Discussion 1: TheoryDiscussion 1: Theory

DefinitionDefinition

a scientific theory is a set of a scientific theory is a set of relatedrelated assumptions assumptions that allows scientists to use that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoninglogical deductive reasoning to formulate to formulate testable hypothesestestable hypotheses..

Components of the definitionComponents of the definition

a set ofa set of related assumptions related assumptions

a set ofa set of related related assumptions assumptions

a set ofa set of related related assumptionsassumptions

logical deductive reasoninglogical deductive reasoning

testabletestable

ExampleExample

cognitive dissonance theorycognitive dissonance theory

cognitive dissonance: uncomfortable feeling or stress cognitive dissonance: uncomfortable feeling or stress caused by holding two contradictory ideas caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. simultaneously.

"dissonant" vs. "consonant""dissonant" vs. "consonant"

the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a fundamental cognitive drive to reduce this have a fundamental cognitive drive to reduce this dissonance by modifying an existing belief, or rejecting dissonance by modifying an existing belief, or rejecting one of the contradictory ideas. one of the contradictory ideas.

A set of relevant assumptionsA set of relevant assumptions 1)the introduction of a new cognition that is dissonant with a 1)the introduction of a new cognition that is dissonant with a

currently held cognition creates a state of "dissonance" currently held cognition creates a state of "dissonance"

2) the magnitude of the “dissonance” relates to the relative 2) the magnitude of the “dissonance” relates to the relative importance of the involved cognitionsimportance of the involved cognitions

3) dissonance can be reduced either by eliminating dissonant 3) dissonance can be reduced either by eliminating dissonant cognitions, or by adding new consonant cognitions. cognitions, or by adding new consonant cognitions.

4) the maximum possible dissonance is equal to the resistance to 4) the maximum possible dissonance is equal to the resistance to change of the less "resistant cognition"; therefore, once dissonance change of the less "resistant cognition"; therefore, once dissonance reaches a certain level, one of the dissonant cognition will be reaches a certain level, one of the dissonant cognition will be changed or eliminated, and dissonance will be reduced. changed or eliminated, and dissonance will be reduced.

Q: Are they relevant? Are they directly testable?Q: Are they relevant? Are they directly testable?

Logical deductive reasoningLogical deductive reasoning

human beings, when persuaded to lie without human beings, when persuaded to lie without being given sufficient justification, will carry out being given sufficient justification, will carry out the task by convincing themselves of the the task by convincing themselves of the falsehood, rather than telling a bald liefalsehood, rather than telling a bald lie

Q: Does it flow from the previous assumptions? Q: Does it flow from the previous assumptions? Is it testable?Is it testable?

Test: through empirical researchTest: through empirical research

Festinger’s experimentFestinger’s experiment

students were made to perform tedious and students were made to perform tedious and meaningless tasksmeaningless tasks

participants rated these tasks very negatively. participants rated these tasks very negatively.

after a long period of doing this, students were after a long period of doing this, students were told the experiment was over and they could told the experiment was over and they could leave. leave.

however, the experimenter then asked the subject for a however, the experimenter then asked the subject for a small favor. small favor.

the participant was asked to fill in as a research assistant the participant was asked to fill in as a research assistant and try to persuade another subject that the dull, boring and try to persuade another subject that the dull, boring tasks the subject had just completed were actually tasks the subject had just completed were actually interesting and engaging. interesting and engaging.

some participants were paid $20 for the favor, another some participants were paid $20 for the favor, another group was paid $1, and a control group was not group was paid $1, and a control group was not requested to perform the favor. requested to perform the favor.

when asked to rate the peg-turning tasks later, when asked to rate the peg-turning tasks later, those in the $1 group rated them more positively those in the $1 group rated them more positively than those in the $20 group and control group. than those in the $20 group and control group.

Q: Is this explainable by the cognitive Q: Is this explainable by the cognitive dissonance theory? How is the result related to dissonance theory? How is the result related to the theory?the theory?

More than one testable hypothesesMore than one testable hypotheses

other ways of forming the hypothesesother ways of forming the hypotheses

people who feel dissonance will seek information people who feel dissonance will seek information that will reduce dissonance and avoid that will reduce dissonance and avoid information that will increase dissonanceinformation that will increase dissonance

people who are involuntarily exposed to people who are involuntarily exposed to information that increases dissonance are likely information that increases dissonance are likely to discount that information, either by ignoring it, to discount that information, either by ignoring it, misinterpreting it, or denying it.misinterpreting it, or denying it.

Why different theories?Why different theories?

alternate theories exist because the very alternate theories exist because the very nature of a theory allows the theorist to nature of a theory allows the theorist to make speculations from a particular point make speculations from a particular point of view.of view.

observations are colored by the individual observations are colored by the individual observer’s frame of reference, so there observer’s frame of reference, so there may be many diverse theories.may be many diverse theories.

What makes a theory usefulWhat makes a theory useful

generates researchgenerates research: generates a number of hypotheses : generates a number of hypotheses that can be investigated through research. that can be investigated through research.

descriptive researchdescriptive research hypothesis testinghypothesis testing

organizes dataorganizes data into a meaningful structure, provides an into a meaningful structure, provides an explanation for the results, and help ask further explanation for the results, and help ask further questions.questions.

Integrate knowledge into an intelligible frameworkIntegrate knowledge into an intelligible framework shape as many bits of information as possible into arrangementshape as many bits of information as possible into arrangement

What makes a theory usefulWhat makes a theory useful falsifiablefalsifiable: can be confirmed or disconfirmed: can be confirmed or disconfirmed

be precise enoughbe precise enough negative research results: refute the theory; suggest discard or negative research results: refute the theory; suggest discard or

modify it modify it

guides actionguides action: provide the practitioner with a guide to : provide the practitioner with a guide to actionaction

internally consistentinternally consistent components logically compatiblecomponents logically compatible consistent use of languageconsistent use of language

parsimoniousparsimonious: be as simple as possible: be as simple as possible

Dimensions of personalityDimensions of personality

determinism vs. free choicedeterminism vs. free choice

pessimism vs. optimismpessimism vs. optimism

causality vs. teleologycausality vs. teleology

conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behaviorconscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior

biological vs. social influences on personalitybiological vs. social influences on personality

uniqueness vs. similaritiesuniqueness vs. similarities

Personality assessmentPersonality assessment

personality inventoriespersonality inventories

reliabilityreliability: does it yield consistent result?: does it yield consistent result?

validityvalidity: does it measure what it intends to measure?: does it measure what it intends to measure?• Construct validityConstruct validity: the extent to which an instrument : the extent to which an instrument

measures some hypothetical construct such as intelligence, measures some hypothetical construct such as intelligence, extraversion, etc.extraversion, etc.

Convergent validityConvergent validity Divergent validity Divergent validity Discriminant validityDiscriminant validity

• Predictive validityPredictive validity: the extent that a test predicts future.: the extent that a test predicts future.