Dissertation Completed and Published in 2011

i

A MIXED METHODS APPROACH ASSESSING STRESS, LIFE SATISFACTION, AND

COUSELING UTILIZATION IN POLICE OFFICERS

A Dissertation

Submitted to theFaculty of Argosy University Campus

College of Education

In Partial Fulfillment ofThe Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

By

Mary L. Allen

July 2011

ii

A MIXED METHOD APPROACH ASSESSING STRESS, LIFE SATISFACTION, AND

COUNSELING UTILIZIATION IN POLICE OFFICERS

Copyright ©2011Mary L. Allen

iii

A MIXED METHOD APPROACH ASSESSING STRESS, LIFE SATISFACTION AND

COUNSELING UTILIZATION IN POLICE OFFICERS

A Dissertation

Submitted to theFaculty of Argosy University Campus

in Partial Fulfillment ofthe Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

By

Mary L. Allen

Argosy University

July, 2011

Dissertation Committee:

Sharon McNeely, Ph.D., Chair

Dale Septeowski, Ed.D., Member

La-Don Jackson, Ph.D., Member

Dale Septeowski, Ed.D., Program Chair

iv

A MIXED METHODS APPROACH ASSESSING STRESS, LIFE SATISFACTION, AND

COUSELING UTILIZATION IN POLICE OFFICERS

Abstract of Dissertation

This mixed methods research project was designed to examine the self-reported

level of stress in police officers, and to determine whether or not counseling has had an

impact on the officer’s life satisfaction. A total of 75 police officers voluntarily and

anonymously answered three closed-ended questions pertaining to counseling to

determine if they experienced stress while on the job, and whether or not they sought

counseling. They completed the Stress-Arousal Checklist to describe their psychological

experience to stress, and to determine their feelings of well-being. Subjects also

completed the Satisfaction with Life Scale to determine whether or not there is a

correlation between stress levels and life satisfaction according to the participants own

judgments and perceptions. Finally, they answered five short open-ended questions

specific to counseling to determine if they had been impacted by participating in

counseling, and to determine if there was an impact in their stress levels and satisfaction

with life after counseling.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to express sincere gratitude to committee members,

Dr.Sharon McNeely, Dr.Dale Septeowski, and Dr.La-Don Jackson for their invaluable

support and guidance in the planning and implementation of this research project. The

deepest appreciation is further offered to Argosy University - Schaumburg support staff

and to the men and women of various police departments for their participation in the

research study. Without their contributions of time and resources, this study would not

have been possible.

vi

Dedication

To my family, friends, colleagues, and teachers, whose love and support have helped turn

my life-long dream into a shared reality.

vii

Table of Contents Page

Chapter One: The Problem………..……...………………………………………………1 Problem Background……...………………………………........…………………1Purpose of the Study ……...………………………………………………....……4 Research Questions………………………………………………………………..4Limitations and Delimitations………......................................................................5Definition of terms...................................................................................................6Significance of the Study.........................................................................................7

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature……………..........................................................8 Overview of Stress………………...........................................................................8Studies on Police Stress...........................................................................................9Studies on Counseling Utilization……………………………………………….20Summary…………………………………………………………………………22

Chapter Three: Methodology……………..…….............................................................23Research Design....................................................................................................23 Population & Sampling Procedures......................................................................24Instrumentation.....................................................................................................24Methodological Assumptions and Limitations…………………………………..28Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….28

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Results…………………..............................................30Restatement of the Purpose....................................................................................30Research Question One..........................................................................................30Table 1………………………………………………………………...................31Table 2 …………………………………………………………………………..32Research Question Two ........................................................................................32Table 3…….…………………………………………………………..…………33Research Question Three.......................................................................................33

Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, Future Research and Recommendations.............36 Summary............................................................................................................... 36Conclusions…………………………….……………………….………………..37Future Research and Recommendations................................................................41

References……………………………….……………………………………………….43

Appendix A: Informed consent…………………………………………………….……47

Appendix B: The survey……………………………………………………………...…49

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Chapter One

The Introduction

Law enforcement officers face stressful situations every day (Antoniou, 2009).

The degrees to which stress affects an individual officer may vary depending on how that

person perceives and manages stress. The degree of stress that someone has may also

impact that person’s life satisfaction. This dissertation studied reported stress and life

satisfaction issues in police officers.

Problem Background

Although much has been written on the subject of stress (see, for instance

Laufersweiler-Dwyer, 2000; Wu, 2009), a limited amount of research exists within the

field of counseling relating to stress experienced by police officers in the Midwestern

United States of America. Additionally, there is limited research as to whether or not

receiving appropriate counseling strategies is associated with life satisfaction for police

officers.

During the past several decades, various studies have been conducted to assess

levels of stress in police officers, as a result of emergency responses and events which

have the potential of adding stress in an officer’s life. Engel (1964) provides a six stage

model for effectively coping with stress. He believes we must be able to identify these,

in order to provide resolution in moving through them. These stages have provided the

2

opportunity for advance study and research in identifying strategies for counselors, as

well as supervisors for police officers to help officers transition through a stressful event

successfully, and to effectively cope with and manage stress levels and satisfaction with

life.

Lundin (1984) suggests that officers experience stress, but because of societal

norms, officers may feel a need to be brave and may end up diverting their attention

elsewhere. Many officers will face stressful events in their lifetimes. As they do so, on

the job, they will find that there are limited accepted guidelines as to what constitutes

normal stress reactions, and how to connect these with life satisfaction. As there is little

universality in how leading officers can aid their subordinates in working through this

stress. Furthermore, to be effective leaders, the various levels of commanders within the

police organization must recognize whether or not responding officers are experiencing

prolonged stress. If commanding officers are not aware of the responding officer’s

concerns specific to stress and satisfaction with life, they may be putting the public in

jeopardy. When feelings of stress and emptiness are present, the officer may pose risk to

the department, the community, and to self (Lundin, 1984).

Parker, Brown, and Blignault (1986) suggest there is a strong correlation between

sustained stress and clinical depression. This supports the idea that specific strategies

need to be identified to address the stress an officer may be experiencing and how it may

impact life satisfaction.

According to Michelson (1990), an essential component in the effectiveness and mental

fitness of police officers is the organization leadership. It is important to understand its relation

to stress in police officers. Department leadership is divided into two specific areas: affective

3

commitment and calculated (or continuance) commitment. The first form of commitment or

leadership is (affective) and, is essentially an attitudinal phenomenon related to personality traits

and job-related factors, and leads to the willingness of an employee to support organizational

goals (Michelson, 1990). He says that the bond between employees and their organization

is, strengthened by a number of factors including job scope, job challenge, leader

communication, participative management, occupational commitment, job involvement,

and job satisfaction. Conversely, role ambiguity, conflict, and work overload lower an

officer’s commitment towards the organization, and thus may increase stress levels. It

would appear that the support of organizational goals is one dimensional and one could question

where the leadership support for police officers outside the constructs of organizational goals

especially in the area of stress and life satisfaction.

Miller (2005) identifies the “tough guy” attitude of a police officer’s persona. He

says that this includes both men and women who are, routinely exposed to special kinds

of traumatic events and daily pressures that require a certain adaptively defensive

toughness of attitude, temperament, and training. He says that without this resolve per se,

officers could not do their jobs effectively. However, there are times when the stress is

too much, and the very toughness that facilitates smooth functioning in their daily duties

becomes an impediment to the officer’s well-being (Miller, 2005). Miller says that they

are often more reluctant to talk to outsiders or to show weakness in front of their own

peers.

Jonsson (2010) reports that variances in the number of police officers killed each

year are common. In 2009, 117 were killed, a 50-year low, compared with 160 killed in

2010 – 59 of them in shootouts. But in five of the past 10 years, the number of police

4

officer deaths topped 160, making the decade almost as dangerous for police as the street

wars of the 1970s, when the average number of officers killed per year hovered around

200. (Jonsson, 2010). By contrast, there were 143 police suicides in 2009, an increase

from 2008 police suicides of 141 (O’Hara & Violanti, 2009). While this is down from

the early 1990s, when McCafferty, McCafferty, and McCafferty (1992) reported that

twice as many officers, about 300 annually, died by their own hand as were killed in the

line of duty. They report that most suicide victims were young patrol officers with no

record of misconduct, and most shot themselves while they were off-duty. While reported

suicides may be down, there are still suicides. It is unknown what percentage of these

suicides involve problems with alcohol or a romantic crisis. McCafferty, et. al (1992)

report that cops under stress are caught in the dilemma of risking confiscation of their

guns or other career setbacks if they report distress or request help.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to assess the level of stress in police officers in

comparison with their life satisfaction. A further goal of this study was to determine

whether or not going to counseling correlated with stress levels.

Research Questions:

Recently, there has been a an increase in police suicides, reported inappropriate

behavior by police officers, and a surge of violence in officers, both on-duty and off-

duty. This study sought to answer the following questions:

5

Question 1: Do officers who report differences in stress levels have differences in

satisfaction with their lives?

Question 2: What are the differences in stress levels for officers who have

received counseling from those who have not?

Question 3: What are the factors that officers, who have received counseling

report as important in determining their value of counseling, and encouraging other

officers to seek counseling?

Limitations and Delimitations

The sample represented a small fraction of self-identified officers in northern

Illinois. Thus, the findings cannot be generalized to all police officers, nor can it be

generalized across all police departments and sub-departments. Participants who chose to

participate did so knowing that their responses were voluntary and anonymous. There is

no way to know how many officers did not agree to the consent form and therefore did

not move forward with the study. There is also no way to know how many officers chose

to not even click on the link to take them to the consent form.

An additional limitation in this study relates to officers who do not serve in

leadership roles, and therefore may view his or her perception to stress and satisfaction

with life different from rookies and veteran officers, who may have dual roles of being a

responding officer and a leader of an interdisciplinary debriefing team. Police officers,

who may be faced with stress and a dissatisfaction in their life related to job

issues/concerns, are not the only population to assess, and thus this study provides a

limited range of participation.

6

A third limitation in the study, viewed within the construct of development, self-

awareness, and leadership practices and procedures, relates to the perception responding

officers have of their superiors/leaders and who participate in the study. Such officers

may decide to stay within the boundary of the “code of silence” privy to members of law

enforcement, and thus could jeopardize the pursuit of this study.

Definition of terms:

Various terms are used in this study. The definitions are provided for these terms

to provide the reader with a frame of reference and points of clarification.

Stress: The body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental, or

emotional adjustment or response caused by an existing stress-causing factor or “stressor

(Kindler & Ginsburg, 1994).

Leadership: The capacity to establish direction and to influence and align others

toward a common goal, motivating and committing them to action and making them

responsible for their performance (BNET Business Directory).

Counseling/Counselor: A professional who counsels people, especially on

personal problems, licensed and professionally trained, holding a master’s degree in

counseling or specialized clinical field, and has completed a supervised internship

training program. Opinions, directions, advice, etc. given after consultation and/or testing

to an individual in order to guide him or her in understanding himself or herself (UCR

Libraries, 2009).

7

Significance of the study

The exploration of stress, life satisfaction, and counseling utilization in police

officers can help encourage the implementation of internal counseling services in police

departments. This could provide a support system for responding officers to effectively

manage and cope with stress. The results could be used to promote wellness, and help

officers make changes that provide more life satisfaction for both officers and their

families.

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Chapter Two

The Literature Review

Overview of stress

According to Thury (2005), stress generally refers to the experiences surrounding

having too much to do, or feeling overwhelmed by the demands of people and institutions

to which people are connected. Stress refers to the physical responses people experience

when the fight or flight response is triggered. In a stressful situation, such as an officer’s

confrontation with a suspect, the body responds by triggering the nervous systems, thus

releasing specific hormones. First, the brain’s hypothalamus releases the corticotrophin-

releasing hormone (CRH) to the pituitary gland. From this point, the CRH causes the

pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), and in turn triggers the adrenal gland

to produce adrenaline and cortisol, which is then released into the bloodstream. As a

result, the hormones increases the heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and

metabolism, and blood vessels expand to let an increase in blood flow to large muscle

groups, which prepares muscles to be alert and ready for response. Chronic stress, faced

by police officers, can lead to disease of the cardiovascular system, the digestive system,

the musculoskeletal system, and the immune system, and it can interfere with an

individual’s functioning in social situations.

Thury (2005) reports that stressors may present in many ways, including but not

limited to changes in behavior and physical symptoms. Changes in behavior include:

irritability and moodiness; inability to concentrate; anxiety or panic attacks; problems

9

sleeping; grinding teeth or clenched jaw; increase in or loss of appetite; and

overindulgence such as drinking too much, smoking, overeating, or doing drugs. Physical

symptoms include: dizziness or a general feeling of being out of it; general aches and

pains; headaches; muscle tension in the neck, face or shoulders; indigestion, racing heart;

cold and sweaty palms; tiredness and exhaustion; trembling or shaking; weight gain or

weight loss; sexual difficulties; allergic reaction similar to eczema or asthma. This study

speculated that these reactions to stress could impact an officer’s functioning, and

feelings of satisfaction with job performance, and with life satisfaction.

Studies on police stress

Since the 1970s, there have been systematic studies of stress and police officers.

One of the first efforts to identify stressors specific to police officers and departments

was conducted by Symonds (1970), who introduced a scoring model for assessing stress

in policing. He developed two categories addressing the nature of police work and the

nature of the organization. Kroes, Margolis & Hurrell, (1974) studied 100 patrol officers

in relation to their personal feelings of stress. This study paved the way for further studies

to better understand police stress. In 1975, Roberts identified five categories of stress for

police officers: 1) outside the police organization, 2) within the police organization, 3)

within the criminal justice system, 4) stressors confronting the individual police officer,

and 5) interactions of the previous four categories. At the same time, Eisenberg (1975)

identified over 30 alleged/implied sources of psychological stress and organized them

into six categories: 1) intra-organizational practices and characteristics, 2) inter-

organizational practices and characteristics, 3) criminal justice systems practices and

10

characteristics, 4) public practices, 5) police work itself, and 6) the police

officer-him/herself. In 1978, Stratton divided the types of stress that police reported into

four categories: 1) stressors external to the law enforcement organization, 2) stressors

internal to the organization, 3) stressors in police work itself, and 4) stressors confronting

the individual police officer. The work in the 1970s to categorize stressors lead to later

stress studies.

Spielberger (1981) developed the Police Stress Survey, which addressed a gap in

the research and focused on police stress. In the first part of the analysis, Spielberger

noted three factors relevant to police stress which were identified as, administrative or

professional, lack of support, and physical or psychological. The first study did not

contain a sample of female officers, which made it difficult to generalize the results

across the entire law enforcement community. A second study using the Police Stress

Survey was completed by White, Lawrence, Biggerstaff, and Grubb (1985). It was

successful at focusing on key sources of stress within a single department. The study

had a low response rate on the questionnaires, and was limited by only including officers

who experienced little to no stress.

Pendergrass & Ostrone (1984) using the Police Stress Survey, found that women

experienced higher levels of organizational stress than men did due to the newness of

women in policing. The research found an overall connection between job events and

stress levels, thus supporting the idea that a significant part of the police officer’s

perceived stress was directly correlated with various job-related events carried out within

an organizational context.

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Martelli, Walters & Martelli (1989) examined the over-all reliability of the Police

Stress Survey and the factor-based scales. In addition to testing the reliability of the

instrument, the researchers examined the association of the instrument with two

organizational attitudinal variables, job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The

results demonstrated that the Police Stress Survey afforded a reliable assessment of the

over-all stress measure and the two components of stress, administrative/organizational

and physical/psychological.

Not all studies conducted in the late 1980s used the Police Stress Survey.

Violanti, Marshall, and Howe’s (1985) survey of 500 police officers in the state of New

York found that police coped with stress by increasing alcohol use. Larsson, Kempe, &

Starrin, (1988) studied coping patterns of police officers and reported that stress and

burn-out ranked high in the profession.

Anderson and Bauer (1987) studied the consequences of exposure to violence

among law enforcement officers. In their study, based in a city of 75,000 people, they

found that there was some recognition among law enforcement agencies, as well as the

public, related to the negative effects of stress and violence on police officers. In this

study, the counseling psychologists, who worked with the police department and their

law enforcement officers, extended training programs and consultation in stress

management. This was done to address three kinds of violence to which police officers

are exposed to, which can impact the officers’ stress. One type was violence towards

others, such as when people hurt each other in a fight, a riot or a shooting incident. The

second type was violence that the officers used against others, such as in them shooting

someone. The third type was violence against the officers, such as in someone verbally

12

assaulting, shooting at, or physically attacking an officer. Anderson and Bauer (1987)

found that “new, inexperienced police officers tend to develop, through training and peer

contact, defense mechanisms and attitudes that tend to exaggerate their abilities and

emphasize physical strengths and toughness” (pg. 382). This pattern of, “macho attitudes

and behaviors serves as a survival mechanism to protect the inexperienced officer in a

physically dangerous and psychologically threatening environment” (pg. 382).

Additionally, police officers agreed that they do not deal with job stress by talking about

an incident with significant others, but rather have admitted to handling their anger, fear,

and stress in less than ideal ways. For those that were more experienced officers,

accumulated stress was dealt with through physical exertion, isolation, and alcohol use.

(Anderson et al, 1987). Anderson and Bauer (1987) suggested that counselors help

management personnel recognize the consequences of stress and violence on their

employees, and help them find methods for dealing with these consequences.

Burke (1993) set out to study police officers’ emotional and physical well-being.

He pointed out that, “although the experience of work stress is a complex process, much

of the early research used small convenience samples and measured a limited number of

variables” (pg. 173). His study of police officers was guided by a comprehensive

research model. The model considered five types of antecedent variables, individual

demographic and situational variables, job related stressors, work-family conflict, coping

responses, and psychological burnout. The study involved nearly 900 officers. It found

that, “social isolation and no participation in decision making, one aspect of work-family

conflict (family and home life), three coping responses (isolate self, problem solving, use

of alcohol and drugs), and one component of psychological burnout (emotional

13

exhaustion) were significant variables which contributed to stress and limited wellbeing

in police officers” (pg. 176). Burke (1993) recommended that future research focus on

the coping styles of police officers, and suggested that significant advances must be made

in understanding how officers cope, which may increase the awareness of expanding

research to include stress research specific to a police officer’s work environment.

Epstein (1994) conducted a comprehensive review on stress and fear. He

concluded that people process information in two distinct ways. The first mode referred

to as rational-thinking mode, occurs during low emotional arousal states. The second

mode referred to as experiential-thinking, occurs during states of high stress and

emotional arousal, such as an officer-involved shooting. According to Epstein (1994),

when people are not under high levels of stress, they have the ability to, calmly engage in

the conscious, deliberative, and analytical cognitive processing that characterizes rational

thinking. He also noted that when an emergency requires immediate action, police

officers cannot afford to be in a rational mode of thinking, and as a result, their cognitive

processing automatically triggers experiential thinking. He noted that people are not

generally angry, sad, or frightened as a direct result of what occurs from an objective

view, but rather because of their interpretation of events. In essence, this adds to the

stress officers endure as they process through the events during their critical incident

debriefings and during time at which they have been ordered to relinquish their guns

during a 24-72 hour period of time away from the job and department.

Alexander and Walker (1996) studied over 400 spouses of police officers to

assess the impact of police work on the well-being and functional levels of their families.

They asked spouses to indicate the level of stress their partners had experienced at work

14

over a period of four weeks. The study considered the significance of police stress levels

of police officers, the impact of officers’ stress on relationships, the impact of officers’

stress on spouses’ health, the effects of aspects of police work, and the impact on the

spouses’ overall mental health. They found that approximately, twenty-four percent of

the officers denied any stress at all; fifty-one percent believed they had been slightly

stressed; twenty-three percent were of the opinion they had been considerably stressed;

and the remaining two-percent thought they had been extremely stressed. In looking at

the impact of stress on relationships experienced by police officers they found that thirty-

nine percent of all spouses denied that family relationship had been adversely affected,

over the previous four weeks, by the work-induced stress of their partners; fifty percent

felt the relationship had been slightly impaired, and nine percent reporting that they had

been considerably and extremely impaired. In response to a retrospective question, one

quarter of the spouses admitted that their police partners were considerably and extremely

stressed by their work in the four weeks prior to the study.

Backman, Arnetz, Levin & Lublin, (1997) evaluated the psychophysiological

effects of a practical-oriented intervention program. The goal of the program was to

mentally prepare police trainees for stressful police assignments and to counteract

unfavorable and possibly long-term damaging psychobiological reactions during their

professional careers. The results suggest that the intervention program did not influence

physiological variables nor psychosocial indices such as Type A behavior, mental

exhaustion, coping, quality of sleep, worry/depression, burnout and cynicism. The results

provided insight that effects of training programs to help officers cope with and manage

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stress may not be prevalent until police officers work in real life situations for an

extended period of time (Backman et al, 1997).

Brown, Fielding & Grover (1999) found that female officers were more likely to

report stress symptoms than their male counterparts. They concluded that this was mostly

due to the female officers’ greater empathy towards victims, and their roles being

undervalued by police colleagues and the public.

In 2000, Laufersweiler-Dwyer used the Police Stress Survey with 402 officers

from various assignments and ranks who were supposedly impacted by organizational

stress. He used factor analysis and stepwise regression to determine what specific area

within the context of the organization best predicts supposed stress scores. Prior to the

study, a common method for addressing stress within the law enforcement culture has

been to utilize a person-centered or illness approach, providing officers with

psychological counseling or training to increase their coping abilities. He argued that

treatment methods for stress have been treating the symptoms rather than the problem

itself. He found that the organization played a role in creating stress. He found that there

have been a number of events within law enforcement which were identified as being

stressful, and attempted to identify where the source of stress came from, and how police

work has relied on unsystematic observations.

These findings fit with Davey, Obst, and Sheehan’s (2001) study. They found

that within police departments, the job characteristics associated with being an officer

may lead to occupational stress. To avoid dealing with the stress that comes from the

potential risks and hazards that are part of this high stress occupation, many officers used

ineffective coping mechanisms, particularly alcohol abuse. They noted that officers were

16

not effectively trained to deal with specific stressors on a regular basis, much less more

severe stressors such as death, trauma, violence, grief, and exposure to danger.

Harpold and Feemster (2002) reported on the United States Department of

Justice’s National Institute of Justice’s study, Project Shield. It involved looking at stress

and other job factors in major law enforcement agencies. In this study, police stress was

defined as a nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed on it. Police were

found to face day-to-day stress in dealing with people and critical incidents. The

negative effects of stress were categorized into psychological, physical, behavioral, and

organizational public health areas. This stress was found to potentially traumatize police

officers and their families. Psychological negative effects included a loss of energy or

interest, including a loss of sexual interest, along with experiencing pounding in their

chests and feelings of impending doom. Emotional impacts were found when officers

attended a police funeral, or were the subject of an internal affairs investigation.

Physically negative effects of stress also impacted officers when they experienced a

needle stick, exposure to body fluids, made a violent arrest, or personally knew victims of

crime. Behavioral negative effects included smoking and drinking problems, injuries, and

physical abuse of spouses, children, and police partners. While it was found that many

organizations had not dealt well with police stress in the past, there were some shifts in

attitudes where organizations were now trying to take actions to reduce stress for officers

(Harpold & Feemster, 2002).

Collins and Gibbs (2003) reported that stressors most frequently identified among

police officers were most likely to be concerned with issues such as demands of work,

control over workload, lack of communication and inadequate support. Officers also

17

reported that the potential stressors that derive from routine operational activities

included threats to physical integrity, violence, exposure to danger, and actual or

threatened death.

Haisch and Meyers (2004) assessed the coping strategies of police officers and

found that there are limited coping skills available to police officers that can protect them

against the constant exposure to traumatic stress that they experience. Haisch and Meyers

used the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2, to examine post-traumatic stress

disorder (PTSD) relevant to job stress, coping and personality in police agencies. They

reported that employees who reported higher levels of overall work-related stress were at

an increased risk for post-traumatic stress disorder. They recommended that police

departments should provide resources to protect and encourage employee psychological

well-being.

Johnson, Cooper, Cartwright, Donald, Taylor, and Millet (2005) researched the

relationship between exposure to violence and domestic violence among police officers.

They found that they could define an occupational stress situation as having stressors that

were environmentally induced, and strains which were the individual reactions to

stressors. In their study, 60% of the 479 police partners reported receiving verbal abuse

that they thought was a result of the officers’ occupational stress. Johnson, Todd, and

Subramanian (2005) also found that police officers brought job stress home or had

spillover of stressors from police work into other aspects of their lives. They found that

these stressors, including work hours, schedules, task complexity, job security, work

relationships, and demands of patrol, impacted the officers’ satisfaction with life.

18

According to Ireland, Mabuff, and Byrne (2006), police work is one of the most

stressful occupations. Ireland, et. al., studied the efficacy of written emotional expression

in the reduction of psychological distress in police officers. He found that written

emotional disclosure was supported as an intervention for police officers. He used the

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) to assess hopelessness, devaluation of life,

self-deprecation, lack of interest/involvement and inertia. He used the Anxiety scale to

assess autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle effects, and situational anxiety. Additionally,

the Stress Scale assessed for chronic non-specific arousal, difficulty relaxing and being

easily upset/agitated, irritable/over-reactive, and impatient. Sixty-five officers were

assigned to the experimental group, and sixty-four were assigned to the control group.

Ireland, et. al., found there were no differences in significance between the groups at pre-

intervention on depression, anxiety, stress, openness, gender split or age. However,

anxiety and stress measure showed significant decreases for the officers who completed

the writing portion of the study compared with the control officers who did not

participate in the written expression. Ireland, et. al., recommended that future research in

the area of police stress could examine whether or not positive effects occur in other

samples, and whether the effects extend to other types of outcome measures, such as

observer ratings of stress reactions (Ireland, et. al., 2006).

LeBlanc, Regehr, Jelley & Barath (2008) reported a relationship between coping

styles and police recruits’ stress responses to performance during a stressful event, and

the relationship between coping styles and traumatic symptoms. Measures of distress

included the biological and psychological indicators of stress, and coping styles

associated with subjective physiological distress, but not with performance. The study of

19

84 police recruits found that coping styles were related to the presence of post-traumatic

symptoms. Individuals who used emotion and avoidant-oriented coping styles were more

likely to report higher levels of stress symptomology. They found that police work

involved high-stress situations which required immediate intervention; that exposure to

distressing and gruesome events outside the experience of the general public impact an

officer’s well-being; and that, stress can affect performance in stressful situations. They

suggest that exposure to stress can have long-lasting effects on an officer’s psychological

and physical well-being.

Antoniou (2009) reported that negative life events can have a particularly serious

impact on the officers’ vulnerability to severe stress symptoms following traumatic or

critical incidents. His study was designed to assess differences between male and female,

and high/low rank police officers. Additionally, the study sought to clarify the

experience of context-specific work-related stressors among male and female police

officers. He found that female police officers rated a large number of items as

significantly more stressful than did male police officers, and there were items that

distinguished high and low rank police officers in terms of importance and stressfulness.

Lastly, the study revealed that higher stress was particularly more evident for interns in

relation to dealing with situations that are in conflict with personal duty, expectance of

decisions on promotion, complaint again subordinates, responsibility for public events,

and society’s attitudes toward police. For the remaining two significant items in the

study, increased workload and increased paperwork, low rank officers reported greater

levels of stress.

20

Studies on Counseling Utilization

Delprino and Bahn (1988) acknowledged that police departments may be held

accountable for accepting individuals who are not psychologically fit for the law

enforcement profession and for potentially jeopardizing the public by hiring police

officers who are not adequately functioning. They argued that the inclusion of

psychological services, such as counseling utilization, is a need and an area of growth for

many police departments. However, few studies have shown whether or not counseling

utilization impacts levels of stress in police officers. In their national survey,

approximately half of the 135 agencies reported use of psychological services to assess

new recruits, or to provide individual or family counseling relevant to job-related stress.

Moreover, training provided by counselors or mental health professionals who work with

police departments, focused on: crisis intervention (41.5%), hostage negotiations

(35.39%), suicides (30.40%) and the mentally ill (36.89%). Other services used by more

than a third of responding departments included, special examinations for suspended and

problem officers, and curriculum development for training programs. According to the

study, almost all respondents admitted to or reaffirmed the need for psychological

evaluations of new police recruits (90.39%), and communicated a high need for

counseling (78.51%). Counseling services used were relevant to job-related stress, and

were reported by 53% of respondents.

Cross and Ashley (2004) said that administrators and police officers must

understand that in any situation an officer’s expectations of personal infallibility may

suddenly become tempered by imperfection and crude reality, which can lead to a critical

incident. They suggest that the symptoms and responses to stress, as a result of critical

21

incidents, can involve confusion or difficulty concentrating and physical symptoms, such

as fatigue or headaches. They found that responses to stress can be behavioral and

emotional, such as withdrawal, substance use, anxiety, fear, depression, or feelings of

helplessness. From their research, they identified four occupational demands which

contribute to the cycle of stress: 1) depersonalization (reacting unemotionally to the

everyday stresses of the job), 2) authoritarianism (officers’ behavior governed by a set of

regulations, making them feel as if they are not in control), 3) organizational protection

(the structure in place to protect law enforcement agencies from criticism), and 4) danger

preparation (the stress related to officers knowing that their lives potentially are in

constant danger).

According to Wu (2009), police work is typically associated with high demand

and low control of frequent contact with the public, which are specific job characteristics

often referred to as high-stress characteristics. Additionally, police officers are exposed

to, confrontation, violence, traumatic incidents, human misery, and injury. Furthermore,

in addition to the physical demands of police work, law enforcement officers deal with

certain organizational factors that cause stress such as, shift work, work overload, and

organizational structure. Perceptions of staff shortages, inadequate resources, poor

management, reorganization, bureaucratic interference, long work hours, and social

undermining also contribute to the stress and demand placed upon police officers. Wu

found that there was a, positive relationship between role conflicts, emotional exhaustion,

and health problems experienced by police officers.

22

Summary

In the 1970s, police officers were studied in an attempt to categorize the types of

stressors that they faced. In the 1980s, the research changed to focus on coping

processes, and behaviors of officers under stress. In the 1990s, police officers’ stress

levels, and the factors that were associated with their stress were investigated. In the

2000s, the actual job demands, and how counseling utilization could help officers began

to be studied. This literature provides a strong background for the current study that

considers the relationships of stress, life satisfaction, and counseling utilization.

23

Chapter Three

Methodology

Chapter Three presents the research methodology, design for the study, including

the selection of participants, data collection methods, sampling size, strategy, procedures,

measures, and data analysis.

Research Design

The research methodology employed in this descriptive study consisted of a

mixed methodology incorporating qualitative and quantitative measures. The core

principle of mixed methods research design includes qualitative and quantitative data

collection and analysis in parallel form, in which two types of data are collected and

analyzed (Bazely, 2003).

This study explored the phenomenon of stress experienced by law enforcement

officers. Gaps in the research specific to stress, life satisfaction and counseling

utilization among law enforcement officers offered the opportunity for discovery and a

unique look at stress among this population. The following research questions were used:

Question 1: Do officers who report differences in stress levels have differences in

satisfaction with their lives?

Question 2: What are the differences in stress levels for officers who have

received counseling from those who have not?

24

Question 3: What are the factors that officers, who have received counseling

report as important in determining their value of counseling, and encouraging other

officers to seek counseling?

Population and Sampling Procedures

Police district superintendents in Northern Illinois were contacted in writing.

They were asked to have their officers participate in an online survey. The police

superintendents who agreed to the research were provided, by email, an online link that

they emailed to their officers. The officers then chose whether or not to use this link to

go to the consent form for the research. They then chose whether or not to complete the

survey. The consent form and survey are found in Appendices A and B.

There were 75 officers between the ages of 20 and 60 years old who agreed to the

conditions of the study and attempted to complete the study. A total of five officers were

eliminated from final data analysis because of incomplete data. The final subject sample

consisted of 70 officers, of whom 63 were male, and 7 were female. The participants

were willing to identify their level of stress, satisfaction with life, and counseling

interests specific to their roles within the criminal justice profession. No participant was

identified by name nor was there information collected that could identify the individual.

Instrumentation

All instruments used in this study were combined into one survey that was

delivered through the website at one point in time, following agreement with the

informed consent. The first instrument included in the study was a qualitative

25

questionnaire about stressors. It was designed to solicit information about subjects’

perceptions of their own stress and life satisfaction, to ascertain if counseling services

have been utilized, and were found to have been beneficial for them. It provided three

open-ended questions for participants to describe their experiences related to stress that

resulted from a job-related incident. The first question asked if subjects have utilized

either internal or external counseling services as a result of their stress, or dissatisfaction

with life due to working within the criminal justice system. This became the moderator

variable in the study. The second question asked subjects if counseling helped during

their times of stress and if they would recommend it to their fellow officers. Lastly,

subjects were asked if they felt that they are effectively directed by their commanding

officers.

The second instrument, the Stress-Arousal Checklist (SACL) (Mackay, Cox,

Burrows, & Lazzerini, 1978) was used to determine the quantitative level of stress that

the subject has experienced. The overall arousal score and the overall stress score was

calculated from the 30-item instrument. These served as the independent variables in this

study. The SACL is a 30-item instrument, which consists of adjectives used to describe

one’s psychological experience of stress. The model of stress is two-dimensional. The

first dimension consists of feelings that range from pleasant to unpleasant. This is

defined as a general sense of well-being, and is labeled as stress. The second dimension

of stress ranges from feelings of wakefulness to drowsiness, or vigorousness, and is

labeled arousal. The stress dimension is considered to be a subjective experience in

response to the external environment, while the arousal dimension represents continuous

somatic or autonomic activity (Cox & Mackay, 1985). The SACL was originally tested

26

with a sample of 145 undergraduates, although no demographic data are reported. More

recent research tested the factor structure of the SACL with 72 male and 131 female

second-year college students (Cox, 2007). Normative data were not reported.

Additionally, although reliability data are not reported, evidence of internal consistency is

provided, by studies using factor analysis, which generally showed adjectives were

correlated with other adjectives from the same subscale of stress or arousal. Finally, the

SACL has evidence of known-groups validity such that scores on the stress dimension

increased as a consequence of a stressful situation (Cox, 2007). Additionally, a

prolonged, monotonous, and repetitive task increased stress scores and decreased arousal

scores. The SACL has been shown to have concurrent validity, with scores correlating

with various physiological measures (Cox, 2007).

A final instrument used to measure the dependent variable, life satisfaction, was

the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The 5-item SWLS was used as part of a body

of research on subjective well-being and refers to the cognitive-judgmental aspects of

general life satisfaction (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). The SWLS reveals

the individual’s own judgment of his or her quality of life. This instrument is considered

to be one-dimensional. Since satisfaction with life may be an indication of positive

mental well-being, the SWLS has clinical utility with a wide range of clients. The SWLS

was developed using a sample of 176 undergraduates from the University of Illinois. The

five items of the SWLS were selected from a total of 48 items based on factor analysis.

The instrument’s internal consistency is high with an alpha of .87 (Deiner, 2007).

Fischer & Corcoran (2007) reported the instrument has strong test-retest reliability, with

a correlation of .82 for a two-month period. Specific to validity, the SWLS was tested

27

using two samples of college students for concurrent validity. For both samples, scores

correlated with nine measures of subjective well-being. The SWLS has also been shown

to correlate with, self-esteem, a checklist of clinical symptoms, neuroticism, and

emotionality (Deiner, 2007). Both the SACL and the SWLS are open source instruments

(Fisher et al, 2007).

The qualitative responses were analyzed by the researcher by looking at the

verbatim word-processed responses of each subject. An ethnographic approach was

utilized for analysis. Inconsistencies and conflicts in the statements provided by

participants were analyzed using a word thematic approach to identify trends that

specifically represented criminal justice culture. This afforded the opportunity to form a

deeper understanding of how police officers within their particular criminal justice

system and culture experience their lives as it correlated with their profession. Lastly,

qualitative information analysis was approached from an inductive process with the

understanding that there were patterns, categories and themes that evolved as the

participants answer the qualitative questionnaire. The goal of this process was to show

evidence of possible triangulation to confirm the hypothesis that police work does

produce stress, which can impact one’s satisfaction with life. Lastly, the procedure

offered a reflective approach of this researcher’s biases, background, and understanding

of the police culture, based on previous involvement and counseling training within law

enforcement, which was completed over a two-year period. Additionally, the reflective

approach provided the opportunity to identify the social implication of law enforcement

and to provide validation of the study through identifying the usefulness of the research

to address implications working within the criminal justice system.

28

The quantitative responses were compiled into numeric data. The SACL yielded

two scores, stress and arousal. The SWSL yielded one composite score. The data was

analyzed using two-tailed analysis of variance (ANOVA) with alpha set at .05. Data

analysis was aided by the computer software program SPSS (version 18).

Methodological Assumptions and Limitations

While 30 departments agreed to ask their members to participate, there is no way

to know how many actual departments are represented among the subjects. It was

assumed that because participants were informed about the nature of the study, and

voluntarily completed it, they would try to provide accurate, truthful information for this

research. The thirty police departments that supposedly contacted their 540 police

officers resulted in 75 officers completing the online survey. It is impossible to know

how many officers went to the site, but did not agree to the consent form, and thus did not

start the survey.

When subjects went to the website, in addition to being provided informed

consent, they were provided general definitions for stress, trauma, and counseling. This

assured common ground meaning. However, as subjects knew that they were being

assessed in terms of stress, life satisfaction, and counseling it may have reduced

participation.

Data Analysis

A mixed method design was used, yielding both quantitative and qualitative

information. The quantitative information gathered from the responses was coded and

29

entered into SPSS. Analysis included running Pearson Product Moment Correlations,

analysis of variance, and t-tests. All analyses were conducted with alpha set at .05. Two-

tailed tests were used, with a confidence interval of 95%. For the qualitative information,

the responses were downloaded and put into one document by subject and response item.

The analysis included thematic and ethnographic approaches.

30

Chapter Four

Data Analysis and Results

Restatement of Purpose

The goal of this study was to assess the level of stress in police officers in

comparison with their life satisfaction and to determine whether or not the likelihood for

counseling utilization exists. A further goal of this study was to determine whether or not

going to counseling had a reported impact on a police officer’s reported life satisfaction;

and if it correlated to reported levels of stress.

Three research questions were asked in this research study. The findings of the

study addressed the following questions:

Research Question 1:

The study’s first research question was: Do officers who report differences in

stress levels have differences in satisfaction with their lives? The null hypothesis tested

was that there was no difference in the reported life satisfaction of officers based on their

reported stress levels. The methodology used to analyze the data was a Pearson-Product

Moment Correlation between the total scale for stress and arousal score, and the total

scale for life satisfaction. The resulting correlation (r=-.361, p=.002) was statistically

significant.

As the SACL consists of two subtests, a Pearson-Product Moment Correlation

was also run to test each subtest’s strength of correlation with the SWLS. The arousal

31

subtest was not significantly correlated with the SWLS total score. The stress subtest was

significantly correlated (r=-.393, p=.001) with the SWLS total score (See Table 1).

Table 1

Correlations of the SACL with the SWLS

N

SWLS PearsonProduct-Moment

Sign. (2-tailed)

SACL Total Scale 73 -.361 .002

SACL Arousal Subscale 73 .074 .534

SACL Stress Subscale 73 -.393 .001

To further understand these relationships, two one-way analysis of variance tests

were conducted that used level of satisfaction with life as the independent variable,

divided into low and high level scores by the midpoint. Table 2 presents the results.

There are significant differences in the total scale score of the SACL compared to a

reported level of satisfaction with life (F=2.63, p=.024). There is also a significant

difference in the stress subscale score compared to the reported level of satisfaction with

life (F=3.836, p=.002). See Table 2.

32

Table 2

One-way Analysis of Variance of the SACL with Life Satisfaction

F Sig.

SACL Full Scale 2.630 .024

SACL Arousal Scale 1.1481 .198

SACL Stress Subscale 3.836 .002

Research Question 2:

The second research question was: What are the differences in stress levels for

officers who have received counseling from those that have not? The null hypothesis

that was tested was: there are no differences in stress levels for officers who have

received counseling compared to those that have not. Unfortunately, despite the survey

being available online for six weeks, and reminders sent to ask for participation, only

eleven officers reported receiving counseling. This number of subjects was too small to

provide statistically valid results. The null hypothesis could not be disproved at this time.

Then, the researcher used post-hoc matched group t-tests to further explore the

relationship of counseling to stress and life satisfaction. The eleven participants who

reported having received counseling were matched by age, gender, and years of

experience to other participants in the sample who had not had counseling, yielding a

total sample of 22 participants. No significant differences were found between those that

received counseling and those that did not in terms of life satisfaction (t=.875, p=.398),

33

the overall SACL score (t=-1.191, p=.252), and the SACL subscales of arousal (t=-.315,

p=.757), and of stress (t=-.848, p=.411). See Table 3.

Table 3

Matched-group t-tests for counseling situation and life satisfaction

t Sig.

SWLS .875 .398

SACL Full Scale -1.191 .252

SACL Arousal Subscale -.315 .757

SACL Stress Subscale -.848 .411

Research Question #3:

The study’s third research question is: What are the factors that officers who have

received counseling report as important in determining their value of counseling, and

encouraging other officers to seek counseling? Word thematic methodology was used to

analyze the key ideas that emerged around counseling.

Officers shared their demographic information and views of counseling through

responses to demographic and open-ended questions. Subjects responded to a question

that asked if they have utilized either internal or external counseling services as a result

of their stress or dissatisfaction with life. This became the moderator variable in the

study. Then, they responded to questions about if counseling helped during their times of

34

stress, and if they would recommend it to their fellow officers. Additionally, subjects

were asked if they felt that they are effectively directed by their commanding officers.

Officers provided their views on counseling by responding to the question:

Provide a brief statement on what you think of counseling and whether or not it has had

an impact on your satisfaction with life. The responses received had a theme of

counseling providing value. According to one officer's statement,

"It made a tremendous impact in both my professional and personal life. I would recommend it to all my police officers. The better my personal life; the better my professional life and vise versa. After a nasty suicide on the job, I met with my counselor just to talk through it and it provided great relief."

Another theme that emerged was the value of counseling as a choice, instead of as

a mandate. For example, one officer stated,

“It was after an officer was killed in the line of duty. It did not have an impact since the department did not offer anything until 3-4 weeks after the fact. It was also in a group setting and officers were forced to attend. Did not go over so well.”

Another officer shared, “Counseling was a good way to relieve some of the stress

I was facing at the time.” The factors officers reported as being important focused on

timing, incident, organization, and self. Officers also acknowledged Critical Incident

Debriefing (CID) and communicated their view of the process of counseling.

Perhaps within the police culture CID may be all an officer has immediately

available to reduce stress and help with addressing immediate emotional responses to an

incident. However, it is important to note that CID is not counseling; it is merely

debriefing and does not offer the opportunity for officers to process their emotions,

thoughts and feelings to the degree he or she may need. A final positive view of

counseling offered by an officer addressed the impact it had personally, but did not offer

35

benefits within the organization. The officer stated, “I felt relieved at the time. However,

nothing changed within the organization.” This speaks to the impact an organization may

have on an officer’s level of stress and life satisfaction.

36

Chapter Five

Summary, Conclusions, Future Research and Recommendations

Summary

This study provides insight regarding potential personal and professional stress of

police officers. Understanding the police culture and its officers is critical to promoting

community mental health. This research study sought to examine stress, life satisfaction

and counseling utilization in police officers; thereby adding to the understanding of

police culture. Additionally, the purpose of the study was to compare attitudes and

beliefs of officers who participate in counseling compared to those who do not.

The study explored three key areas relevant to the police culture. The study’s first

research question was: Do officers who report differences in stress levels have

differences in satisfaction with their lives? A significant correlation was found between

the total scale for stress and arousal score, and the total scale for life satisfaction (r=-.361,

p=.002).

The study’s second research question was: Are there differences in stress levels

for officers who have received counseling compared to those that have not? There were

not enough subjects who had received counseling for analysis of this question. At this

point, the null hypothesis could not be disproved.

The study’s third research question was: What are the factors that officers who

have received counseling reported as important in determining their value of counseling,

and in encouraging other officers to seek counseling? Qualitative information provided

generally positive remarks about the benefits of counseling.

37

Conclusions

The study’s first research question was: Do officers who report differences in

stress levels have differences in satisfaction with their lives? A significant correlation was

found between the total scale for stress and arousal score, and the total scale for life

satisfaction. As the SACL consists of two subtesets, a Pearson-Product Moment

Correlation was also run to test each subtest’s correlation with the SWLS. The results

determined that the stress subtest was significantly correlated (r=-.393, p=.001) with the

SWLS total score. To further address the study’s first research question and to understand

these relationships, two one-way analysis of variance tests were conducted that used level

of satisfaction with life as the independent variable, divided into low and high level

scores by the midpoint. The results determined there were significant differences in the

total scale score of the SACL compared to a reported level of satisfaction with life

(F=2.63, p=.024). There was also a significant difference in the stress subscale score

compared to the reported level of satisfaction with life (F=3.836, p=.002). This is new

information. These results indicate that officers who were higher in specific stress, and in

overall stress, were less satisfied with life.

For the study’s second research question, only eleven officers reported receiving

counseling. This number of subjects was too small to provide statistically valid results.

Therefore, the null hypothesis could not be disproved at this time. However, using a

post-hoc matched group t-test to further explore the relationship of counseling to stress

and life satisfaction, the eleven participants who reported having received counseling

were matched by age, gender, and years of experience to other participants in the sample

38

who had not had counseling, yielding a total sample of 22 participants. No significant

differences were found between those that received counseling and those that did not in

terms of life satisfaction, the overall SACL score, and the SACL subscales of arousal,

and of stress. This is an important comparison. If people who received counseling are as

satisfied with life, and have the same levels of stress and arousal as those who have not

had counseling, it may be that counseling worked for these officers. While the officers

did not report what their levels of stress, arousal, and life satisfaction were prior to

receiving counseling, one might presume that they were somehow different, possibly

with more stress and less life satisfaction. Counseling may have helped them get back to

functionality that was similar to others.

The study’s third research question addressed the factors that officers, who have

received counseling, reported as important in determining the value of counseling.

Officers provided their views on counseling. The responses received had a theme that

counseling provided immediate value, thus having an impact on officers’ personal and

professional lives. Another theme that emerged was the value of counseling as a choice,

instead of as a mandate. The factors officers reported as being important focused on

timing, incident, organization, and self. Officers also acknowledged Critical Incident

Debriefing (CID) and communicated their view of the process as counseling. From the

overall sample, few officers acknowledged having received counseling, or that it had

impacted their life satisfaction. From the information provided, it was apparent that

police officers face stress, but somehow learn to deal with it and continue on doing their

jobs. The results support the idea that although police officers acknowledged their stress,

they did not report that the stress was changing them, thus internalizing and ignoring the

39

impact that stress has in their lives, and its impact on their life satisfaction. As officers

do not acknowledge that stress has an impact on them, it may influence their view of

counseling and whether or not there is value to having counseling for self, or for others.

Based on the reviewed literature and the findings of this study, several

conclusions can be drawn regarding the impact of stress and life satisfaction as it relates

to counseling utilization by police officers in the Midwest. It is presumed that officers

were apprehensive about providing full disclosure of the stress in their lives and the value

of counseling, especially if they were completing the survey from a work computer.

Although few officers provided statements that support the need for counseling

utilization, the majority of respondents did not openly share insight regarding counseling.

The quantitative and qualitative data analysis supports the conclusion that there is a need

for counseling utilization within the police culture. As stress levels get higher, life

satisfaction levels get lower.

Harpold (2002) concluded that police academies throughout the United States

have rarely addressed stress and police work, and that internal operations has been remiss

to suggest appropriate methods for identifying disorders resulting from stress. Perhaps

this research study can be a starting point to emphasize the need for identifying specific

stressors and counseling approaches to support the police officers.

A current approach to stress that has common practice in law enforcement is

following a disease prevention model, which was borrowed from public health, to help

address the issue of stress (Harpold, et. al, 2002). It is important to have a model to build

upon, but adhering to a disease prevention model assumes that those impacted by stress

have a disease or illness, rather than addressing the events that lead up to the impact of

40

stress on police officers, and providing a model that incorporates and emphasizes

counseling.

The study by Anderson, et. al (1987) found that police officers agree that they do

not deal with job stress by talking about an incident with significant others, but rather

have admitted to handling their anger, fear, and stress in less than ideal ways. Addressing

stress in the law enforcement community is critical in the development of healthier police

officers. However, in addition to addressing the stress, counseling professionals need to

work towards changing the perception of counseling in law enforcement and make

seeking counseling a sign of strength. It will take consistent efforts to remove the stigma

that officers have to continuously be brave, constantly policing rather than letting down

their guards to feel their emotions, and to work through the process of truly

understanding the impact of their stress.

Chronic stress, faced by police officers, can lead to disease of the cardiovascular

system, digestive system, musculoskeletal system, and immune system, and it can

interfere with how an individual functions in social situations (Thury, 2005). Wu (2009)

found that police officers were often exposed to events that involved high stress

situations. These situations occurred both in serving the community, and within the work

organization. Wu’s study found a positive correlation between conflicts and emotional

exhaustion. The results of this study support that police officers have stress. It may be

presumed that this stress may have negative health implications, which might lower the

life satisfaction for police officers. It may further be presumed that with counseling

utilization, officers may lower their stress, and minimize negative health implications.

41

Haisch and Meyer (2004) suggest that police officers suffer from various on-the-

job injuries that may be psychological in nature. They encourage law enforcement

agencies to find effective means to encourage employee psychological well-being,

including helping officers learn new coping skills. In this study, some officers reported

high stress and low life satisfaction. It is presumed that counseling utilization could be

used to help officers develop coping skills and improve psychological well-being.

As police officers face multiple stressors on a daily basis, it is increasingly

important to understand the value of counseling utilization and the impact on an officer’s

satisfaction with life and stress levels. Police organizations must deal with the potential

risk of being held responsible for the inappropriate actions of police officers, who may

not have been adequately trained to deal with the stressors of the job (Delprino et al,

2002). The acknowledgement of the nature of police work as it relates to stress has led to

psychologists becoming more involved in police agencies, but few studies have shown

whether or not counseling utilization is related to levels of stress in police officers. Given

the results of this research study, it could be presumed that counseling utilization might

provide value to officers and to the police environment.

Future Research and Recommendations

One of the limitations of this study was that it was done online. There was not an

opportunity to solicit further information in real time. Future research could include

interviews and narratives with police officers and administrators of departments to

determine what factors are impacting stress levels and life satisfaction in real time, and

how to incorporate a culture of counseling within the policing organization.

42

Specific to gender, little attention has been given to understanding the experience

of stress among female police officers. This research study attempted to gather data from

this demographic, but was not designed to analyze data reported by a specific gender.

While studies indicate that being female does not constitute a general risk factor, in

particular occupations, like law enforcement, it is a risk factor for high levels of stress

(Antoniou, 2009) and should be addressed in future research.

Instead of being reactive, supporting counseling utilization among police

departments would provide an opportunity for the entire organization to be proactive in

protecting the well-being of the police officers. Furthermore, this research study

provided some limited validation that counseling utilization provides value to officers.

The results supported the need for future research to address additional implications

officers face while working within the criminal justice system, and if counseling

utilization can help officers meet some of these implications.

When officers are provided with an opportunity to address their stress through

counseling, there can be long-term benefits both professionally and personally. A key

area to research is the need officers may have to feel supported in their organizations as it

relates to receiving counseling. A second area of research relevant to counseling is in the

area of long-term consequences as it relates to a police officer’s personal life. A third

area of research relevant to counseling utilization for police officers is to study whether

or not counseling utilization impacts judgment and decision-making abilities. Future

research should also consider the stress levels for police officers who have not utilized

counseling services and compare with a sample group of officers who have. Moreover,

the study can extend to identifying the impact officer stress has on families.

43

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Appendix A

Informed Consent

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Appendix A

Informed Consent

Dear Participant,

You are invited to participate in a research study. The purpose of this research study is to assess stress and life satisfaction in police officers, as a requirement for my degree in Doctorate of Education in Counseling Psychology with a concentration in Counseling Education and Supervision.

Informed Consent:

By participating in this research, I will complete three parts of an online survey relating to stress and life satisfaction. Participation will take approximately 15 minutes. My participation in this research is strictly voluntary. I may refuse to participate or choose to stop my participation at any point in the survey, without fear, penalty, or negative consequences of any kind.

The information/data I provide for this research will be treated confidentially, and all raw data will be kept in a secured file by the researcher. Results of the research will be reported as aggregate summary data only, and no individually identifiable information will be presented.

I also have the right to review the results of the research if I wish to do so. A copy of the results may be obtained by contacting the researcher at the address below:

Mary L. Allen999 Plaza Drive, Suite 111Schaumburg, IL [email protected]

There will be no direct or immediate personal benefits from my participation in this research. The results of the research may contribute to the field of counseling and education and to the law enforcement profession.

I have read and understand the information explaining the purpose of this research and my rights and responsibilities as a participant. Moving forward with this survey designates my consent to participate in this research study, according to the terms and conditions outlined above.

Note: By clicking NEXT I am electronically agreeing to participate in this voluntary survey.

mailto:[email protected]

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Appendix B

The Survey

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Appendix B

The Survey

First Part:

General Directions: Please answer the following questions as openly as possible. Your participation in the questionnaire will help to assess the role of stress in a police officer’s life specific to working within the criminal justice system. Your participation is completely voluntary and you may elect to stop at any time. There is no anticipated harm in completing this questionnaire. Please select only one answer for each question and provide a detailed answer to the explanation questions.

Q1. Do you experience stress on the job? Yes No

Q2. Does job related stress play a role in whether or not you are satisfied in your life? Yes No

Q3. Are you male or female? Male Female

Q4. Have you considered retiring from law enforcement due to stress or dissatisfaction with life? Yes No

Q5. What is your age? 20-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-65

Q6. How many years have you been a police officer?1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25

Q7. Do you think stress is present in your life as a result of the criminal justice system?Yes No

Q8. Have you participated in counseling related to your work within the criminal justice system? Yes No

Q9. If yes, to the above question what impact, if any, did counseling have in your stress level associated with being a police officer?

Q10. Provide a brief statement on what you think of counseling and whether or not it has had an impact on your satisfaction with life.

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Second Part: The words shown below describe different feelings and moods. Please use this list to describe your feelings at this moment.

If the word definitely describes your feelings, choose the double (++). If the word more or less describes your feelings choose the plus (+). If you do not understand the word, or you cannot decide whether or not it describes how you feel, choose the question mark (?). If the word does not the way you feel, choose the minus (-).

First reactions are most reliable; therefore do not spend too long thinking about each word. Please be as honest and as accurate as possible.1. Tense ++ + ? -2. Relaxed ++ + ? -3. Restful ++ + ? -4. Active ++ + ? -5. Apprehensive ++ + ? -6. Worried ++ + ? -7. Energetic ++ + ? -8. Drowsy ++ + ? -9. Bothered ++ + ? -10. Uneasy ++ + ? -11. Dejected ++ + ? -12. Nervous ++ + ? -13. Distressed ++ + ? -14. Vigorous ++ + ? -15. Peaceful ++ + ? -16. Tired ++ + ? -17. Idle ++ + ? -18. Up-tight ++ + ? -19. Alert ++ + ? -20. Lively ++ + ? -21. Cheerful ++ + ? -22. Contented ++ + ? -23. Jittery ++ + ? -24. Sluggish ++ + ? -25. Pleasant ++ + ? -26. Sleepy ++ + ? -27. Comfortable ++ + ? -28. Calm ++ + ? -29. Stimulated ++ + ? -30. Activated ++ + ? -

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Third Part: Below are five statements that you may agree or disagree with. Using the 1 - 7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item. Please be open and honest in your responding.

• 7 - Strongly agree• 6 - Agree• 5 - Slightly agree• 4 - Neither agree nor disagree• 3 - Slightly disagree• 2 - Disagree• 1 - Strongly disagree

1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 1 2 3 4 5 6 72. The conditions of my life are excellent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 73. I am satisfied with my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 74. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 75. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Thank you for completing this survey.

Dissertation Completed and Published in 2011

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Transcript of Dissertation Completed and Published in 2011