. RELATE techniques are often characterised by self-improvement, self-achievement, social praise or acceptance, subculture acceptance, patriotism, and so on (Schmitt, 1999); because of this, RELATE systems often play off of consumers’ surrounding social norms, targeting them from a personal and communal perspective.

Therefore, Schmitt’s SEMs show how consumers’ experiences can be created and affected by surrounding environmental stimuli, displaying the large sphere of control an organisation needs to have when developing and implementing experiential marketing techniques.

RQ2. How are brand experiences influenced by uncontrollable stimuli?

However, not all experiential stimuli may be controlled by the organisation. Some situational factors can, therefore, be categorised as externally controlled stimuli, such as those of competing organisations, or of the larger environmental context. Thus, from an organisational perspective, environmental stimuli are either controllable (ESa) or uncontrollable (ESb) [see Figure 2].

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Controlled Environmental Stimuli (ESa), are those techniques, strategies, systems and other influencing factors which are developed, implemented and maintained

ES

ES

Brand Experience

Social Norms

Purchase Intent

Figure 2: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb) and Social Norms, building off the work of Schmitt (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen (2009).

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by the organisation. Any and all of Schmitt’s SEMs fall under this category, as they exist to achieve strategic marketing goals (Schmitt, 1999).

Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli (ESb), mimic those of ESa however by definition are outside the control of the organisation. An ESb can originate from the environment or from competitors, as a reaction to the organisation’s own strategies. However, by definition, an ESb does not need to be negative in nature nor conflicting with the organisation’s actions, simply outside their realm of control.

As such, uncontrollable stimuli may have a direct role in disturbing - or perhaps augmenting - the brand experience; however they are more prominent when influencing social norms as can be seen in Figure 2. Social norms are further explored within the third research question, nonetheless, allow Figure 3 below to summarise the relationship between brand experience and its influencing factors insofar.

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RQ3. How do external social systems impact brand experiences?

Normative beliefs or social norms can influence consumers’ experiences either as they occur, or via pre-constructed biases. As mentioned, ACT systems affect consumers’ lifestyles through the use of referent groups; they may be personal or aspirational in nature, but their beliefs and actions play an important role in

Figure 3: The relationship between Brand Experience and Controlled Environmental Stimuli, Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli and Social Norms.

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experience creation (Schmitt, 1999). Similarly, RELATE systems use consumers’ self- and/or communal image to influence experiences; as such these tend to be more intimate in nature (Schmitt, 1999).

Göckeritz et al. (2014) found that young children (five years old) are able to both understand normative behaviour, but also develop their own social norms spontaneously. When playing a game where success could only be achieved through the use of interdependent coordination, it was found that the children were “capable of creating their own sets of social norms to align their behaviour effectively, even when there was no authority who prescribed how they ought to behave or judged their actions” (Göckeritz et al., 2014, p.91).

This research serves to show not only the power of normative behaviour within a social group, but also the pervasiveness of norms as a social tool amongst humans, irregardless of age; more importantly, it shows how social norms play a role in the development of one’s position within a community.

Another journal article, by Higgs (2015), shows the prevalence of social norms on individuals and their eating behaviours. Defining social norms as “implicit codes of conduct that provide a guide to appropriate action”, Higgs argues that social norms impact eating behaviours through the form of “perceived standards for what constitutes appropriate consumption, whether that be amounts of foods or specific food choices, for members of a social group” (Higgs, 2015, p.38-9).

Therefore, whereas Göckeritz et al. show the importance of social norms within a community perspective (RELATE), Higgs’ paper stands to show the role of social norms on an individual’s own behaviour and self-image (ACT).

Both of these behaviours can be seen as involving injunctive and descriptive norms (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009). Injunctive norms are one’s own perceptions about how referent others will judge them for performing or not performing a behaviour (see Appendix C, Quote 3). Descriptive norms follow one’s intention to

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perform a behaviour based upon the actions of others, as an attempt to become closer through modelling their deeds (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009).Therefore, an individual seeking to undergo an experience because they believe referent others would approve of this are following injunctive norms; whereas if the individual felt compelled to do so in order to conform, they would be following descriptive norms.

Hence, when social norms influence a consumers’ brand experience, they may either conflict or complement the stimuli present.

In the case of dissonance, this may yield unforeseen responses to the brand, ultimately affecting the experience negatively. Dick and Basu (1994), with the support of other authors (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Ehrlich, 1969; Wicker, 1969), confirm this by statin that fear of disapproval from referent groups and social acceptance is stronger than brand necessity.

In the case of consonance, this alignment serves to strengthen the consumers’ response and thus experience. This can be seen in Ajzen and Fishbein’s reasoned action approach, where if attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control were congruent with one another, they would have a positive effect on behavioural intention (Ajzen, 2005).

However, this is dependant upon the strength of the social norms present and the consumer’s attitude towards the brand. Therefore, one may consider six possibilities between the relationship of brand experiences and social norms.

Three scenarios consider that the consumer’s brand experience was positive; in the case of +BE > -SN, the consumer’s attitude has overruled the social context, leading to purchase intent. If, a +BE < -SN, the need to conform was greater than the brand’s offering, therefore, the consumer will have a lowered purchase intent. Thirdly, if +BE = +SN, then the brand’s offering compliments social conformity, lending to high levels of purchase intent.

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Adversely, three scenarios consider the consumer’s experience to be negative; therefore when -BE > +SN, the negative experience outweighs the need to conform, and there is no purchase intent. If -BE < +SN, although the purchase intent is low, the consumer still feels the need to conform. Lastly, when -BE = -SN, there is absolutely no purchase intent, and it is unlikely the consumer will return.

Insofar, it has been established that all elements of the model originate and proceed from two basic stimuli providers - Controlled Environmental Stimuli (ESa) and Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli (ESb).

However, within social groups where the majority of constituents approve of the brand’s experiences, the minority will be subject to social pressures. In this scenario, from an organisations perspective, brand experiences are influencing social norms; therefore, one may consider that brand experience and social norms share a cyclical relationship [see Figure 4].

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As such, if brand experiences are created by the organisation, and these affect social norms, it would be erroneous to believe social norms are entirely composed of uncontrolled external stimuli. Therefore, the paper proposes a new basic stimulus provider, external social systems (Exss). These include all socio-cultural contexts, such as culture, nationality, reference groups, friends, families, sub-cultures, etc. They lead to the creation of social identities amongst its constituents. A recent Harvard Business Review article states the importance of social identities within a marketing context (Champniss et al., 2015, see Appendix C, Quote 4), thus solidifying the importance of Exss within the experiential approach.

Figure 4: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience and Social Norms, based off Schmitt’s (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen's (2009) work.

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Thus, incorporating external social systems into the influential factors of social norms allows for the creation of Figure 5.

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RQ4. What is the role of brand loyalty within the experiential model?

Dick and Basu (1994) developed a conceptual framework for customer loyalty, attempting to understand its antecedents and consequences within a business environment. They argue that social norms alongside attitudes and situational factors can directly affect repeat purchases, or brand loyalty (Dick and Basu, 1994, see Appendix C, Quote 5 for further details). Considering situational factors as ESa and ESb, model from Figure 2 may be expanded to include Brand Loyalty [see Figure 6].

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Figure 5: The relationship between Social Norms and Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli, External Social Systems and Brand Experience.

ES

ES

Brand Experience

Social Norms

Brand Loyalty

Purchase Intent

Figure 6: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb), Social Norms, and Brand Loyalty, building off the work of Schmitt (1999), Fishbein and Ajzen (2009), and Dick and Basu (1994).

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Dick and Basu (1994) state social norms’ affect upon brand loyalty is inversely proportional to attitude strength. Once established, brand loyalty shields the consumer from future negative experiences, social norms and competition, stating consumers will not accept alternatives, and will even choose to wait or go out of their way to purchase their desired brand (Dick and Basu, 1994).

The authors explain that multiple systems work together in constructing resistance towards counter-persuasion; these include “attitude-driven message selectivity (Fazio, 1990), biased cognitive responses (Cacioppo and Petty, 1985), cognitive consistency (Frey, 1986), and self-persuasion (Tesser and Conlee, 1975)” (Dick and Basu, 1994, p.107).

As brand loyalty strengthens over time, the associated risks from trial of new brands leads to a reduction of search motivation among consumers for alternatives, as such, “a number of studies provide evidence that as experience, learning, satisfaction, and repeat purchase increase, search for information about alternative brands decreases” (Dick and Basu, 1994, p.107).

Thus, brand experience, social norms and loyalty share a cyclical relationship; the first two elements allow for the creation of strong attitudes, resulting in preference, whilst loyalty shields and further solidifies the consumers relationship with experiences and social norms [see Figure 7].

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Figure 7: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience, Social Norms and Brand Loyalty, based upon the work of Dick and Basu (1994).

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RQ5. How is purchase intention affected by the experiential model?

Dick and Basu (1994) defined brand loyalty through “proportion of purchase (Cunningham, 1966), purchase sequence (Kahn, Kalwani and Morrison, 1986) and probability of purchase (Massey, Montgomery, and Morrison, 1970)” (Dick and Basu, 1994, p.100). Therefore, one may take purchase behaviour - whether repeat, intent or quantity - as a consequence of existing brand loyalty.

This correlates with a study by Brakus et al. (2009), in which the authors propose that brand loyalty as a determinant of consumer behaviour, has resulting effects on purchase intention, repeat purchases, brand recommendation and negation to brand-switching. Their findings also concluded that “brand experience has a behavioural impact; it affects consumer satisfaction and loyalty directly and indirectly through brand personality” (Brakus et al., 2009, p.65).

Therefore, not merely brand loyalty, but also brand experience has influential effects upon purchase intent.

Similarly, Anggie and Haryanto’s (2011) results indicated that the effective brand experience creation could not only lead to loyalty creation, but could also increase purchase intent and purchase quantity, especially upon customers’ with existing positive attitudes, writing “the smell of bread makes me want to buy bread” and “the smell of bread makes me buy more”, with the latter scoring higher in their analysis (Anggie and Haryanto, 2011, p.93). Furthermore, they found that the participation/recommendation of referent others during the experience, further strengthened enjoyment and purchase intent (Anggie and Haryanto, 2011).

Also, multiple authors support the stance that positive brand experiences, congruent social norms and brand loyalty serve to increase purchase intent (Anggie and Haryanto, 2011; Brakus et al., 2009; Chou, 2009; Dick and Basu, 1994; Schmitt, 1999; Shah et al., 2011; Srinivasan and Srivastava, 2010).

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Proposed Conceptual Framework

Insofar, this paper has elaborated upon the existence of certain factors whose interconnected relationships have influencing affects upon each other. From an organisational perspective, one is able to trace the initial stimuli necessary and responsible for the creation of consumer-brand experiences, and follow their resounding effects until physical manifestation as purchase behaviour or brand loyalty. In essence, this paper has attempted to unify experiential marketing theories and consumer behaviour theories, in order to create a holistic conceptual framework, which this paper has alluded to as the Experiential Control Model [see Figure 8].

� Figure 8: The Experiential Control Model.

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Strengths and Limitations of the Model

The greatest strength of the Experiential Control Model, is perhaps its flexibility in practical adoption to any organisation or situation. It was designed specifically for this purpose, hence while the elements of the framework consider the different influencing factors, they still remain broad categories; this way a marketer or researcher applying the model is able to define their own specific case issues in accordance to their scenario. Yet at the same time, a range of possible element configurations is explored within this research.

The limitations of the model are very clear to the researcher; because it was conceived under theoretical implications, it lacks empirical evidence to justify its effectiveness on a practical level. Also, even though the model allows for a clearer understanding of the involved elements, it lacks a structure for the individual analysis of each specific factor, therefore, it becomes the job of future researchers to create and implement their own research strategies that conform to the model, rather than being prescribed them by the framework. Further limitations could be that the theoretical basis for the model is inaccurate; when studying the literature, a select pool of authors and disciplines were chosen, however, perhaps a greater consideration of literary sources may have honed or contradicted the model. This limitation occurred due to both the time constraints upon the study and the availability of research material.

Therefore, it is hoped that future research will seek a wider range of theories surrounding the framework and practical applications of the model. In summary, the model allows for a better understanding of the experiential approach and its consequences, a framework of measurement for future research, and a guide for practical application of experiential theories. It allows for ease when designing experiential marketing strategies by organisations, as the factors involved in achieving specific strategic goals, as well as their relations to other elements, are displayed clearly.

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Methodology SectionIntroduction

As this report has shown, consumption behaviour and the role of marketing in addressing this, tends to have differing view points, definitions, and focal areas of importance amongst researchers and authors of the field. For example, Hirschman and Holbrook in 1982, considered a new hedonic approach to marketing in order to cross-examine and complement traditional views; later that same year, Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) described a similar, but not quite identical view point on experiential and conventional marketing; Hirschman, a year later in 1983, building upon her previous work, considers new implications for the experiential approach, although from different perspectives of her original standpoint; Schmitt (1999), building upon the work of his antecedents, describes a newer experiential marketing concept, and even more recently, Holbrook (2001) proposed a novel outlook, tracing marketing’s transition from hedonic to experiential.

The purpose of these examples is to illustrate how multiple perspectives can exist on comparable areas of study, and how these different attitudes and angles can be subject to change even for the same individual. This is the same for research paradigms, philosophies, methods and conclusions. Matters of ontology and epistemology are reflective of not only the undertaken research at hand, but also the individual. Hence it is important for one to understand, carefully consider and clearly state one’s viewpoints on ontology and epistemology, and the resounding consequences these have upon undergoing research.

Definition of Research

Although multiple definitions exist, Kerlinger (1970, cited within Cohen and Manion, 1994, p.4) defines it as, “the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”. Smith, (1981 within Gliner et al., 2009) describes a similar definition, but in greater detail (see Appendix C, Quote 6).

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Definition of Paradigms

Lincoln and Guba (1985) working upon the creations of author Julienne Ford (1975) believe that all things must follow “metaphysical beliefs” which are “the ultimate benchmarks against which everything else is tested” (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.14-15).

Further, they quote Patton who defines a paradigm as “a world view, a general perspective, a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world” (1978, p.203 quoted within Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.15).

Easterby-Smith et al. define paradigms from Kuhn’s (1962) descriptions, as “the combination of new theories and questions […]” (2012, p.22-3).

Saunders et al. define a paradigm as “a way of examining social phenomena from which particular understandings of these phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted” (2009, p.118).

Therefore, from a research perspective, one’s paradigm, or world view, defines their research philosophy and research approach (Saunders et al., 2009). This research philosophy is in turn defined by the type of study the researcher wishes to carry out, and what the individual deems as important, valuable and useful.

Hence, the philosophy one adapts, will have practical implications upon the individual’s research strategies, methods, and evaluation of their findings (see Appendix C, Quote 7). Thus, the authors conclude that the significance of research philosophies is not how well one adheres to a paradigm, but how well one defends their choice in relation to alternative choices (Saunders et al., 2009).

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Ontology

Ontology is generally considered to be a philosophical view point concerned with the nature of reality (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders et al., 2009). However, within the realm of social sciences, one finds that the definitions of ontological philosophies differ slightly amongst authors in the field.

Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) describe the ontological philosophy of relativism, as one which considers truth a relative concept to the researcher; as such, what are considered facts within a subject matter are merely general agreements amongst peers and professionals. Therefore, one may consider that from a relativist’s point of view, there are multiple perspectives to be studied. The purpose of the researcher, is to attempt to immerse themselves and understand all possible viewpoints surrounding the study matter, with no one angle being construed as more important than another (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

This paper has observed various definitions of experiential marketing. Although many share similarities, each author adds their own personal contribution to the field. It is also apparent that over time, authors revise their own claims and perspectives; this shares similarities with a quote from the relativist Collins (1983, p.88 within Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.20), which states “what counts for the truth can vary from place to place and from time to time”. As such, in this study’s attempt to better understand and define experiential marketing, it has adopted a relativist ontological approach.

Saunders et al. (2009) believes in the ontological view of subjectivism; this considers that the researcher and social reality are intertwined, therefore the observer’s perceptions and actions influence and create the social reality around them (Saunders et al., 2009).

As mentioned, subjectivism places the observer as both the influence and the consequence of social reality, and as such, the two “are in a constant state of revision” (Saunders et al., 2009, p.111). As Remenyi et al. (1998) state, the

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purpose of the researcher who follows a subjectivist ontology, is to understand not just the reality but the processes behind its creation (Saunders et al., 2009).

Subjectivism is also often associated with social constructionism, central to which is the idea that the social world surrounding the researcher is dynamic, existing as interactions between its constituents, with actions having multiple influences and consequences (Saunders et al., 2009). As such, it is the individual’s duty when performing research, to position themselves within this social structure, and attempt to understand the reality from within. Saunders et al. describe this as “to enter the social world of our research subjects and understand their world from their point of view” (2009, p.116).

As such, Bryman and Bell (2007) in their definition of constructionism state that social reality is in constant interaction with its participants, and that its meaning is thus in constant change as social actors interplay with one another. Therefore, reality is in constant motion, making it impossible to label with a definitive description. As such, each researcher’s analysis of the social world is inherently different from another’s, including one’s own past. This definition not only implies that reality is subjective, but also that one’s version of such is neither greater nor lesser than another’s (Bryman and Bell, 2007).

Once again, one may notice similarities between the nature of this ontology and the studies within this paper. Many authors claim that experiential marketing is a new method which addressed flaws in the traditional marketing approach, and is to be used concurrently with the older methods; but perhaps, just as constructionism implies, traditional marketing theories were suited for the social reality of their time - as suggested by Smith (1999), who claimed these ideologies were a result of the industrial revolution - and as such, advocates of the experiential approach were simply identifying and adapting to a newer social context. Thus, one may logically consider that since the proposition of the experiential approach, perhaps marketing is in need of a more cohesive model consistent with the current social world, hence validating the existence of this and future research on the matter.

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Epistemology

Epistemological philosophies are concerned with what assumptions and knowledge should be considered acceptable in a given field (Bryman and Bell, 2007; Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders et al., 2009).

The epistemological philosophy Easterby-Smith et al. consider as social constructionism, shares similarities (if not identical) to the definitions previously mentioned. This epistemology views social reality not as an external and objective construction but as an internally subjective construction, whose meaning is given by those who experience it (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). As earlier, the observer or researcher should “appreciate the different constructions and meanings that people place upon their experience” (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.23-4). Most importantly, reality is created by the interaction of individuals in different situations. Therefore, allow oneself to contemplate Easterby-Smith et al.’s listing of eight characteristics of social constructionism:

• The observer is part of what is being observed

• Human interests are the main drivers of science

• Explanations aim to increase general understanding of the situation

• Research progresses through gathering rich data from which ideas are induced

• Concepts should incorporate stakeholder perspectives

• Units of analysis may include the complexity of ‘whole’ situations

• Generalisation through theoretical abstraction

• Sampling requires small numbers of cases chosen for specific reasons

(taken from table 2.4 within Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.24).

Important features from the above list include the involvement of the researcher within the study, the use of affective response as a valid measurement, inducing theory from collected data, the abstract nature of theories, and focused sampling.

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These all share similarities with this research paper, such as the use of focused secondary research, induction of ideas from existing theories, and the abstract nature of the argument presented. Bryman and Bell (2007) and Saunders et al. (2009) refer to this same epistemological position as interpretivism. Both authors place importance upon the researcher’s ability to “grasp the subjective meaning of social action” (Bryman and Bell, 2007, p.19) and “adopt an empathetic stance” (Saunders et al., 2009, p.116).

Research Approach and Methodology

As previously mentioned, one of the aspects of the research method of this paper, and its ontological and epistemological standpoints, is the use of induction, rather than deduction.

Induction, involves the creation of hypotheses from collected data. Firstly, the researcher sets out to study the subject material or collect data; then through careful evaluation, one creates a hypothesis from their findings. As Saunders et al. put it, “theory would follow data rather than vice versa with deduction” (2009, p.126). Inductive approaches are often associated with the social sciences, because they allow for an understanding of human interpretation and interaction, before their effects can be made hypothesised (Saunders et al., 2009). Also, because it is less rigid than deductive methodologies, it allows for the evaluation of alternative possibilities (Saunders et al., 2009). However, within the inductive approach, after hypothesis consideration has been carried out, the researcher may wish to deduce a situation in which this solution might or might not work, and acquire data upon this; as the authors suggest, this approach is common within grounded theory (Bryman and Bell, 2007).

Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) describe grounded theory as a “comparative method” which examines the same research phenomena under differing circumstances. This may lead to two separate theory types: substantive - which involves the evaluation of data to form a pattern to identify similarities - and formal - which delves further into the findings to produce added hypotheses and consequences to

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the initial causalities (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.58). Glaser and Strauss (1967) developed the method, and as such defined two criteria for measuring the quality of one’s theory; firstly, the theory must be grounded upon sufficient analysis in order to allow for generalisations, it must be “analytic”. Secondly, the theory must be relatable to others - whether practitioners or researchers - and must therefore be “sensitising” (Easterby-Smith, 2012, p.58).

Therefore, this paper applied an inductive approach to the secondary data of established experts in the field; following grounded theory it aimed to examine and determine correlations between differing authors and viewpoints and thus induced a hypothesis for the possibility of a new pragmatic approach to experiential marketing theories. The ontological philosophy of this paper is one of relativism as ascribed by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012), subjectivism as described by Saunders et al. (2009) or social constructionism (Bryman and Bell, 2007). The epistemological approach is one of social constructionism (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) and interpretivism (Bryman and Bell, 2007; Saunders et al., 2009).

The research approach undertaken by this paper, and most appropriate for its philosophical views, is that of archival research. This type or research method is appropriate for those researching an area where sufficient data has already been previously gathered, thus, the focus is not on the retrieval of data, but the analysis of textual information (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders et al., 2009). The key to this method is the analysis of trends within bodies of texts in order to illustrate causes behind these patterns. A key point made by Saunders et al. towards archival research is that this strategy “allows research questions which focus upon the past and changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or explanatory” (2009, p.150).

Hence, if one were to simulate such an inquiry into the bodies of text compiled as the literature of this paper, one is able to see similar trends occurring. Firstly, thirteen of the most relevant sources were chosen from several authors. Next, eighteen of the most common terminologies were chosen to be measured across the literature; these included common words used when describing experiential

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marketing, such as ‘experience/experiential’, ‘emotive/emotions’, ‘feel/feelings’, ‘hedonic/hedonism’, ‘affect/affective’, ‘fun’, ‘fantasy’, ‘subjective’, ‘aesthetic’ and ‘multisensory’. Simultaneously, words related to traditional marketing were also chosen, such as ‘traditional’, ‘cognitive/cognition’, ‘functional’, ‘utilitarian/utility’, ‘benefits’, ‘objective’, and ‘logic/logical’. Lastly, a neutral word, ‘consumption’ was chosen as well. Titles and abstract sections were not counted, as they do not incorporate the main body of text, however, subtitles were counted. Graphs, tables and figures were only counted if they were seen as having pivotal information to the research.

Each body of text was arranged chronologically, then by author surname, and was measured for the terminologies; in total, the literature spanned from 1981 till 2009. Once the results were counted, in order to narrow the number of journals and increase the accuracy of results, the sum of each individual paper was calculated, and those whose sum did not equate to or show greater than one hundred relevant words, were discarded; it was logically deduced that if a journal did not account for large quantities of the terminology used, then it was considered less relevant to the study area compared to other papers. The result were nine resulting literary texts, ranging from 1982 till 2009; this correlates with the information within this paper’s literature review, which examined the origins of the experiential approach around 1982.

Next, the sum for each individual terminology was calculated for these nine bodies of text, and the terminologies were hence organised in descending order of popularity. Following the previous screening process, the top five terms were chosen, based on the premise that the sum for each word had to be equal to or greater than one hundred; the top five words chosen in descending order were: ‘experience/experiential’, ‘consumption’, ‘feel/feelings’, ‘emotive/emotions’, and ‘hedonic/hedonism’. Once again, these terms tend to highly correlate the terminology used within the literature review and hence the subject area of this paper. After this, the sum for the total of the five terminologies per paper were calculated once again, and the texts ordered into ascending order. Lastly, a graph was designed to view the comparison between the appearance of these top five

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most occurred terminologies within a the top nine most relevant bodies of text [see Appendix B, Graph 1].

The papers by Pine and Gilmore (1998), Arnould and Price (1993) and Brakus et al. (2009) all share disproportionate quantities of the terms ‘experience/experiential’. This makes sense when compared to the content of the literature at hand; the paper by Pine and Gilmore, titled ‘Welcome to the Experience Economy’, puts forth proposals on shifting paradigms from service based economies to experiential ones (1998); the article by Arnould and Price, ‘River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter’, explores how the creation of experiences in service sectors can lead to higher levels of consumer satisfaction and lasting loyalty (1993); lastly, the paper by Brakus et al. ‘Brand Experience: What is it? How is Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?’, stays true to the title and proposes different dimensions and ways of measuring brand experience by researchers (2009). What all three papers do not cover, are the aspects of hedonic consumption, mostly associated with the works of Hirschman and Holbrook (1982), Holbrook (2000, 2001) and Schmitt (1999) - although Schmitt never refers to the terms ‘hedonic’ or hedonism’, he considers the same ideologies as Holbrook and Hirschman; this can also be observed in Graph 1.

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Axiology

As Saunders et al. refer to it, Axiology is, “a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about value” (2009, p.116).

The authors go further into the meaning of this philosophy by relating Heron’s (1996) views that axiology is perhaps a reflection of the researcher and their chosen research stance, demonstrating how and where values are placed within their research itself (Saunders et al., 2009). The authors believe that one’s topic, research approach and data collection techniques are a reflection of the researcher’s placement of importance with regards to the subject matter, and hence their values upon this area, stating the example of data collection through interview rather than questionnaires displays that one places higher importance upon personal interaction with respondents (Saunders et al., 2009). The authors propose that consequences of well laid out values to be increased credibility and allowance of a clearer introspective nature to one’s research approach and data collection (Saunders et al., 2009).

Bryman and Bell, identify four differing stances on ethics: “universalism, situation ethics, ethical transgression is pervasive, and anything goes (more or less)” (2007, p.129). It is clear that these viewpoints place a descending importance upon ethical regulations, with the first view claiming “that ethical precepts should never be broken”, whilst the final does not discard ethical regulations - as its title would suggest - but view them with increased leniency and flexibility (Bryman and Bell, 2007, p.129).

The University of Lincoln describes key ethical guidelines for Library, Desk, Laboratory and Studio-based research through various points within an ethical framework. Perhaps the most pertinent of these are non-falsification of data - one must refrain from data tampering to produce wanted results; ethics of reporting research - one must give full attribution of ideas and intellectual property; ethics and research design - one must be open to a range of methods and argue their choice of methods used, to allow for unbiased research, and researchers must

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adhere to ethical and legal sources of information; the principle of beneficence - one must allow for the safe conduct of research; and personal information - one must have consent from individuals, and unless stated otherwise, assume anonymity.

These guidelines are similar to the ten key proposed ethical principles by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012, 95). These are:

1. Ensuring no harm comes to participants2. Respecting the dignity of research participants3. Ensuring a fully informed consent of research participants4. Protecting the privacy of research subjects5. Ensuring the confidentiality of research data6. Protecting the anonymity of individuals or organisations7. Avoiding deception about the nature or aims of the research8. Declaration of affiliations, funding sources and conflicts of interest9. Honesty and transparency in communicating about the research10.Avoidance of any misleading or false reporting of research findings.

Although many of these do not apply to this paper’s method of research, it is important to consider their ethical implications anyways.

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Findings, Implications and ConclusionLiterary Findings in Relation to the Research Questions

With relation to the first research question, the literature made it evident that experiences were controllable to a certain extent by the organisation. This conclusion was arrived through the use of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (2005, 2009) behavioural theories in conjunction with the material on the experiential approach. Stimuli were found to be strategic in nature within their application to organisational strategies, and hence could be designed for a purpose. Schmitt’s (1999) SEMs played an important role in understanding the nature and importance of stimuli as experience originators, as well as their application methods. It was found that experience creation can become volatile if not enough care and consideration is had when designing and controlling internal stimuli.

The second research question allowed for the consideration of stimuli which were not controlled or accounted for by the organisation and the affect they could have upon experience creation. It was found that these stimuli could heavily impact and disturb consumers’ experiences, and hence it was concluded that an organisation needed to be aware of and consider the influence of these stimuli when designing their experiential strategies. It also became evident that external stimuli could present themselves in the form of social norms; this was further explored within the third research question.

The purpose, influence and origins of social norms and other influential social systems were examined within the third research question. The importance and relevance of norms as a strategic tool to be used by organisations during experience creation was induced through the works of Schmitt (1999). Sociological and psychological studies by Göckeritz et al. (2014) and Higgs (2015), identified the importance and prevalence of social pressures upon behaviour. Furthermore, the structure and types of norms were identified as pertaining to be either injunctive or descriptive in nature through the literature of Fishbein and Ajzen (2009). Thus, the relationship between both complementary or dissonant norms and experience creation was studied, and their resounding effects were induced

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through the use of the literature from Dick and Basu (1994). Lastly, the existence of the third basic stimuli provider - external social systems - was found through logical induction regarding the possibility of organisations having influence over social norms via experiences.

The literature (Dick and Basu, 1994; Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009) and the conclusions reached from the previous research questions led to the understanding that brand experiences and social norms may have influential effects upon brand loyalty creation. Perhaps the effects of enjoyable experiences upon brand loyalty are explicit, however, it was interesting to note that social pressures can also influence an individual’s brand preference. The nature of these relationships were further explored and it was found that brand loyalty can generate protective barriers against negative experiences and/or social norms; however, this becomes dependant upon the strength of the relationship between the consumer and brand (Dick and Basu, 1994). Thus, through the combination of these findings, it was induced that brand loyalty, social norms and experiences share a cyclical relationship.

Lastly, from the literature exploring brand loyalty, it became evident that a strong customer-brand relationship resulted in repeat purchases, increased purchase intentions, and increased purchase quantities. Furthermore, it was found that certain authors also testify to the influence positive brand experiences may have upon purchase intent (Brakus et al., 2009). Anggie and Haryanto (2011) confirmed that brand experience can lend to both increased purchase intentions but also increased purchase quantity, as well as the influential effects normative behaviour may have upon purchase intent. Thus through the analysis of multiple authors from the literature surrounding purchase intent, it was found that brand loyalty, social norms and brand experience all have influence over purchase intent.

Implications of the findings

The compiled findings from the literature lent to the development of the final experiential control model. The framework was designed so that when

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implemented, it may focus around a group of consumers, or a specific consumer at a given moment. This allows for the possibility of future in-depth research concerning the opinions, physical and mental processes a consumer underwent when interacting with the organisation, and the exploration of their attitudes concerning the brand - such as the level of their intent to purchase or the propensity with which they allowed themselves to create emotional bonds with the organisation. As such, when interviewing or studying the model in action, the researcher can inquire and attempt to isolate specific internal or external stimuli - controlled or uncontrolled - affecting the consumer, understand if the consumer was aware of the combination of stimuli set out by the organisation as an experiential strategy, how and what social norms - injunctive and/or descriptive - the consumer felt pressured by when undergoing their consumption experience, the significance of the experience to the consumer and whether it had a positive or negative effect upon their attitudes towards the brand, whether the consumers were biased by external stimuli before attempting to interact with the brand, and after consumption, what was the likelihood of repeat purchases and establishing a brand connection. As such, the implications for the model in terms of application and future research are vast.

Conclusions Based upon Literary Analysis

The experiential control model was designed as a response to the problem of ambiguity expressed within the literature for considering experiential marketing as a purely subjective approach, to be used in combination with more logical information processing models. This led to a rise in confusion when authors began to suggest the this new emotional approach to marketing could and should be used for all product and service types; claiming that all consumption was in some form hedonic, scholars believed that catering to these subjective desires would render more effective then advocating logical reasoning. However, the subjective nature of experiences also lent to difficulty in measuring consumer’s responses and understanding the more subtle influences that cause consumers to enjoy specific brand experiences. Therefore, the purpose of the research was to attempt to better understand experiential marketing’s position as a behavioural and

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consumption process, without limiting the approach to either emotional or rational intrigue. Thus, it was important to focus on the factors responsible for creating and influencing experiences from an organisational point of view. The research continued further into the possible consequential effects of consumer experiences, in an attempt to outline all possible factors involved. The result was the creation of the experiential control model, found on page 32 of this paper, or within Appendix B, Figure 8.

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should focus upon testing the limitations of the model, both practically and theoretically. As discussed earlier, the model was created through theoretical analysis and as such lacks sufficient empirical evidence to support its validity. Referred to within the implications of the model, are possible future research areas which the model should be placed under and tested against - although let it be stated that the researcher does not believe these are all inclusive. These questions pose interesting applications for the framework, but also place the model under practical stress in its ability to fully consider all possible relevant measurements involved within the experiential approach. As mentioned previously, the model may also benefit from increased literary scrutiny, lending to the removal, adjustment, or supplement of elements involved; when designing the model from the literature, the researcher had considered including three elements not currently present in the final copy: beliefs and perceptions (BP), attitude towards the brand (Ab) and approach behaviour (AB). Perhaps future research can explore these fields and assess their relationships with other factors in the model and include them in a revised experiential control framework.

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• Reczek, R.W., Haws, K. and Summers, C.A. (2014) Lucky Loyalty: The effect of consumer effort on predictions of randomly determined marketing outcomes. Journal of Consumer Research, 41 (4) 1065-1077. Available from: http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/ehost/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=3aefc511-e26d-426e-a754-b12da55232b7%40sessionmgr113&hid=118&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bth&AN=99385992 [Accessed February 2015].

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• Rigby, D.K., Reichheld, F.F. and Schefter P. (2002) Avoid the four perils of CRM. Harvard Business Review, 80 (2) 101-109. Available from: http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/ehost/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=cc963d68-0f32-4f7e-a6ac-d81797e7a0d5%40sessionmgr110&hid=118&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bth&AN=6026539 [Accessed February 2015].

• Ritzer, G. (2005) Enchanting a disenchanted world : revolutionizing the means of consumption. 2nd edition. London: Pine Forge Press.

• Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2009) Research Methods or Business Students. 5th edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

• Schmitt, B. (1999) Experiential Marketing. Journal of Marketing Management, 15 (1-3) 53-67. Available from: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=220cd354-086a-4c08-8ccd-98451e3d7636%40sessionmgr4002&hid=4107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bth&AN=5675252 [Accessed January 2015].

• Senthil, M., Chandrasekar, K.S. and Selvabaskar, S. (2012) “Experiential Retailing” as a Strategic Tool for Retail Store differentiation and Brand association - A Conceptual Approach. SIES Journal of Management, 8 (1) 92-102. Available from: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/ehost/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=68b72961-aa50-4836-9b6a-3593865bffc2%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bth&AN=77886291 [Accessed January 2015].

• Shah, S.S.H., Aziz, J., Jaffari, A.R., Waris, E., Ejaz, W., Fatima, M. and Kamran, S. (2012) The Impact of Brands on Consumer Purchase Intentions. Asian Journal of Business Management, 4 (2) 105-110. Available from: http://maxwellsci.com/print/ajbm/v4-105-110.pdf [Accessed January 2015].

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AppendicesAppendix A: Ethical Approval Form 1

EA1 Ethical Approval Form: Library/ Desk/ Lab/ Studio-based Research Projects

Business School

This form must be completed for each piece of research activity whether conducted by

academic staff, research staff, graduate students or undergraduates. Applications by students must be endorsed by two academic members of staff, one acting as Principal Investigator/supervisor.

Please complete all sections. If a section is not applicable, write N/A.

1 Name of Applicant GUILHERME ADDOR TORRES RIBEIRO

2 Position in the University (indicate)

Undergraduate Student

3 Role in relation to this research (indicate)

Student supervised by Business School Staff

4 Brief statement of main Research Question or Project Title

• To clearly define (or redefine) experiential marketing through secondary archival research into its origins and induce the practical consequences it may have upon the organisation, brand experience, social norms, brand loyalty and purchase intention

5 Brief Description of Project

(Please indicate the period you require ethical approval using the start and finish dates)

• Secondary Archival Research • Disciplinary Journals, Magazines, and Books (from the UoL Library) • Secondary qualitative data analysis

Approximate Start Date: January 2015 Approximate End Date: April 2015

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6.Ethical checklist

(indicate)

• Does the research involve living human participants, or human tissue, or living animals, or animal tissue? No If you answered “yes”, submit form EA2 (with humans)or EA3 (with animals) for Ethical Approval.

• Does the research involve confidential data, or data not in the public domain? No

• Does the project potentially put you or your collaborators at physical or psychological risk? No

• Does the project re-use existing data sets in a way that requires permission from some authorising body? No

• Could the topic or results of this research be seen as illegal, or attract legal

action against the University from an outside agency? No • Could the topic or results of this research attract unwelcome media attention, or affect the reputation or standing of the University? No • Could the topic, results or conduct of this research be regarded as offensive, immoral or destructive by some reasonable people? No • Does this research need to be undertaken under a relevant professional code of conduct? No • Are there any potential conflicts of interest in conducting this research, including financial gain for the researchers, or for individuals or external organizations affiliated with the researchers? No • Are there any factors inhibiting the application of the University’s ethical

guidelines, including those on proper treatment of data, research design and publication of results? No

• Does the research require the approval of any external body? No

If the answer to each questions above is “No”, you and your supervisor may sign-the completed form to certify that there are no ethical issues. If the answer to any of the above questions is “Yes”, complete sections 6-9 as appropriate.

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Key ethical guidelines for library/desk/laboratory/studio-based research

The University of Lincoln has drawn up the following key principles for researchers engaged in library/desk/laboratory/studio-based projects in order to promote high professional standards. They should be read alongside the University’s Ethical Principles for Conducting Research with Humans and Other Animals, and operate as part of the University’s Ethical Framework.

• Non-falsification of data: Researchers have an ethical obligation to refrain from tampering with data. Thus questionnaire responses, experimental observations and data analyses should not be fabricated, altered nor discarded. In addition, researchers have a responsibility to exercise reasonable care in processing data to ensure no errors affect the results.

• Ethics of reporting research: Researchers are obliged to give full and proper attribution of ideas: presenting the words, data or ideas of another person as your own without properly citing them amounts to plagiarism. This is not only misconduct but can also be an infringement of copyright, amounting to theft of intellectual property.

• Ethics and research design: Researchers should be open to a range of methods: failure to consider and evaluate alternative methods and tools for the collection of data may be regarded as too overtly biased. All appropriate steps should be taken to ensure that no samples are obtained from unethical sources e.g. illegal databases; unregistered suppliers of samples from humans or other animals.

• Authorship credit: Only those researchers who are significant contributors to a research project should be given authorship credit. A “significant contributor” might be described as a person playing a major role in conceptualising, analysing or writing the final document. Ideally, all those involved in the research project should decide upon the order of authorship. Usually, the first author is the one who has made the biggest contribution.

• Conflict of interest: Researchers should be aware of the potential influence of personal or commercial interests on their work and take all practical measures to ensure that information is presented without distortion.

• The principle of beneficence: Researchers are required to protect individuals by seeking to maximise anticipated benefits and minimise possible harms. It is therefore necessary to examine carefully the design of the study and its risks and benefits including, in some cases, identifying alternative ways of obtaining the benefits sought from the research. Research risks must always be justified by the expected benefits of research.

• Professional codes: Researchers should undertake research legally and in accordance with any relevant professional codes of conduct.

• Personal information: Researchers should anonymise information which relates to individuals when they have not obtained informed consent, unless there is a clear justification to the contrary. They should also be aware of the impact of wider public dissemination of their work and the impact this might have on any individual or group of individuals. If it is anticipated that it might cause distress, it is essential to demonstrate that the benefits outweigh this risk.

Supervisor’s Role:Supervisor should, if requested, provide guidance on how to undertake the research and the concomitant risks; They should comment on the proposal; They should provide guidance on completing the EAF; Make clear which other members of staff considered the EAF; Make a clear recommendation (Approval to proceed or Referral to the CEC). A referral requires the supervisor to provide some guidance as to the nature of the complexity inherent in the application and why further consideration is deemed necessary.

Approval is granted on the basis of complete disclosure. Responsibility for the conduct of the research rests with the applicant. The EAF is a means of shielding the applicant and the supervisor from the accusation of improper conduct.

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Appendix B: Research Material

• Graph 1: Number Count of Terminologies Encountered within Nine Principal Literary Texts

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Graph 1:

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• Figure 8: The Experiential Control Model

� Figure 8: The Experiential Control Model.

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Appendix C: Lengthy Quotations

• Quote 1: Carù and Cova, 2003, p.3“[…] it would seem to be a good idea to learn from the past, so as not to deform the concept of experience with an excessively reductive and normative approach, and in order to protect experience from the distortions that we, marketing experts, have already inflicted on the concept of relationship […]”

• Quote 2: Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009, p.322“[…] by identifying the behavioural, normative, and control beliefs that serve as the underlying determinants of a behaviour we also gain important information about the kinds of beliefs that would have to be changed to effect a change in intentions and behaviour […]”

• Quote 3: Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009, p.131“[…] people may be motivated to behave in accordance with what they believe others think they should do (injunctive norms) because the social agent has the power to reward or punish them, because the agent has the right to request it, because the agent is an expert, or because they want to be like the agent […]”

• Quote 4: Champniss et al., 2015, p.90“[…] social identities are important for marketers because they guide people’s behaviour at any given moment. Some behaviour will bolster and support the group, and, equally important, some behaviour will betray the group […]”

• Quote 5: Dick and Basu, 1994, p.105“[…] actual or perceived opportunity for engaging in attitude-consistent behaviour, incentives for brand switching through reduced prices of competing brands, and effective in-store promotions that might increase the salience of a competing brand over one normally preferred by the consumer […]”

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• Quote 6: Smith, 1981, p.585, within Gliner et al., 2009, p.3“[…] research must be conducted and reported so that its logical argument can be carefully examined; it does not depend on surface plausibility or the eloquence, status, or authority of its author; error is avoided; evidential test and verification are valued; the dispassionate search for truth is valued over ideology. Every piece of research or evaluation […] must meet these standards to be considered disciplined […]”

• Quote 7: Saunders et al., 2009, p.108“[…] the researcher who is concerned with facts, such as the resources needed in a manufacturing process, is likely to have a very different view on the way research should be conducted from the researcher concerned with the feelings and attitudes of the workers towards their managers in that same manufacturing process […]”

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