Jamie Booth

22025338

B.A. (Hons) Media

Dissertation

Islamophobia and the Print Media: The Portrayal of Muslims before and after the Charlie Hebdo terrorist attacks

2014/15

Faculty of Arts, Computing, Engineering and Science

Contents Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………..…..2 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………..….31 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..… 42 Literature Review ……………………………………………………………………...….….6 2.1 Introduction ………………………………..……………………………………………………………...…..6 2.2 Orientalism ……………………………………………………………………………………………….....….6 2.3 Stereotypes ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..8 2.4 Media villain ……………………………………………………………………………………………….……11 2.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………….……12

3 Methodology ……………………………………………………………………..…………….14 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..14 3.2 Research strategy ………………………………………………………………………………..…..……..14 3.3 Data collection and interpretation ……………………………………………………..…..……….15

4 Findings ……………………………………………………………………………………...……18 4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….………18 4.2 Research findings …………………………………………………………………………………….………18

5 Critical discussion ……………………………………………………………………….…….25 5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….……………25 5.2 Orientalism ……………………………………………………………………………..……….………………26 5.3 Stereotypes ………………………………………………………………………………..…….……………..27 5.4 Media villain ………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………….28

6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………..………………30 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………..……..………32 Appendices…………………………………………………………………………..……….….34 Appendix 1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34

Appendix 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….35

Appendix 3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41

Appendix 4 …………………………………………………………………………..………………….…………….59

Appendix 5 ………………………………………….……………………………………………………..………….60

Appendix 6 & Appendix 7 ……………………………………………………………….………………………63

Appendix 8 & Appendix 9 ………………………………………………………………….……………………64

Appendix 10 & Appendix 11 …………………………………………………………………….………….…65

Appendix 12 & Appendix 13 …………………………………………………………………………….…….66

Appendix 14 & Appendix 15 ……………………………………………………………………..……………67

Appendix 16 & Appendix 17 ……………………………………………….…………………………….……68

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all the people who have helped and supported me with making this

dissertation. Firstly, I would like to thank my family and colleagues for proof reading my

work and motivating me to make this dissertation to the highest standard that I could reach.

I would also like to thank them for all the support they have given me throughout my three

years at Sheffield Hallam University. I am also grateful and thankful to my dissertation tutor

Mark Leader, for helping me improve my dissertation and giving me help when I needed it. I

would like to express my gratitude to the employees on my course throughout my three

years, and especially those in my final year who have pushed me to reach for the best

grades and dissertation that I could achieve.

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Abstract

It is the aim of this dissertation to initially define the term ‘Islamophobia’. Secondly it

analyses the conduct in which the print media, specifically UK newspaper headlines, have

portrayed Muslims exactly one month before the Charlie Hebdo attacks of January 2015,

and then one month after. Ultimately it ties Islamophobia with the newspaper results, and

establishes the links between Islamophobia in the print media and media theories and other

causes that explain the reasons for Muslim hatred in the print media.

Secondary data analysis is utilised to interpret the coverage of Muslims from UK newspaper

headlines between the dates of 07/12/14 and 08/02/15. The findings of this dissertation

reveal that Islamophobia is apparent in UK newspaper headlines. The level of

representations, the language and the news hooks used in relation to Islam and Muslims,

used from 07/12/14 until 08/02/15, have been negative and harmful.

Whilst the portrayal of Islam and Muslims is currently in a negative nature, steps need to be

taken to recognise Islamophobia as a difficulty in our society that needs to be addressed.

The discriminatory attitudes are narrow-minded, and to counteract the prejudice against

Islam and Muslims, this dissertation recommends that the media should report news stating

the clear differences between the atrocities of Muslim extremists, and the billions of

Muslims around the world, to avoid the blurring of lines between the two groups.

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Chapter 1 – Introduction

In contemporary society the media has enormous power, control and influence over its

audiences. So much so that it has created a misrepresentation of 1.6 billion people on Earth

(Pew Research Center, 2011:07) and tarred them all with the same brush. This same media

has become the vantage point for which the public has viewed the exaggeration of Islam

and Muslims. Since the events of 9/11, other atrocities such as the 2004 Madrid train

bombings, 7/7 London bombings, the recent Charlie Hebdo attacks and the uprising of ISIS

have also been coordinated by Muslim extremists. As a result of the scale of these attacks

and the amount of media hysteria surrounding them, Islam and Muslims have become an

easy sell point for the media to heighten fear in audiences in order to generate high news

sales, and in result increasing the debate over whether the print media is Islamophobic.

The exact definition of the word ‘Islamophobia’, and whether the expression even actually

exists, continues to be argued. According to the Runnymede Trust Commission on British

Muslims and Islamophobia (‘the Runnymede Report’), the word ‘Islamophobia’ refers to the

“shorthand way of referring to dread or hatred of Islam – and, therefore, to fear or dislike of

all or most Muslims” (1997, 01). In Chris Allen’s book Islamophobia, the term is described as

a “phenomenon” (2010, 04), from where in Oxford Dictionaries (no date) ‘phenomenon’ is

defined as “a fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen, especially one whose

cause or explanation is in question”. As Allen states in Islamophobia (2010, 13); “in terms of

the word Islamophobia being recorded in print…the Oxford English Dictionary suggests that

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it was first used in 1991 in the American periodical, Insight”. However the term first came to

prominence in the Runnymede Report published in 1997. This led to the occurrence of the

word used in political and public spheres since.

It is the aim of this study to analyse UK newspaper headlines relating to the word ‘Muslim’,

and present the results to consider if there are any signs of Islamophobia in the newspaper

headline research findings. This will lead to the discussion as to whether Islamophobia exists

in the press media, and if so, does the reason stem from our society’s deep-rooted history

related to theories such as Orientalism? Or perhaps other explanations that key pieces of

literature declare? This paper will attempt to elaborate this.

Since the beginning of the 21st century the subject of Muslim extremism and terrorism have

commanded the print media in our modern Western society, leading to negative

perceptions of Muslims. For this reason, this topic area was selected. In addition;

Islamophobia is not extensively addressed in the media, whereas Islam and Muslims are.

This was another incentive to make this piece of research. In the next chapter, the key

pieces of literature related to Islamophobia will be examined.

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1) Introduction

This chapter will illustrate the literature that was analysed before the study took place. The

pieces of literature discussed in this chapter were chosen to highlight the themes of

Islamophobia, and to acquire background information related to the term and explain the

reasons for the possible causes of negative Muslim representations in the UK press.

2.2) Orientalism

A theory associated with Islamophobia is the theory of Orientalism. Edward Said’s

Orientalism, first published in 1978 but with a reprint in 1995, is the most famous piece of

literature to tackle this theory, where in fact Said himself conceived the theory of

Orientalism in the book itself. Said stated that “From the beginning of Western speculation

about the Orient, the one thing the Orient could not do was to represent itself. Evidence of

the Orient was credible only after it had passed through and been made firm by the refining

fire of the Orientalist’s work.”(1995: 283).

Said (1995) in his text provides a view on the portrayal of the Arab (or Muslims) linked to

news: “In newsreels or news photos, the Arab is always shown in large numbers. No

individuality, no personal characteristics or experiences. Most of the pictures represent

mass rage and misery, or irrational gestures. Lurking behind all of these images is the

menace of jihad. Consequence: a fear that the Muslims (or Arabs) will take over the

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world.”(1995: 287) Again, Said has noted that the Occident (the West) portray the East in a

negative perception through their press, and for what reasons is made clearer in Said’s

published book Covering Islam, first published in 1981 but reprinted in 1997.

Covering Islam (1997) details how the Western media misrepresents the image of Islam.

Said suggests there are “many religious, psychological, and political reasons for this, but all

of these reasons derive from a sense that so far as the West is concerned, Islam represents

a formidable competitor but also a late coming challenge to Christianity.”(1997: 05) This

idea may help provide an understanding of this dissertation and explain the influencing

motives for the possible prejudice of Muslims in the UK press and the underlying reasons for

our deep rooted animosity towards Islam.

In the book Islamophobia, Chris Allen (2010: 69) argues a set of attributes that define the

features of Islamophobia. Features such as “Islam Seen as Other and Separate Rather than

Similar and Interdependent” (2010: 70) and “Islam Seen as an Enemy not as a Partner”

(2010: 71) strongly link to research identified in Orientalism (Said, 1995) and in

Islamophobia: Issues, Challenges and Action (Richardson, 2004) where the contextual

factors of attitudes towards Muslims are discussed (2004: 08). These tie in with this

literature review theme; as they provide a historical context as to why our modern Western

society (the ‘Occident’), defies Islam as the ‘Orient’. Also in Islamophobia: Issues, Challenges

and Action (2004), it touches on the historical overview of Islam hatred. “Hostility towards

Islam and Muslims has been a feature of European societies since the eighth century of the

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common era.” (2004: 07) This links neatly into Orientalism by Edward Said (1995), and

therefore, the theme of Orientalism itself.

2.3) Stereotypes

This sub-section will look at the relationship between the stereotypes of Muslims and the

creation of Islamophobia.

A stereotype is a shortcut way to referring to the world. It describes parts of which we often

know very little about from direct experience and places individuals into a box based on

things such as their ethnicity, appearance, and religion. In Edward Said’s Covering Islam

(1997) it touches on stereotypes that are categorized for Muslims. “…that her or his faith,

culture, and people are seen as a source of threat, and that she or he has been

deterministically associated with terrorism, violence, and fundamentalism.”(1997: xxi)

Furthermore, in Elizabeth Poole’s Reporting Islam (2002) it describes that “there are some

persistent ideas that have found their expression in coverage of British Islam: that Islam is

static and that Muslims are resistant to progress, engage in antiquated and repressive

practises that abuse human rights, and often use their religion to manipulate ends.”(2002:

250). Poole also states that “the media appear to play a role in this by disseminating

representations that constitute cultural identity.”(2002: 250) These extracts indicate that

the creation of negative Muslim stereotypes is caused by the media, which can indicate that

the press is Islamophobic.

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Again, Said’s Orientalism (1995) is studied for this theme. The topic of Orientalist

stereotypes are mentioned, where there “is a system of representations framed by a whole

set of forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and

later, Western empire.”(1995: 203) This builds the link between the creation of negative

Orient stereotypes, which shows a deep underlying prejudice in the UK press, from where

the press have garnered stereotypes from centuries old information “Theses of Oriental

backwardness, degeneracy, and inequality with the West most easily associated themselves

early in the nineteenth century with ideas about the biological bases of racial

inequality.”(1995: 206).

The work of Hamid Dabashi in Brown Skin, White Masks (2011) provides an examination of

our modern society’s relationship between race and colonialism, much like Frantz Fanon’s

famous Black Skin, White Masks (1952). One highlighted piece of research, which

emphasizes Dabashi’s recognition of the rise of Muslim prejudice and the creation of

Muslim stereotypes, is the chapter “The Muslim is the New Jew”. Dabashi claims that “the

Arab and the Muslim have replaced the black and the Jew as the demonic ‘other’ of the

white Christian self” (2011: 35). It gives example of how the Muslim is now portrayed as a

negative stereotype in our society. Like how the Jewish and black citizens have been

attached to negative stereotypes for many centuries previously, it is for the reason to

colonize their territories. “Intellectuals have been given unprecedented forums by the North

American and Western European media in which to paint a picture of Muslim societies that

tallies perfectly with what needs of US propaganda are, thereby justifying the country’s

post-9/11 imperial projects.”(2011: 35).

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Dabashi goes on to discuss a key concept (2011:68), where he talks of the creation of an

enemy responsible for 9/11 (considering that the terrorists who destroyed the World Trade

Centre were anonymous) and linking the responsibility to the likes of Osama Bin Laden and

al-Qaeda and then progressively to Iraq and Iran, for once again, imperial projects. This is an

important theory to the creation of Muslim stereotypes as it could explain the cause of

Muslims becoming the face of terrorism; as many share the same ethnic qualities as the

likes of Bin Laden and Saddam Hussein.

Richardson (2004), in relation to the two previous paragraphs, finds links to intellectuals and

their perception on Islam and the creation of an enemy. Cited from influential and

respected newspapers such as The Guardian and The Financial Times, views such as “…we

have reason to be suspicious of Islam”, from Julie Birchill at The Guardian (2004: 11) and

“Islam is a religion in which God requires you to send your son to die for him”, quoted from

US Attorney General Josh Ashcroft (2004: 12), provide and prove a strong sense of hatred

towards Islam and reflect on the moods during the first few years after 9/11, which in turn

create a stereotype of Muslims to be seen as ‘suspicious’ and ‘backwards’. On the basis of

these ideas, it may help in providing an understanding of this dissertation to determine

whether stereotypes help play its role in whether the UK press is Islamophobic or not.

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2.4) Media villain

This sub-section will examine literature in relation to the theme of Islam and Muslims

characterized as the villain in the media.

Reporting Islam: Media Representation of British Muslims (2002) provides a chapter on the

representation of Islam as the media villain. The chapter initially implies that the media is

our outlook from where our knowledge of culture passes through. “The media have become

the primary focus of attention as they have superseded other institutions in the cultural

production of knowledge.” (Poole 2002:41) This indicates that the media has the influence

to create misrepresentations of Muslims. This is directly related to Edward Said’s Covering

Islam (1997) where he explains “In many instances ‘Islam’ has licensed not only patent

inaccuracy but also expressions of unrestrained ethnocentrism.” (Said 1997: 1i).

Poole (2002) also mentions of a technique that producers use to form a ‘media villain’. “One

method, which media producers use and which adds to this unified effect, is the repeated

selection of more extreme individuals and sources (who claim) to represent the

community.” (Poole 2002:45) Said in Covering Islam (1997) argues a similar point, this time

with a specific example: “The danger of simplifying a ‘myriad of countries’ was noted, but

the only picture in the five column piece was of Ayatollah Khomeini. He, and Iran, embodied

all that was objectionable about Islam, from terrorism and anti-Westernism.” (Said 1997:07)

This brings us to discussing the creation of a single ‘villain’ who is either Muslim or shares

the same ethnic qualities as a Middle Eastern Muslim, to represent the Muslim community.

Dabashi discusses this in Brown Skin, White Masks (2011), specifically mentioning two

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‘villains’ that misrepresented Iraqi and Afghani people. “The two Frankensteins the US

created – Mullah Omar in Afghanistan and Saddam Hussein in Iraq – succeeded at their

assigned tasks.” (Dabashi 2011:14).

Chris Allen also recognises the importance of the ‘media villain’, suggesting that the media is

responsible for the creation of the Muslim ‘media villain’. “On seeing an image of bin Laden

on the front page of a newspaper, the writer reflected upon how he was alleged to look ‘not

unlike many devout Muslims in our midst’. In developing the old British racist adage that ‘all

blacks look the same’, transferring this onto Muslims in contemporary Britain it might more

appropriately be that ‘all Muslims are the same’.” (Allen 2010:86) This concept could help in

offering an understanding of this study by determining the reasons for the creation of a

‘media villain’.

2.5) Conclusion

To summarise, the literature that was examined and reviewed for this dissertation; Edward

Said’s Orientalism provides the theory of Orientalism, specifically that the Occident (the

West) portrays the East in a negative perception through their press. Said’s Covering Islam

details how the Western media misrepresents the image of Islam. Chris Allen’s Islamophobia

covers a range of topics, including arguing the attributes that define the features of

Islamophobia and examining the Orientalist and Colonialist background to the term

‘Islamophobia’. This literature review touches on Robin Richardson’s Islamophobia: Issues,

Challenges and Action, which provides detailed accounts of media texts where Islamophobia

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is seen in newspaper columns. Elizabeth Poole’s Reporting Islam details the representations

of Muslims and Islam in theory and in practise, while Hamid Dabashi’s Brown Skin, White

Masks examines our society’s relationship between race and colonialism. Following these

readings, the dissertation proposes to reflect the mentioned pieces of literature to confirm

or disprove the hypothesis of the possible Islamophobic behaviour of the UK media.

Chapter 3 - Methodology

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3.1) Introduction

This chapter will discuss the research that this paper implemented, what results were

initially expected and the reasons for using the chosen research methods. In addition it will

discuss how the data for this dissertation was collected and understood. Limitations and

problems in regards to the research will be explained in the final paragraphs.

3.2) Research strategy

The main research approach for this dissertation was using quantitative research. This

research method is associated with collecting and converting data into statistical form so

results can be made and then conclusions formed. Data was extracted from the electronic

database ‘Nexis’, an online catalogue which specialises in computer-assisted legal research

of journalistic documents. The examination of the collected data will help to establish if UK

newspaper publications are Islamaphobic, through the analysis and collected data from

their headlines.

Because of the nature of this study, qualitative research was also linked to the quantitative

research. This method according to Denzin and Lincoln (2005) involves examining “things in

their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the

meanings people bring to them.”(2005: 03) For the reason that the research stage is

separating one headline from another, and on the basis of opinion that the headline is

negative, neutral, or positive in relation to the word ‘Muslim’, this research method had to

be linked with quantitative research aswell. Fundamentally, qualitative research was first

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used to analyse the wording of the headlines. Then using quantitative research, the data of

the headlines were formed, collected and converted into statistics.

3.3) Data collection and interpretation

Starting from the Nexis database main page, the search term ‘Muslim’ was entered, refining

that the search term appeared ‘In the Headline’ only. The source selected was ‘UK

Publications’, with ‘Newspapers’ chosen in the ‘Publication type’. The custom dates that the

data was collected within was 07/12/15 and 07/01/15 (07/01/15 being the day of the

Charlie Hebdo attacks) and between 08/01/15 and 08/02/15. The data was then sorted and

analysed from ‘Oldest to Newest’.

After collecting the headline, four steps were taken. First, the headline was individually

analysed and separated into three sections: Positive, Neutral, and Negative. The headline

was then deemed to fit into a certain news hook (see appendix 14 or 15). Following this, the

newspaper that the headline originates from was recorded e.g. MailOnline, The Guardian.

The main noun from the headline was finally recorded. To assess the main noun in the

headline; if it was the most relevant to the news hook, then it was considered to be the

main noun. For example, from the Yorkshire Post headline “Muslim cleric told grieving

relatives fallen sons were like Hitler’s soldiers” (Anon, 2014) the noun chosen was ‘cleric’

because it is most relevant to the news story described in the headline.

The headline information was converted to take this structure “Neutral, Violence and

attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Citizen” (See Appendix 2 or 3 for more examples). This

was applied for all 271 newspaper headlines for the dates between 07/12/15 and 07/01/15.

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Once the headlines were analysed and converted into the data that can be observed in

Appendix 2, the equivalent was completed for the 808 newspaper headlines between the

dates of 08/01/15 and 08/02/15 (See Appendix 3). In total, 1079 UK newspaper headlines

were analysed and judged if they were deemed to be positive, neutral, or negative towards

Muslims, along with their news hook, their newspaper publication name and the main noun

in their headline.

My initial hypothesis for the data results were that evidence of Islamophobia were to be

apparent in the newspaper headlines, in the one month build-up to the Charlie Hebdo

attacks in Paris on the 7th January 2015. It was next estimated that newspaper headlines in

the month after the attacks to be slightly more Islamophobic. A lot of research was

completed for this paper, but due to the vast amount of news headlines available on Nexis,

the research period was narrowed down to one month before the Charlie Hebdo attacks and

one month after. This was to compare and contrast the coverage of Muslims in the UK

newspaper headlines in a period of predicted social stability, and then a period of predicted

social instability.

One limitation and problem in regards to the research; is the amount of neutral newspaper

headlines immediately after the Charlie Hebdo attacks. Because many headlines were briefly

describing what events were taking place, the results displayed a lot of neutral headlines.

Another problem that developed was the amount of local and regional newspapers that

portrayed Muslims positively in their headlines, while national newspapers were more

negative. Even though the national newspapers have much larger audiences than local and

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regional newspapers, it still affected the data and made it appear that UK newspapers, as a

whole, are less Islamophobic than they actually are.

Two final limitations of the research were; between the dates of 07/12/15 and 07/01/15, a

hostage crisis performed by a Muslim extremist in Sydney, Australia occurred. This slightly

affected the data, as stories were published negatively towards the extremist, but positive

headlines with the news hook of ‘hero/heroism’ of citizens, which coincidentally included

the word ‘Muslim’ in to describe the extremist, made the headline scarcely linked to

Muslims. Lastly, when a headline broke, for example “The touching moment a Muslim bride

took a detour on her big day to lay her wedding bouquet at the shrine for Martin Place siege

victims” (McNab, 2014), this same story was picked up by other newspapers and recycled

into their own story. This was a contrast to negative Muslim headlines, as exact stories were

not recycled to the extent that positive Muslim headlines were. This again, slightly affected

the statistics.

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Chapter 4 – Findings

4.1) Introduction

In this section the research findings will be examined. A critical discussion of the possible

explanations for the findings will then be conferred, in relation to the literature examined in

the literature review. In chapter 3.2, the following will be examined:

1. The increased use of the word ‘Muslim’ between the two chosen time periods.

2. The percentage comparisons of positive, neutral, and negative newspaper headlines

before and after the Charlie Hebdo attacks.

3. A comparison in the amount of positive, neutral and negative headlines that

newspaper publications published.

4. A comparison in the type of news hooks in the newspaper headlines, before and

after the Charlie Hebdo attacks.

5. A comparison in the use of descriptive nouns in the newspaper headlines, before and

after the Charlie Hebdo attacks.

4.2) Research findings

The word ‘Muslim’ in newspaper headlines convincingly increased from the dates between

07/12/14 and 07/01/15 to the dates between 08/01/15 and 08/02/15. From 07/12/14 to

07/01/15 (one month before Charlie Hebdo attacks), 271 newspaper article headlines

included the word ‘Muslim’ (appendix 2). From 08/01/15 to 08/02/15 (one month after

Charlie Hebdo attacks), 808 newspaper article headlines included the word ‘Muslim’

(appendix 3). This is an increase of 298%. This proves a dramatic increase in Muslim

representation after the Charlie Hebdo attacks and demonstrates that the Charlie Hebdo

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attacks appeared to have kick started an increased level of Muslim representation in the

print media.

Sourced from the original data in appendix 2, the pie chart in appendix 6 regards headlines

one month before the Charlie Hebdo attacks, and consider if the headlines are positive,

neutral or negative. As can be seen; 44% of headlines were negative, 31% were positive and

25% were neutral. From this evidence, the headlines were essentially negative where the

word ‘Muslim’ is included. Sourced from the original data in appendix 3, the pie chart in

appendix 7 regards headlines one month after the Charlie Hebdo attacks, once again

considering if the headlines are positive, neutral or negative. Appendix 7 shows that 46% of

headlines were negative, 35% were positive and 19% were neutral. This shows once again

that the headlines were mostly negative where the word ‘Muslim’ is included. When a

newspaper headline is portrayed as negative and includes the word ‘Muslim’, or mentions

Muslims in a negative manner in the headline, then the word as a whole in the perspective

of the headline reader is seen as a negative word, or perhaps dangerous and unfriendly. This

could make the print media appear hateful towards Muslims considering the percentages

shown in figures 6 and 7.

Collected from the original data in appendix 2, the graphs visible in appendix 8, 9 and 10

show the number of positive, neutral and negative newspaper headlines in the dates before

the Charlie Hebdo attacks. As can be seen, the MailOnline tops all three graphs. On first

viewing this would suggest that the MailOnline has an equal spread of positive, neutral and

negative Muslim headlines. However upon scrutinizing the numbers, it is clear that the

MailOnline produced a much higher quantity of negative headlines (appendix 10) with the

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amount of 66, than its closest associate The Telegraph, which displayed 13 negative

newspaper headlines. It is therefore established that the MailOnline portrayed Muslims

negatively in a higher amount than any other newspaper before the Charlie Hebdo attacks.

In appendix 8 the MailOnline displays 17 positive headlines, while The Independent exhibits

13 and The Guardian displays 8. These figures prove that the amount of positive headlines

do not differ a great deal between the top three newspapers. In addition there is only a

slight variance between the other seven newspapers represented in appendix 8, which

display a similar amount of positive headlines.

In appendix 9 we can see that, apart from the MailOnline with 27 neutral headlines, there

are no dramatic variations in the amount of neutral headlines between the other nine

newspapers. On the subject of variation, between the graphs in appendix 8, 9 and 10, there

are no large statistical inequalities, apart from the MailOnline numbers in appendix 8, 9 and

10. What these statistics suggest is that nearly all newspapers are consistent with each

other when publishing positive, neutral and negative newspaper headlines. Whereas the

MailOnline displays a higher amount of newspaper headlines compared to the other nine

newspapers in appendix 8, 9 and 10, the other included newspapers do not fluctuate

between each other too much. What this suggests is that the MailOnline represents

Muslims highly in its newspaper headlines in comparison to other newspapers.

Collected from the original data in appendix 3, the graphs visible in appendix 11, 12 and 13

shows the amount of positive, neutral and negative newspaper headlines in the dates after

the Charlie Hebdo attacks. As we can see straight away in appendix 11; the MailOnline, The

Telegraph and The Independent display a similar amount of positive headlines (34, 33 and

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28), compared to the other seven which display a lower amount, ranging from 20 to 6. In

appendix 12 the graph shows similar comparisons to the graph in appendix 11. The top

three newspapers (MailOnline, The Guardian, The Times) display similar stats (23, 21 and 19

neutral headlines), while the next seven display a lower amount, ranging from 14 to 4. So

far, these findings would suggest that only a select few newspapers represent Muslims in

their headlines positively and neutrally more than other UK publications.

The statistics of newspaper headlines in appendix 13 displays a serious increase in the use of

‘Muslim’, in relation to headlines being deemed negative. The MailOnline displayed 105,

with The Telegraph portraying 65 negative headlines, and The Times and The Independent

displaying similar stats with 49 and 44 negative headlines. The next six newspapers display

similar numbers between themselves, ranging from 17 to 8. These large amounts of

negative representations in the first four newspapers prove a high amount of negative

Muslim portrayal in their headlines. It is interesting to note that the MailOnline tops all

three graphs in appendix 11, 12 and 13, much like it does in appendix 8, 9 and 10. Also once

again the MailOnline, when comparing appendix 10 and 13, display a higher amount of

negative headlines when comparing to the other nine newspapers. This establishes that the

MailOnline portrayed Muslims negatively much more than any other newspaper before and

after the Charlie Hebdo attacks. This proves that the MailOnline could be portrayed as

Islamophobic. It must also be noted that, even though The Telegraph and The Times do not

display anywhere near the same amount of negative headlines that the MailOnline displays,

the newspapers were still ranked 2nd and 3rd in both appendix 10 (negative headlines before

Charlie Hebdo attacks) and appendix 13 (negative headlines after Charlie Hebdo attacks).

This conveys that The Telegraph and The Times could be Islamophobic.

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Originating from the data displayed in appendix 4, appendix 14 and 15 display statistics on

the headline news hooks one month before, and one month after the Charlie Hebdo attacks.

As can be seen in appendix 14 there are three main news hooks in the graph: ‘Religious &

Cultural Issues’, ‘Muslim Extremism’ and ‘Terrorism’. ‘Religious & Cultural Issues’ accounted

for the highest amount of news hooks before the Charlie Hebdo attacks, 84, with ‘Muslim

Extremism’ amounting to 46 and ‘Terrorism’ hitting 38. It is interesting to note that

‘Religious & Cultural Issues’ accounted for the same number as ‘Muslim Extremism’ and

‘Terrorism’ put together. This may lead to the idea that religious and cultural issues are the

main lens through which Muslims are portrayed in the UK print media. This is likely to

portray Muslims as people who are seen as cultural problems in the UK and that their

religion of Islam is a dilemma. In addition, the high amount of stories related to Muslim

extremism and terrorism could result in Muslims being associated with religious extremism

and terrorism, which will portray them negatively in the eyes of the newspaper audiences.

In appendix 15 the three main news hooks in the bar graph are ‘Religious & Cultural Issues’

(243), ‘Terrorism’ (137), and ‘Violence & Attacks against Muslims’ (115). Once again, and

also because of the intense media scrutiny of Muslims post Charlie Hebdo attacks, the high

amount of headlines related to religious and cultural issues and terrorism will portray

Muslims negatively, and could be depicted as people associated with cultural problems to

the UK and as a source of terrorism. Interestingly the amount of headlines in relation to

violence and attacks against Muslims is very high. We could consider that attacks and

violence against Muslims was a direct result of Muslims performing the terrorist attacks on

Charlie Hebdo, from where people took out their frustrations on ordinary Muslims. Finally

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when comparing appendix 14 and 15, you can see that the amount of news hooks related to

the subject of Islamophobia drops from 8 to 0. As a result of an absence of news stories

covering Islamophobia after the Charlie Hebdo attacks, and even the low amount of

Islamophobia news hooks before the Charlie Hebdo attacks, the print media is not

representing the issue of Islamophobia enough. As a result of this, newspaper audiences will

not understand the problem of Islamophobia as it is not being pointed out. This could also

regard the news media as Islamophobic, as they are not talking about the issue itself.

In appendix 16 and 17, originally sourced from the data in appendix 5, the graphs display

statistics of the amount of different nouns one month before and one month after the

Charlie Hebdo attacks. Because the amount of ‘Not Stated’ does not provide any support,

the amount will not be considered, as many news headlines were short and did not include

any descriptive nouns related to Muslims. Analysing appendix 16, the most prevalent noun

related to Muslims in headlines before the Charlie Hebdo attacks was ‘Extremist’, with 27.

Other nouns numerically close to ‘Extremist’ are the likes of ‘Gunman’, ‘Convert’, ‘Terrorist’

and ‘Jihadist’. It is fair to say that these well used nouns have negative associations,

therefore these nouns would reflect negatively on Muslims. It could also be suggested that

the news media is Islamophobic as they are placing these negative nouns in their headlines,

and have also not represented Muslims with nouns with positive connotations in a large

enough number to be included on appendix 16.

In appendix 17, averting again from the high amount of ‘Not Stated’ figures, the leading

amount of nouns appear from ‘Charlie Hebdo’, ‘Terrorist’, ‘Islam’ and ‘Radical’. The

appearance of ‘Charlie Hebdo’, ‘Terrorist’, and ‘Radical’, which once again are negative

23

nouns in relation to the word ‘Muslim’, could suggest that these words may reflect on

Muslims negatively. Once more, there is an absence of nouns with positive connotations.

Because of the high amount of negative nouns and lack of positive nouns in both appendix

16 and 17, overall it can be viewed that Muslims will be associated with negative

connotations and will never fit in with positively associated nouns. Looking towards the

print media; because they have included many negative nouns and have not produced

enough positively portrayed nouns in their headlines, they can be considered as

Islamophobic.

24

Chapter 5 - Critical discussion

5.1) Introduction

To establish an overall understanding of the statistics mentioned in the previous chapter,

here is a brief overview of the results:

1. The word ‘Muslim’ increased in amount dramatically by 298%, from before the

Charlie Hebdo attacks, to after the attacks.

2. A higher amount of negative newspaper headlines, than positive and neutral

headlines, for before and after the Charlie Hebdo attacks.

3. The MailOnline, The Telegraph and The Times produced the most negative

newspaper headlines. The MailOnline published significantly more than any other

publication.

4. ‘Religious & Cultural Issues’, ‘Terrorism’ and ‘Muslim Extremism’ were the top three

news hooks in the analysed headlines.

5. A large proportion of negative related nouns were used in headlines, while no

positive related nouns were in high enough numbers to be included in the bar

graphs, thus a lack of positive nouns.

The aim of this study stated in the introduction was to analyse newspaper headlines relating

to the word ‘Muslim’, and present the results to consider if there are any signs of

Islamophobia in the newspaper headline research findings. It was subsequently stated that

it would lead to the discussion as to whether Islamophobia exists in the print media, and if

so, do the research findings link back to the background research from the literature review,

or perhaps other explanations.

25

When observing the research findings in the previous chapter; it is evident that

Islamophobia was clear in the press media before the Charlie Hebdo terrorist attacks, and in

addition there is evidence that Islamophobia was more prevalent in the month after the

Charlie Hebdo terrorist attacks. Furthermore, the top three news hooks: ‘Religious &

Cultural Issues’, ‘Terrorism’, ‘Muslim Extremism’ and the high presence of negative related

nouns linked to the word ‘Muslim’ further confirms evidence of Islamophobia. To discuss

the possible explanations for the findings and Islamophobia in the print media, the next

chapter will begin with the theory of ‘Orientalism’.

5.2) Orientalism

Edward Said (1995) underlined in his text Orientalism that Europe and Islam have a long

history of conflict. Said mentions ideas of how we, the ‘Occident’ (in other words; ‘the

West’, therefore ‘us’) have long viewed the ‘Orient’ (in other words; ‘the East’, therefore the

view of Islam). “Its eccentricity, its backwardness, its silence indifference.”(1995: 206). Said

states another similar point of our view of the orient “Its sensuality, its tendency to

despotism, its aberrant mentality, its habits of inaccuracy, its backwardness.”(1995: 205).

What Said explains here, could explain the Islamophobia in the print media. Our old and

deep-rooted views on the orient dating back to nineteenth-century Orientalism could have

created the fear of Islam and Muslims, and therefore affecting the way Muslims are

reported in the news media.

26

In Elizabeth Poole’s Reporting Islam (2002) the aspect of Orientalism and its use by the West

for its own benefits is discussed. “The West needed to constitute the Orient as its Other in

order to constitute itself and its own subject position.”(2002: 29) It is mentioned afterwards

that the West has used the Orient as “an instrument of policy, providing the conditions for

imperial exploitation to take place, including current forms of economic and media

imperialism.”(2002: 29) From Poole’s ideas, it could be explained that Western society

created the Orient as the ‘Other’ from where the West’s media is used as an instrument for

imperialism and exploitation of the Orient.

5.3) Stereotypes

Returning to the quote from Reporting Islam (2002) in the literature review, Poole describes

stereotypes of Islam and Muslim. “There are some persistent ideas that found their

expression in coverage of British Islam: that Islam is static and that Muslims are resistant to

progress, engage in antiquated and repressive practises that abuse human rights, and often

use their religion to manipulate ends.”(2002: 250) In Edward Said’s Covering Islam (1997)

the subject of stereotypes labelled for Muslims is mentioned also. “Her or his faith, culture,

and people are seen as a source of threat, and that she or he has been deterministically

associated with terrorism, violence, and fundamentalism.”(1997: xxi) These extracts indicate

that the creation of negative Muslim stereotypes is caused by the media, which can indicate

that the press is Islamophobic.

27

The stereotypes mentioned by Poole and Said are similar to those in appendix 16 and 17, for

example where the use of ‘terrorist’, ‘jihadist’ and ‘extremist’ nouns are shown on the bar

graphs. This demonstrates a link between what Said and Poole describes as stereotypes of

Muslims, which are insensitive towards Muslim representations and provide evidence of

Islamophobia. Furthermore, because these nouns are used numerous times in newspaper

headlines, overtime the words could become stereotypes associated with Muslims.

5.4) Media Villain

Pointed out by Poole and Richardson (2006) in Muslims and the news media, the subject of

propaganda (defined by Oxford Dictionaries (no date) as “information, especially of a biased

or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view”) is debated. “Since

11 September 2001 both the US and UK governments have comprehensively overhauled

their internal and external propaganda apparatus. These have been globally coordinated as

never before to justify the ‘War on Terror’ including the attacks on Afghanistan and Iraq and

the assault on civil liberties at home.”(2006: 45) This theory is associated to Muslims created

as a media villain, as stated by Dabashi in Brown Skin, White Masks: “Intellectuals have been

given unprecedented forums by the North American and Western European media in which

to paint a picture of Muslim societies that tallies perfectly with what needs of US

propaganda are, thereby justifying the country’s post-9/11 imperial projects.”(2011: 35).

This brings us to the idea that the reason for the creation of a Muslim media villain in the

press media is because of the instructed propaganda set up by the UK government in order

28

to keep the interests of UK foreign policies in Afghanistan, Iraq and future invasions of

Middle-Eastern nations (which are majority Muslim) warranted. If the negative news hooks

of headlines, the use of nouns such as ‘terrorist’ and ‘gunman’ and the negative headlines

from high circulating newspapers such as the MailOnline and The Times are influencing

public perceptions of Muslims, it will play very nicely into propaganda campaigns to

constitute attacks on countries. For this reason, the Muslim media villain is created by the

press media to influence their readers.

Chapter 6 – Conclusion

29

The main concern in this dissertation has ultimately been to explore the news headlines of

the UK press and then to judge by the findings if they have acted hateful and created a bad

representation towards Muslims, or in other words; Islamophobic. Clearly, Islamophobia is a

very complex idea as it has many features and different ways of describing Muslim and Islam

hatred. However, from the addition of the research findings and discussion chapters, it is

hoped that Islamophobia is witnessed through the figures and data created.

To sum up the findings; it is clear that Islamophobia is a feature in the press media when the

word ‘Muslim’ is featured in a news headline. It is also apparent that before the Charlie

Hebdo terrorist attacks, Islamophobia was present in the analysed headlines. In addition,

there is evidence that Islamophobia was more prevalent in the month after the Charlie

Hebdo terrorist attacks. Furthermore, the news hooks analysed were negative, and the high

presence of negative related nouns linked to the word ‘Muslim’ further confirmed evidence

of Islamophobia. One last point, the MailOnline, The Telegraph and The Times were the

three top newspaper to publish the highest amount of negative headlines. These findings

successfully match the initial hypothesis mentioned in chapter 3.3.

On reflection, I believe the whole process of researching literature on Islamophobia and

analysing news headlines has influenced my perception on Muslims in a positive way. I see

how they have been persecuted and victimized, and feel more educated and cultured when

it comes to viewing news stories on Muslims. However I still believe that further research is

needed on the subject of Islamophobia in the UK press. Even though I have seen many

different pieces of texts and theories on the subject, they have not entered the mainstream

press where the UK public can access them and educate themselves on the unfair treatment

30

of Muslims. Lastly, maybe an attempt for us all is to produce action against Islamophobia,

instead of increase the hatred from the press.

Bibliography

ALLEN, Chris (2010). Islamophobia. Farnham, Ashgate Publishing.

31

COMMISSION ON BRITISH MUSLIMS AND ISLAMOPHOBIA (2004). Islamophobia: Issues, Challenges and Action. Stoke on Trent, Trentham Books.

DABASHI, Hamid (2011). Brown Skin, White Masks. London, Pluto Press.

DENZIN, L. and LINCOLN, Y.S (2005). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. 3rd ed., California, Sage Publications.

KHALEELI, Homa (2013). Islamophobic hate crime: is it getting worse? [online]. The Guardian, (Last updated 19:09 on 5 June 2013). Available at: <http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jun/05/islamophobic-hate-crime-getting-worse> [Accessed on 17 March 2015].

MCNAB, Heather (2014). The touching moment a Muslim bride took a detour on her big day to lay her wedding bouquet at the shrine for Martin Place siege victims - and hundreds of stunned onlookers broke into applause. [online]. MailOnline, (Last updated 21:02 on 21

December 2014). Available at: <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2882520/Muslim-bride-s-touching-tribute-victims-Martin-Place-siege-floral-memorial-continues-grow.html> [Accessed on 17 March 2015].

Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.). phenomenon. [online] Available at: <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/phenomenon> [Accessed on 05 March 2015].

Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.). propaganda. [online] Available at:<http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/propaganda> [Accessed on 24 March 2015].

PEW RESEARCH CENTER (2011). The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Projections for 2010-2030. [online] Available at: <http://www.npdata.be/Data/Godsdienst/PEW/FutureGlobalMuslimPopulation-WebPDF.pdf> [Accessed on 10 February 2015].

POOLE, Elizabeth and RICHARDSON, J.E., (2006). Muslims and the News Media. London, I.B.Tauris.

POOLE, Elizabeth (2002). Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London, I.B.Tauris.

SAID, Edward (1995). Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London, Penguin Books.

32

SAID, Edward (1997). Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. London, Vintage.

THE RUNNYMEDE TRUST COMMISSION ON BRITISH MUSLIMS AND ISLAMOPHOBIA (1997). Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All. University of Sussex.

Yorkshire Post. (2014). ‘Muslim cleric’ told grieving relatives fallen sons were like Hitler’s soldiers. [online]. (Last updated 16:41 on 16 December 2014). Available at: <http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/main-topics/world/muslim-cleric-told-grieving-relatives-fallen-sons-were-like-hitler-s-soldiers-1-7007698> [Accessed on 17 March 2015].

Appendix 1

Nexis Data

From 07/12/14 to 07/01/15

33

271 newspaper article headlines including the word ‘Muslim’.

Top 10:

106 from MailOnline

24 from The Guardian

22 from Independent.co.uk

12 from telegraph.co.uk

11 from The Times

7 from the mirror.co.uk

6 from The Daily Telegraph

5 from Asian Image

5 from The Sunday Telegraph

4 from The Independent

From 08/1/15 to 08/02/15

808 newspaper article headlines including the word ‘Muslim’.

Top 10:

146 from MailOnline

94 from telegraph.co.uk

72 from Independent.co.uk

53 from The Guardian

36 from The Times

26 from thetimes.co.uk

18 from Scottish Daily Mail

18 from The Sunday Times

17 from Asian Image

15 from The Sun

14 from i-Independent

Appendix 2

Nexis List before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

07/12/14 to 07/01/15

34

Positive, Neutral, Negative. (News Hook) Terrorism, Religious & Cultural Issues, Muslim Extremism, Immigration,

Violence & Attacks against/from Muslims, Islamophobia, Hero/Heroism, Media. (Newspaper Publication) (Main Headline Noun)

1) Neutral, Violence and Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Citizen 2) Neutral, Violence and Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, citizen 3) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Birmingham Mail, Not stated4) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Burton Mail, Not stated5) Positive, Hero, Daily Telegraph, Not stated, 6) Negative, Religious& Cultural Issues, Evening Standard, preacher 7) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Grimsby Telegraph, Not stated8) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent, Not stated9) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated10) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated11) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, standard.co.uk, preacher12) Positive, Hero, Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated13) Neutral, Violence and Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, terrorist14) Neutral, Violence and Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, terrorist15) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated16) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Nottingham Post, Not stated17) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, standard.co.uk, preacher18) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Criminals19) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Not stated20) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Extremist21) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Extremist22) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated23) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated24) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated25) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist26) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, jihadist27) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, jihadist28) Positive, Media, Birmingham mail, Not stated29) Negative, Terrorism, Daily Telegraph, Extremist30) Neutral, Hero, The Guardian, Not stated31) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Not stated32) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, jihadist33) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, jihadist34) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, jihadist35) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated36) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated37) Negative, Terrorism, mirror.co.uk, ISIS38) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline39) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline40) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline41) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated

35

42) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Citizen Gloucester, Not stated43) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated44) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated45) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Express, Not stated46) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Gloucestershire Echo, Not stated47) Neutral, Immigration, MailOnline, immigrant48) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Sun, Not stated49) Neutral, not stated, The Western Mail, Not stated50) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Western Daily Press, Not stated51) Neutral, Religious &cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated52) Neutral, Immigration, MailOnline, immigrant53) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated54) Neutral, Immigration, Mail on Sunday, immigrant55) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Telegraph, Not stated56) Positive, Terrorism, Asian Image, terrorist 57) Positive, Terrorism, Asian Image, Not stated58) Negative, Terrorism, The Guardian, terrorist59) Positive, Terrorism, The Guardian, Not stated60) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, Not stated61) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, Gunman62) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated63) Positive, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, Gunman64) Positive, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, Gunman65) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, support66) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman67) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman68) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman69) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman70) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman71) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman72) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated73) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline74) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline75) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline 76) Negative, , Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated77) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, jihadist78) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, jihadist79) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist80) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist81) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist82) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist83) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist84) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist85) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist86) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Muslim Extremist87) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist88) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Terrorism89) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Terrorism

36

90) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist91) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist92) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist93) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, terrorist94) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist95) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist96) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist97) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist98) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist99) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist100) Positive, Religious &cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, 101) Negative, Muslim Extremism, standard.co.uk, hostage102) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Stoke The Sentinel103) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Daily Mirror, Not stated104) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated105) Positive, Immigration, The Guardian, immigrant106) Positive, Terrorism, The Guardian, hostage107) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Guardian, gunman108) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Guardian, Extremist109) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated110) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, hostage111) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, Not stated112) Positive, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, Criminal113) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Not stated114) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, scholar115) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, peace116) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, Not stated117) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Lancashire Telegraph, veil118) Positive, Religious &cultural Issues, MailOnline, siege119) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, convert120) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, convert121) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, convert122) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Scotsman, Not stated123) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated124) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, ISIS125) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Times, convert126) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Times, convert127) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Western Daily Press, Not stated128) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Yorkshire Post, cleric129) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Irish Examiner, Not stated130) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Journal (Newcastle), Not stated131) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, radical132) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, radical133) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, radical134) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, gunman135) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Asian Image, Not stated136) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Birmingham Post, Extremist137) Positive, Terrorism, The Guardian, Extremist

37

138) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman139) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, gunman140) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman141) Neutral, Immigration, MailOnline, immigrant142) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman143) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, jihadist144) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, Not stated145) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Birmingham Post, Extremist146) Positive, Islamophobia, The Guardian, Not stated147) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, Extremist148) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Independent.co.uk, islamist149) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated150) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated151) Positive, Terrorism, Leicester Mercury, Not stated152) Negative, Violence and Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, convert153) Negative, Violence and Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, convert154) Negative, Religious &cultural Issues, MailOnline, convert155) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, gunman156) Negative, Religious &cultural Issues, MailOnline157) Negative, Violence and Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, convert158) Positive, Hero, mirror.co.uk, Not stated159) Negative, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated160) Negative, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated161) Positive, Hero, mirror.co.uk, Taliban162) Positive, Heroine, MailOnline, Not stated163) Positive, Heroine, MailOnline, Not stated164) Positive, Heroine, MailOnline, Not stated165) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Sunday Telegraph, Not stated166) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Sunday Telegraph, Not stated167) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Sunday Telegraph, Not stated168) Positive, Hero, The Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated169) Neutral, Islamophobia, i-Independent, Not stated170) Neutral, Islamophobia, Independent.co.uk, Not stated171) Neutral, Islamophobia, Independent.co.uk, Not stated172) Positive, Hero, Lancashire Telegraph, volunteer173) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, Not stated174) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated175) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, rebels176) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated177) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated178) Neutral, Islamophobia, MailOnline, Not stated179) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, convert180) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, fanatic181) Positive, Heroine, mirror.co.uk, gunman182) Positive, Heroine, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated183) Neutral, Media, Aberdeen Evening Express, Not stated184) Neutral, Media, Aberdeen Evening Express, Not stated185) Negative, Religious &Cultural Issues, Asian Image, Not stated

38

186) Positive, Hero, Daily Star, Not stated187) Positive, Hero, Independent.co.uk, siege188) Positive, Hero, Irish Examiner, Not stated189) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Lancashire Telegraph, Not stated190) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, terrorist191) Neutral, Immigration, MailOnline, mosque192) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, siege193) Positive, Hero, Metro, Not stated194) Positive, Hero, The Sun, siege195) Positive, Hero, The Sun, siege196) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, siege197) Positive, Terrorism, walesonline.co.uk, Extremist198) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated199) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS200) Positive, Hero, Sheffield Telegraph, Not stated201) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated202) Neutral, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated203) Positive, Violence and Attacks against Muslims, The Western Mail, community204) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, apostasy205) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Times, apostasy206) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, convert207) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, burka208) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, convert209) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, convert210) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, Not stated211) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, i-Independent, Not stated212) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Nottingham Post, Extremist213) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Daily Mail, convert214) Neutral, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated215) Neutral, Media, The Guardian, Not stated216) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman217) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, burka218) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, ISIS219) Positive, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Asian Image, Not stated220) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Carmarthen Journal, Not stated221) Positive, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, walesonline.co.uk, Not stated222) Positive, Hero, dailyrecord.co.uk, Islam223) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims. The Daily Telegraph, protest224) Positive, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, terrorist225) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated226) Neutral, Media, MailOnline, Not stated227) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated228) Neutral, Media, MailOnline, Not stated229) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, South Wales Echo, Not stated230) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Western Mail, Not stated231) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Daily Star, Not stated232) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Guardian, Not stated233) Negative, Muslim Extremism, i-Independent, Jihadist

39

234) Positive, Islamophobia, Independent.co.uk, Islam235) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Mosque236) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Independent, Jihadist237) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Mosque238) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, Mosque239) Neutral, Immigration, The Daily Telegraph, Asylum Seeker240) Positive, Islamophobia, The Independent, Islam241) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Militant242) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated243) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Times, Not stated244) Neutral, Terrorism, Western Daily Press, Extremist245) Neutral, Media, coventrytelegraph.net, Not stated246) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Prophet247) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Preacher248) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Telegraph, Islam249) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Bolton News, Prophet250) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Coventry Evening Telegraph, Not stated251) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Lancashire Telegraph, Not stated252) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Cleric253) Neutral, Immigration, The Guardian, Immigrant254) Positive, Immigration, MailOnline, Not stated255) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated256) Positive, Immigration, mirror.co.uk, Immigrant257) Neutral, Immigration, The Times, Protest258) Neutral, Immigration, The Times, Protest259) Neutral, Immigration, The Times, Protest260) Neutral, Immigration, The Times, Protest261) Neutral, Immigration, The Times, Protest262) Neutral, Immigration, The Times, Protest263) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Crawley Observer, Cleric264) Positive, Hero, Daily Echo, Not stated265) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, Terrorist266) Positive, Immigration, The Guardian, Immigration267) Neutral, Islamophobia, Independent.co.uk, Islamophobia268) Positive, Media, Luton Today, Not stated269) Neutral, Immigration, Metro, Not stated270) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated271) Negative, Terrorism, Yorkshire Post, Not stated

Appendix 3

Nexis List after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

08/01/14 to 08/02/15

40

Positive, Neutral, Negative. (News Hook) Terrorism, Religious & Cultural Issues, Muslim Extremism, Immigration,

Violence & Attacks against/from Muslims, Islamophobia, Hero/Heroism, Media. (Newspaper Publication) (Main Headline Noun)

1) Neutral, Terrorism, Asian Image, Not stated2) Neutral, Media, birminghampost.co.uk, Scholar3) Positive, Terrorism, chroniclelive.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO4) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated5) Positive, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO6) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO7) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO8) Positive, Terrorism, Hillingdon Times, CHARLIE HEBDO9) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO10) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Independent, CHARLIE HEBDO11) Positive, Terrorism, Kenilworth Weekly News, Not stated12) Positive, Terrorism, Kenilworth Weekly News, Not stated13) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Mosque14) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Mosque15) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, Fanatic16) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, Fanatic17) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Mosque18) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated19) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO20) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Islam21) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Mosque22) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO23) Negative, Immigration, MailOnline, Not stated24) Neutral, Media, MailOnline, Not stated25) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Metro, Not stated26) Positive, Terrorism, Scottish Mail, Islam27) Positive, Terrorism, Sheffield Telegraph, Not stated28) Negative, Terrorism, The Sun, Not stated29) Positive, Violence & attacks from Muslims, The Sun, Not stated30) Neutral, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO31) Neutral, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO32) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO33) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Mosque34) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO35) Negative, Religious &cultural issues, telegraph.co.uk, Prophet36) Negative, Violence & attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO37) Neutral, Violence & attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO38) Negative, Terrorism, thetimes.co.uk, religion39) Negative, Terrorism, thetimes.co.uk, religion

41

40) Positive, Terrorism, Wimbledon The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO41) Positive, Terrorism, Worcester News, massacre42) Positive, Hero, Asian Image, Not stated43) Neutral, Violence &attacks against Muslims, Asian Image, Not stated44) Positive, Terrorism, Bristol Post, Islam45) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Daily Telegraph, Jihadist46) Positive, Hero, Daily Mirror, Not stated47) Positive, Hero, Daily Mirror, Not stated48) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, Daily Mirror, Not stated49) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, Not stated50) Positive, Terrorism, Daily Echo, Not stated51) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Derby Telegraph, Not stated52) Positive, Terrorism, Evening Chronicle, Shooting53) Positive, Muslim Extremism, The Express, Jihadist54) Positive, Hero, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO55) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO56) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO57) Positive, Hero, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO58) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Radical59) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated60) Neutral, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO61) Positive, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO62) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Independent.co.uk, Radical63) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Keighley News, Islam64) Positive, Terrorism, Lancashire Telegraph, CHARLIE HEBDO65) Positive, Terrorism, liverpoolecho.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO66) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated67) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Immigrant68) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, Islam69) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Immigrant70) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist71) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, Islam72) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Immigrant73) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Extremist74) Positive, Hero, Metro, Not stated75) Positive, Hero, Scottish Star, Terrorist76) Positive, Hero, Scottish Mail, Not stated77) Positive, Religious&cult issues, Scottish Mail, Islam78) Positive, Hero, Scottish Mail, Not stated79) Positive, Terrorism, The Sun, Not stated80) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO81) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO82) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO83) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO84) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Islam85) Positive, Violence & attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated86) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, Extremist87) Positive, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, Extremist

42

88) Negative, Terrorism, thetimes.co.uk, Radical89) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated90) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, Extremist91) Negative, Terrorism, thetimes.co.uk, Radical92) Negative, Immigration, The Times, Radical93) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated94) Positive, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, Extremist95) Negative, Immigration, The Times, Radical96) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, Asian Image, Not stated97) Positive, Hero, Asian Image, hostage98) Positive, Terrorism, Bournemouth Echo, Not stated99) Positive, Hero, dailyrecord.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO100) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Daily Mirror, Radical101) Positive, Terrorism, derbytelegraph.co.uk, Islam102) Positive, Hero, Independent.co.uk, Not stated103) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Jihadist104) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Irish Examiner, cleric105) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO106) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunmen107) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunmen108) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, Terrorist109) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated110) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Manchester Evening News, Not stated111) Positive, Terrorism, Nottingham Post, Islam 112) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated113) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO114) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated115) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Mosque116) Neutral, Religious &cultural issues, thetimes.co.uk, Jihadist117) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated118) Neutral, Religious &cultural issues, The Times, Jihadist119) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated120) Positive, Terrorism, Western Daily Press, Islam121) Positive, Terrorism, Asian Image, Terrorist122) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated123) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Daily Mirror, Not stated124) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO125) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, Terrorist126) Positive, Media, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO127) Positive, Muslim Extremism, independent.co.uk, Extremist128) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Not stated129) Positive, Religious&cult, Liverpool Echo, Extremist130) Positive, Violence and attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, ISIS131) Positive, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated132) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, manchestereveningnews.co.uk, Not stated133) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, Al-Qaeda134) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, ISIS135) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremism

43

136) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, Al-Qaeda137) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist138) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, preacher139) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, Not stated140) Negative, Media, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO141) Positive, Hero, Mail On Sunday, Not stated142) Positive, Hero, Scottish Mail, Not stated143) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Sunday Times, Jihadist144) Negative, Terrorism, The Sunday Times, Al-Qaeda145) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Not stated146) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Not stated147) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Not stated148) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Sunday Times, Not stated149) Positive, Terrorism, The Sunday Times, Not stated150) Positive, Terrorism, The Sunday Times, Not stated151) Positive, Terrorism, Sunday Express, Not stated152) Positive, Terrorism, The Sun, Islam153) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, Not stated154) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Sunday Telegraph, Not stated155) Positive, Immigration, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated156) Positive, Immigration, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated157) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, hostage158) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO159) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, Terrorist160) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Extremist161) Positive, Terrorism, walesonline.co.uk, Not stated162) Positive, Terrorism, Wales On Sunday, Not stated163) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Watford Observer, Not stated164) Positive, Immigration, Asian Image, Not stated165) Positive, Hero, Belfast Telegraph, hostage166) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Terrorism167) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated168) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated169) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated170) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Terrorism171) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated172) Positive, Terrorism, The Citizen Gloucester, Not stated173) Positive, Media, dailyrecord.co.uk, Not stated174) Positive, Media, Daily Mirror, Not stated175) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Terrorist176) Positive, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Evening Standard, Not stated177) Positive, Media, The Evening Standard, Not stated178) Positive, Terrorism, Gloucester Echo, killings179) Positive, Terrorism, Gloucester Echo, killings180) Positive, Terrorism, Gloucester Echo, killings181) Positive, Media, The Guardian, Not stated182) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Guardian, Extremism183) Positive, Media, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO

44

184) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, i-Independent, Not stated185) Negative, Terrorism, i-Independent, cleric186) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated187) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated188) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Terrorist189) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Independent.co.uk, Extremist190) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Independent.co.uk, Extremist191) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Terrorist192) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO193) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated194) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated195) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated196) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Terrorist197) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Not stated198) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Not stated199) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Islamist200) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist201) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Extremist202) Positive, Immigration, MailOnline, Not stated203) Neutral, Terrorism, MailOnline, Terrorist204) Positive, Hero, Metro, Not stated205) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Metro, Not stated206) Positive, Hero, Metro, Not stated207) Positive, Media, News Shopper, Not stated208) Positive, Hero, Nottingham Post, peace209) Negative, Terrorism, Scottish Mail, Terrorist210) Positive, Terrorism, South Wales Evening Post, Terrorist211) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, standard.co.uk, Not stated212) Positive, Media, standard.co.uk, Terrorist213) Positive, Hero, standard.co.uk, hostage214) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Sun, Jihadist215) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, Not stated216) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Terrorist217) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Terrorist218) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated219) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, Islam220) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated221) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated222) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated223) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated224) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, Islam225) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated226) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated227) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated228) Negative, Terrorism, thejournal.co.uk, Jihadist229) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated230) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated231) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated

45

232) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Western Mail, Not stated233) Negative, Media, Yorkshire Post, Not stated234) Negative, Media, Yorkshire Post, Not stated235) Neutral, Media, Al-Arab, CHARLIE HEBDO236) Negative, Terrorism, Belfast Telegraph, ISIS237) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Belfast Telegraph, Not stated238) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated239) Positive, Media, Birmingham Evening Mail, Not stated240) Positive, Immigration, China Daily European Edition, Not stated241) Negative, Muslim Extremism, chroniclelive.co.uk, Not stated242) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated243) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Daily Mirror, Not stated244) Positive, Terrorism, Dundalk Democrat, Massacre245) Positive, Terrorism, Future News, Not stated246) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, Not stated247) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated248) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO249) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated250) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated251) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, jihadists252) Positive, Media, The Guardian, Mosque253) Positive, Muslim Extremism, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO254) Positive, Terrorism, Halesowen News, Not stated255) Positive, Media, i-Independent, Not stated256) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Veil257) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated258) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Journal, Jihadist259) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated260) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, gunman261) Positive, Terrorism, MailOnline, Jihadist262) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, Terrorist263) Negative, Violence & attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated264) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO265) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO266) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Not stated267) Positive, Media, Metro, Not stated268) Positive, Media, Metro, Not stated269) Positive, Media, Scottish Mail, Not stated270) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, standard.co.uk, Not stated271) Negative, Muslim Extremist, standard.co.uk, Extremist272) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Extremist273) Positive, Hero, telegraph.co.uk, siege274) Positive, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated275) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Immigrant276) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, burka277) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated278) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated279) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated

46

280) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated281) Positive, Media, The Western Mail, Not stated282) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Yorkshire Post, Not stated283) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, Asian Image, Prophet284) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated285) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated286) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Sharia287) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Sharia288) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Sharia289) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Evening Standard, massacre290) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Evening Chronicle, thug291) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Evening Chronicle, thug292) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Evening Chronicle, thug293) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Express, Terrorist294) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated295) Positive, Terrorism, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO296) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, The Guardian297) Positive, Media, The Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated298) Positive, Media, The Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated299) Negative, Violence & attacks against Muslims, i-Independent, Not stated300) Negative, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, Not stated301) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, prophet302) Positive, Hero, Independent.co.uk, Shooting303) Negative, Violence and attacks from Muslims, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO304) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated305) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Mosque306) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Not stated307) Negative, Immigration, Independent.co.uk, Sharia308) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO309) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated310) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated311) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO312) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO313) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslim, Independent.co.uk, Extremist314) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Mohamed315) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Irish Examiner, Not stated316) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Jihadist317) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Islam318) Negative, Immigration, MailOnline, Immigrant319) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated320) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Metro, Not stated321) Neutral, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Milton Keynes Citizen, Not stated322) Neutral, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Milton Keynes Citizen, Not stated323) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Northern Echo, Not stated324) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Scottish Star, Radical325) Positive, Media, Scottish Express, Not stated326) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslim, Scottish Express, Not stated327) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Express, Ghetto

47

328) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Scottish Mail, Not stated329) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Mail, Not stated330) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Scottish MailOnline, Not stated331) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Mail, Not stated332) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, standard.co.uk, Not stated333) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO334) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslim, telegraph.co.uk, Mohamed335) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated336) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslim, telegraph.co.uk, Mohamed337) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated338) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated339) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Prophet340) Negative, Immigration, thetimes.co.uk, ghettos341) Negative, Immigration, thetimes.co.uk, ghettos342) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Prophet343) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Al-Arab, fanatic344) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated345) Positive, Media, birminghampost.co.uk, Terrorism346) Positive, Hero, Birmingham Post, Not stated347) Positive, Hero, Birmingham Post, Not stated348) Positive, Hero, Birmingham Post, Not stated349) Positive, Hero, Birmingham Post, Not stated350) Positive, Terrorism, Bucks Free Press, CHARLIE HEBDO351) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Burton Mail, Not stated352) Positive, Violence&Attacks against Muslims, China Daily European Edition, Terrorism353) Neutral, Terrorism, dailyrecord.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO354) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Evening Standard, Not stated355) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Express, ghetto356) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO357) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated358) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO359) Negative, Media, i-Independent, Not stated360) Negative, viol&cult issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated361) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Independent, Not stated362) Positive, Terrorism, Keighley News, Terrorist363) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, Jihadist364) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO365) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated366) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, Jihadist367) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO368) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, convert369) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated370) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, convert371) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated372) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Islam373) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, ISIS374) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated375) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO

48

376) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated377) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO378) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, convert379) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated380) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated381) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Scottish express, Not stated382) Negative, Terrorism, The Sun, Terrorist383) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, fanatic384) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO385) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO386) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, walesonline.co.uk, Not stated387) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Asian image, Not stated388) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, asian image, Not stated389) Positive, Hero, The Citizen Gloucester, Not stated390) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated391) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The evening standard, Not stated392) Negative, Immigration, The Express, Not stated393) Positive, Hero, Gloucestershire Echo, kindness394) Negative, Terrorism, The Guardian, Radical395) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, attacks396) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, Not stated397) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, fundamentalist398) Neutral, Muslims Extremism, The Guardian, Radical399) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Prophet400) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Not stated401) Negative, Terrorism, The Independent, Jihadist402) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Lancashire Telegraph, CHARLIE HEBDO403) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated404) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated405) Neutral, Media, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO406) Positive, Terrorism, manchestereveningnews.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO407) Neutral, Media, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO408) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, Jihadist409) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, Scottish Mail, Not stated410) Neutral, Violence & attacks against Muslims, Scottish Mail, Not stated411) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, standard.co.uk, Not stated412) Positive, Hero, standard.co.uk, hostage413) Negative, Media, thetimes.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO414) Positive, Hero, thetimes.co.uk, siege415) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated416) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Islam417) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated418) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Islam419) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, walesonline.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO420) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Burton Mail, Not stated421) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, getsurrey.co.uk, Not stated422) Negative, Terrorism, i-Independent, Not stated423) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, i-Independent, Not stated

49

424) Negative, Terrorism, independent.co.uk, Radical425) Negative, Terrorism, the independent, Radical426) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO427) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO428) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO429) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Terrorist430) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, Islam431) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Times, Islam432) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Times, Islam433) Neutral, Media, Western Daily Press, Not stated434) Neural, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated435) Positive, Media, birminghammail.co.uk, Not stated436) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Bucks Free Pass, prophet437) Positive, Terrorism, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO438) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, Not stated439) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated440) Negative, Immigration, Independent.co.uk, ghettos441) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO442) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Independent.co.uk, Extremist443) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Not stated444) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Not stated445) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated446) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated447) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, ISIS448) Neutral, Media, MailOnline, Not stated449) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Mail On Sunday, Radical450) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Scottish Mail, IS451) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Scottish Mail, IS452) Positive, Media, standard.co.uk, Not stated453) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Not stated454) Negative, Terrorism, The Sunday Times, CHARLIE HEBDO455) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Islam456) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Sun, Not stated457) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Telegraph, Not stated458) Positive, Media, Western Morning News, Not stated459) Negative, Immigration, Asian Image, Not stated460) Positive, Media, Birmingham Evening Mail, Not stated461) Positive, Media, Birmingham Evening Mail, Not stated462) Positive, Media, Birmingham Evening Mail, Not stated463) Positive, Hero, Burton Mail, Terrorist464) Positive, Violence&Attacks against Muslims, coventrytelegraph.net, CHARLIE HEBDO465) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, dailyrecord.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO466) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Daily Telegraph, Radical467) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated468) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Evening Standard, Terrorist469) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, The Evening Standard, Terrorist470) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Express, Not stated471) Neutral, Media, The Guardian, Not stated

50

472) Neutral, Media, The Guardian, Not stated473) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Radical474) Negative, Media, The Guardian, Islam475) Negative, Media, independent.co.uk, Not stated476) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, Not stated477) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Not stated478) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, arson479) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO480) Positive, Hero, The Independent, Not stated481) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Irish Examiner, fundamentalist482) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO483) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated484) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, Terrorist485) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated486) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Extremist487) Neutral, Terrorism, manchestereveningnews.co.uk, Terrorist488) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Extremist489) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated490) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated491) Negative, Terrorism, Metro, Not stated492) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Mail, Not stated493) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Mail, Not stated494) Negative, Muslim Extremism, South Wales Argus, Extremism495) Negative, Muslim Extremism, standard.co.uk, Radical496) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Extremism497) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Islam498) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, mosque499) Negative, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO500) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated501) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO502) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated503) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO504) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, mosque505) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Radical506) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, mosque507) Positive, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Terrorist508) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Radical509) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated510) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Times, Islam511) Neutral, Terrorism, Belfast Telegraph, Not stated512) Neutral, Immigration, Bournemouth Echo, Not stated513) Neutral, Violence&Attacks against Muslims, Bradford Telegraph & Argus, Not stated514) Negative, Terrorism, Coventry Evening Telegraph, Terrorist515) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated516) Negative, Immigration, The Daily Telegraph, attacks517) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated518) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated519) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Daily Telegraph, mosque

51

520) Positive, Terrorism, Daily Post, Terrorist521) Neutral, Terrorism, The Guardian, attacks522) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Islam523) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Halesowen News, Not stated524) Positive, Terrorism, Hastings & St. Leonards Observer, Not stated525) Positive, Terrorism, The Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Terrorist526) Negative, Muslim Extremism, i-Independent, Radical527) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, i-Independent528) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, i-independent529) Negative, Terrorism, Independent.co.uk, Immigrant530) Negative, Muslim Extremism, Independent.co.uk, Extremist531) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Independent.co.uk, cleric532) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO533) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Independent, Not stated534) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Independent, Extremism535) Negative, Terrorism, The Independent, protest536) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Irish Examiner, Radical537) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Journal, Not stated538) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Terrorist539) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, Not stated540) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO541) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Terrorist542) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated543) Positive, Media, MailOnline , Not stated544) Positive, Media, MailOnline , Not stated545) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Metro, Terrorist546) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Nuneaton, Not stated547) Positive, Muslim Extremism, The Scotsman, Extremist548) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Scotsman, Not stated549) Negative, Terrorism, Scottish Express, Not stated550) Positive, Terrorism, telegraph.co.uk, Islam551) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO552) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Terrorism553) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO554) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Terrorism555) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated556) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated557) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Times, Radical558) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Times, Radical559) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated560) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated561) Positive, Terrorism, The Western Mail, Terrorist562) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Bristol Post, Not stated563) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Evening Standard, Extremism564) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Express, Extremism565) Neutral, Media, Future News-Media Planner, Not stated566) Positive, Media, The Guardian, Not stated567) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated

52

568) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, i-Independent, Not stated569) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated570) Positive, Media, Independent.co.uk, Not stated571) Positive, Hero, Independent.co.uk, attacks572) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Lancashire Telegraph, Not stated573) Positive, Muslim Extremism, Luton Today, ISIS574) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated575) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated576) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated577) Positive, Hero, MailOnline, Not stated578) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated579) Positive, Terrorism, Nottingham Post, Terrorist580) Neutral, Terrorism, standard.co.uk, Extremism581) Neutral, Terrorism, Swindon Advertiser, Not stated582) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, crime583) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated584) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated585) Positive, Media, Asian Image, Not stated586) Neutral, Terrorism, Bradford Telegraph and Argus, Not stated587) Positive, Terrorism, Bradford Telegraph and Argus, Not stated588) Positive, Terrorism, Bucks Herald, CHARLIE HEBDO589) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, chroniclelive.co.uk, Not stated590) Positive, Terrorism, Daily Star, Terrorist591) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Not stated592) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Independent, Extremism593) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, burka594) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Manchester Evening News, Not stated595) Positive, Muslim Extremism, South Wales Argus, Extremist596) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, mosque597) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Asian Image, Not stated598) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Bradford Telegraph and Argus, Not stated599) Neutral, Terrorism, Bradford Telegraph and Argus, Not stated600) Positive, Terrorism, Bucks Herald, CHARLIE HEBDO601) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Daily Star, united602) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, backlash603) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Islam604) Positive, Hero, The Guardian, Not stated605) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated606) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, attacks607) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated608) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Islamist609) Positive, Media, MailOnline, Not stated610) Neutral, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated611) Negative, Terrorism, Scottish Mail, Terrorist612) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, protest613) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, prophet614) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Guardian, Not stated615) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, i-Independent, Not stated

53

616) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, i-Independent, CHARLIE HEBDO617) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, i-Independent, Not stated618) Positive, Terrorism, independent.co.uk, convert619) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO620) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Irish Examiner, Not stated621) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, burka622) Positive, Hero, Milton Keynes Citizen, Not stated623) Positive, Hero, Scottish Star, Not stated624) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against muslims, South Wales Echo, attacks625) Negative, Violence & Attacks from muslims, standard.oc.uk, Violence626) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Asian Image, Not stated627) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Daily Echo, Not stated628) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, prophet629) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Not stated630) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Lancashire Telegraph, Not stated631) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated632) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated633) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The People, Not stated634) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Sunday Times, Radical635) Negative, Immigration, The Sunday Times, minority636) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, Not stated637) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Sunday Telegraph, Extremist638) Negative, Violence & Attacks on Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO639) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Bradford Tel&Argus, Not stated640) Positive, Hero, Cotswold Journal, Not stated641) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated642) Positive, Hero, Dewsbury reporter, Not stated643) Negative, Media, The Guardian, fundamentalist644) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated645) Negative, Media, independent.co.uk, Not stated646) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, thug647) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, rebels648) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Metro, rebels649) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Sheffield Telegraph, Not stated650) Positive, Hero, Spenborough The Guardian, Not stated651) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, telegraph.co.uk, uprising652) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, scandal653) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, scandal654) Negative, Terrorism, Asian Image, Terrorist655) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Tel&Argus, faiths656) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Hudd Daily Examiner, Not stated657) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated658) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Islam659) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated660) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated661) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, blasphemous662) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, burka663) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, suspicion

54

664) Negative, Muslim Extremism, independent.co.uk, ISIS665) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated666) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, clash667) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, peace668) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, killings669) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, burka670) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, burka671) Neutral, Terrorism, The Argus, terrorists672) Positive, Hero, coventrytelegraph.net, Not stated673) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Daily Telegraph, Not stated674) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Daily Mirror, Not stated675) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, getsurrey.co.uk, mosque676) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, mosque677) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Islamophobia678) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, Terrorist679) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Extremism680) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, racist681) Neutral, Religious and cult issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated682) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, ISIS683) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Times, killings684) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Jihadist685) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Huddersfield Daily Examiner, Not stated686) Positive, Media, Lancashire Telegraph, celebration687) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, MailOnline, Not stated688) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, Not stated689) Negative, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, conspiracy690) Negative, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, conspiracy691) Positive, Hero, Harrow Times, Not stated692) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Independent.co.uk, Not stated693) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, mosques694) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Scottish Mail, Not stated695) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Scottish Mail, Not stated696) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Not stated697) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sunday Times, Not stated698) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, mosque699) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Sun, Jihadist700) Neutral, Media, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated701) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, BFD Tel&Argus, support702) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslim, China Daily European Edition, death703) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Hudd Daily Examiner, Not stated704) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO705) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Not stated706) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, Islam707) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Nottingham Post, hijab708) Positive, Hero, Wimbledon The Guardian, Charities709) Negative, Media, MailOnline, Not stated710) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The Guardian, fundamentalist711) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, independent.co.uk, Not stated

55

712) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS713) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS714) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated715) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, convert716) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, convert717) Negative, Media, MailOnline, Sin718) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, mirror.co.uk, convert719) Positive, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Nottingham Post, Not stated720) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Nuneaton News, Not stated721) Negative, Media, Scottish Mail, Not stated722) Negative, Media, Scottish Mail, Not stated723) Negative, Muslim Extremism, standard.co.uk, ISIS724) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO725) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, Al-Arab, ISIS726) Positive, Terrorism, Birmingham Evening Mail, Terrorist727) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, The Daily Telegraph, convert728) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Daily Mirror, Not stated729) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Future News, Not stated730) Positive, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS731) Positive, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS732) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated733) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS734) Negative, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Metro, Not stated735) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, Newham Recorder, Not stated736) Negative, Media, Scottish Mail, Not stated737) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, Not stated738) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, attacks739) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, Not stated740) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, prisoner741) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, attacks742) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, attacks743) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, prisoner744) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, attacks745) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, prisoner746) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Daily Mirror, Not stated747) Negative, Media, Daily Star, Not stated748) Negative, Terrorism, Future News, convert749) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, CHARLIE HEBDO750) Negative, Terrorism, independent.co.uk, ISIS751) Neutral, Media, Irish Examiner, cleric752) Positive, Media, Luton Today, Not stated753) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, ISIS754) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS755) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, ISIS756) Negative, Terrorism, MailOnline, ISIS757) Positive, Media, Asian Image, mosque758) Neutral, Violence & Attacks against Muslims, Asian Image, Not stated759) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, dailyrecord.co.uk, Not stated

56

760) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated761) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, the evening standard, ISIS762) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, The express, Jihadist763) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, Not stated764) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, scapegoat765) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, i-Independent, Radical766) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, independent.co.uk, Islam767) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, the independent, Not stated768) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, MailOnline, convert769) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, ISIS770) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, mirror.co.uk, convert771) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, standard.co.uk, ISIS772) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Sun, CHARLIE HEBDO773) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, ISIS774) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, thetimes.co.uk, infidel775) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, ISIS776) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, thetimes.co.uk, ISIS777) Positive, Terrorism, Wiltshire Times, ISIS778) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, Daily Mirror, convert779) Positive, Terrorism, Daily Star, terrorists780) Positive, Terrorism, Derby Telegraph, CHARLIE HEBDO781) Neutral, Muslim Extremism, independent.co.uk, Islam782) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, convert783) Negative, Violence & Attacks from Muslims, thetimes.co.uk, convert784) Positive, Religious & Cultural Issues, The Guardian, discrimination785) Negative, Muslim Extremism, The Guardian, Radical786) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO787) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, CHARLIE HEBDO788) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Radical789) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated790) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Radical791) Negative, Muslim Extremism, MailOnline, Radical792) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated793) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, MailOnline, Not stated794) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, mirror.co.uk, CHARLIE HEBDO795) Negative, Muslim Extremism, mirror.co.uk, Radical796) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Mail, Islam797) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Scottish Mail, Islam798) Negative, Muslim Extremism, the Sunday times, Radical799) Negative, Muslim Extremism, the Sunday times, Radical800) Negative, Muslim Extremism, the Sunday times, Radical801) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, Sunday Mercury, Not stated802) Neutral, Religious & Cultural Issues, the Sunday telegraph, Not stated803) Negative, Religious & Cultural Issues, telegraph.co.uk, protest804) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Radical805) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Islam806) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Extremist807) Negative, Muslim Extremism, telegraph.co.uk, Radical

57

808) Neutral, Media, Wakefield Express, Not stated

Appendix 4

Newspaper Headlines News Hooks

58

One Month Before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Terrorism: 38

Religious & Cultural Issues: 84

Muslim Extremism: 46

Immigration: 18

Violence & Attacks against Muslims: 25

Violence & Attacks from Muslims: 14

Islamophobia: 8

Hero/Heroism: 27

Media: 11

Total: 271

One Month After Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Terrorism: 137

Religious & Cultural Issues: 243

Muslim Extremism: 103

Immigration: 17

Violence & Attacks against Muslims: 115

Violence & Attacks from Muslims: 42

Islamophobia: 0

Hero/Heroism: 52

Media: 97

Total: 808

Appendix 5

Nouns in Headlines

One Month before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Asylum Seeker: 1

59

Apostasy: 2

Burka: 2

Citizen: 2

Criminal: 2

Convert: 12

Cleric: 3

Extremist: 27

Fanatic: 1

Gunman: 17

Hostage: 2

Islam: 4

Islamist: 1

Immigrant: 8

ISIS: 3

Jihadist: 9

Mosque: 4

Militant: 1

NS: 118

Peace: 1

Protest: 7

Preacher: 4

Prophet: 2

Radical: 3

Rebels: 1

Scholar: 1

Siege: 4

Taliban: 1

Terrorist: 9

Volunteer: 1

Veil: 1

60

One Month after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Al-Qaeda: 3

Arson: 1

Burka: 6

Backlash: 1

Charlie Hebdo: 94

Conspiracy: 2

Citizen: 5

Crime: 1

Convert: 14

Cleric: 4

Discrimination: 1

Death: 1

Extremist: 26

Extremism: 10

Fanatic: 4

Fundamentalist: 4

Ghetto: 5

Gunman: 3

Hostage: 5

Islam: 35

Islamist: 2

Immigrant: 6

ISIS: 27

Jihadist: 18

Kindness: 1

Killings: 5

Massacre: 3

Minority: 1

61

Mohamed: 3

Mosque: 17

NS: 354

Peace: 2

Protest: 3

Preacher: 1

Prophet: 9

Radical: 34

Rebels: 2

Religion: 2

Sharia: 4

Scholar: 1

Shooting

Siege: 2

Suspicion: 1

Support: 1

Thug: 4

Terrorist: 39

United: 1

Violence: 1

Veil: 1

Appendix 6

62

Appendix 7

Appendix 8

63

31%

25%

44%

Headlines one month before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Positive Neutral Negative

35%

19%

46%

Headlines one month after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Positive Neutral Negative

Appendix 9

Appendix 10

64

Mail

Online

The Indep

enden

t

The Guar

dian

The Tele

grap

h

Daily M

irror

Asian Im

age

The Sun

The Tim

es

Wes

tern M

ail

waleso

nline.c

o.uk

17

13

87

6

32 2 2 2

Positive Headlines towards Muslims, one month before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Mail

Online

The Guar

dian

The Indep

enden

t

The Tim

es

The Tele

grap

h

i-Indep

enden

t

Coventry

Tele

grap

h

Asian Im

age

Metr

o

Wes

tern M

ail

27

11 10

63 2 2 1 1 1

Neutral Headlines towards Muslims, one month before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Appendix 11

Appendix 12

65

Mail

Online

The Tele

grap

h

The Tim

es

The Guar

dian

London Evenin

g Stan

dard

The Indep

enden

t

Daily M

irror

Yorksh

ire Post

The Sun

Lanca

shire

Tele

grap

h

66

136 5 4 3 3 3 2 2

Negative Headlines towards Muslims, one month before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Mail

Online

The Tele

grap

h

The Indep

enden

t

The Guar

dian

Birmin

gham

Evenin

g Mail

The Tim

esM

etro

London Evenin

g Stan

dard

Scotti

sh M

ail

Asian Im

age

34 33

28

20

1410

8 7 6 6

Positive Headlines towards Muslims, one month after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Appendix 13

Appendix 14

66

Mail

Online

The Guar

dian

The Tim

es

The Indep

enden

t

The Tele

grap

h

Asian Im

age

London Evenin

g Stan

dard

i-Indep

enden

t

Bradfo

rd T

elegr

aph &

Arg

us

Daily M

irror

2321

19

1412

8 7 64 4

Neutral Headlines towards Muslims, one month after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Mail

Online

The Tele

grap

h

The Tim

es

The Indep

enden

t

Scotti

sh M

ail

The Guar

dian

London Evenin

g Stan

dard

Daily M

irror

The Sun

i-Indep

enden

t

105

65

4944

17 14 10 10 10 8

Negative Headlines towards Muslims, one month after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Appendix 15

Appendix 16

67

Terroris

m

Religious &

Cultura

l Issu

es

Musli

m E

xtrem

ism

Imm

igratio

n

Violence & A

ttacks a

gainst M

uslim

s

Violence & A

ttacks f

rom

Musli

ms

Islam

ophobia

Hero/Hero

ismM

edia

38

84

46

1825

148

27

11

Headline News Hooks One Month before Charlie Hebdo At-tacks

Terroris

m

Religious &

Cultura

l Issu

es

Musli

m E

xtrem

ism

Imm

igratio

n

Violence & A

ttacks a

gainst M

uslim

s

Violence & A

ttacks f

rom

Musli

ms

Islam

ophobia

Hero/Hero

ismM

edia

137

243

105

17

115

42

0

52

97

Headline News Hooks One Month after Charlie Hebdo At-tacks

Nouns in News Headlines One Month before Charlie Hebdo Attacks

Appendix 17

Nouns in News Headlines One Month after Charlie Hebdo Attacks

68

Not Stated

Charlie Hebdo

Terrorist

Islam

Radical

ISIS

Extremist

Jihadist

Mosque

Convert

Extremism

Prophet

Immigrant

Burka

Ghetto

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

354

94

39

35

34

27

26

18

17

14

10

9

6

6

5

Not Stated

Extremist

Gunman

Convert

Terrorist

Jihadist

Immigrant

Protest

Siege

Preacher

Mosque

Islam

Radical

Cleric

ISIS

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

118

27

17

12

9

9

8

7

4

4

4

4

3

3

3