Discovery of neutrino oscillations
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Transcript of Discovery of neutrino oscillations
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Discovery of neutrino oscillations
Solar neutrinos
Atmospheric neutrinos
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Solar neutrinos other place where are missing
„From neutrinos to cosmic sources”, D. Kiełczewska and E. Rondio
Solar neutrinos(another mystery of missing neutrinos)
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Standard Solar ModelData are compared with expectations from „SSM” - Standard Solar Model:
3 30
60
9
11
39 MeVs
1,4 200
15,6 10 K, 5773 K composition: 34%, 64%
age: 4.5 10 years
1 au (distance Sun to Earth) 1.5 10 m R 69600 km
luminosity =2.4 10
solar
g gcm cm
ST TH He
L
2
12 MeV2 cm
10 2
constant 0.849 104 1 au
2 2 6.4 10 / cm s
26.73 2 26.73
LK
K KE
1 SNU (Solar Neutrino Unit) = 10-36 nteractions/atom/sec
The model contains also needed cross sections for neutrino interactions with nuclei. Thus eventually its predictions are given in SNUs:
Processes producing neutrinos as a function of distance from the Sun center:
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Solar Neutrino Spectrumthresholds for different thechniques
radiochemical(Gallium & Chlorine):• low threshold• only event rates counted • no time information• no direction
Cherenkov detectors:• time and direction• higher threshold
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Radiochemical experiments
Produced isotopes are radioactive with not too long lifetime – they are periodically extracted and counted
No information on time of interactions or neutrino directions
First one ever used to detect solar neutrinos - Davis-Pontecorvo reaction:
37 37e Cl e Ar
71 71e Ga e Ge
or
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Davis experiment at Homestake
615 tons of C2Cl4
run from 1968for about 30 years
Nobel prize for Ray Davis in 2002
37Ar has half-life time for electron capture of 35 days Argon atoms have to be extracted and counted - about 1 atom per 2 days
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Homestake Results:
Rate = 0.48 ± 0.16(stat) ± 0.03(syst) argon atoms/dayFlux = 2.56 ± 0.16 ± 0.16 SNU
Rate and flux from single extractions
Only:
of SSM
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Gallex/GNO and Sage
two detectors using reaction
Threshold at 233 keV, dominant way to study p-p neutrinos
SAGE in Caucasus, experiment started with 30 tons of Gallium next upgraded to 57 tons Gallium kept in liquid form (melting point 29.8 oC) Extraction – destillation Callibrated on added 700 μg of natural Ge (efficiency 80%)
71 71e Ga e Ge
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Gallex and GNO
Counts as a function of time Additional test with isotope life time Background estimate
Calibration of the method with introduction of known number of atoms and counting them
From this measurement – estimate of efficiency of the method
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•
Results after extraction
SAGE
Measured: number of neutrino interactions, From it derived: flux of neutrinos from the Sun reaching the Earth
Expected ratefrom SSM is:
45% of neutrinos are missing?
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
WaterCherenkov detectors BOREXINO,
KAMLAND(2):Liquid Scintillator Super-Kamiokande
- light water target SNO - heavy water target
directionality time of every event
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Super-Kamiokande: Solar peak > 5 MeV
For E<20 MeVand ewe have only:e e
and we know thatelectron moves forward!
signal
background
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Neutrinogram of Sun in Super-Kamiokande
the actual size of the Sun –½ pixel
The electrons of low energyundergo many multiple Coulombscatterings
Low spacial resolution of the neutrinogram
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Solar neutrino flux measured in Super-K
22,400 events
48,200 events from SSM(Standard Solar Model): a) rate of different fusion processes b) neutrino cross sections
Expected:Observed: in 1496 days
Hence one obtains:( in the whole energyrange)
A half of neutrinos are missing?
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Distribution of electron energy in Super-K
No modulation of the spectrum is observedjust the neutrino deficit.
e e
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Seasonal variation of the signal
Eccentricity of the Earth orbit measured with the data at SK(lines represent true parameters):
68%95%
99.7%Jan.... Jun.. ..Decwith a cut on electron energy>6.5 MeV to avoid radon bkg seasonal fluctuations
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Clues to the mystery of missing solar neutrinos
Deficits are observed in all the experiments
The fusion reactions in the Sun produce only
Only electron neutrinos can be measured byradiochemical experiments
Super-K measures only because It can happen to all neutrino flavors but cross section is 7 times larger for
But SNO measures much more:
37 37
71 71
e
e
Cl e Ar
Ga e Ge
e e 16 16
18 MeVe O e FE
e
e
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Results from D2OSNO
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Detection of neutrons from: x xd n p
With salt
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Results from D2O
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SNO ResultsEnergy distribution was not used for the separation of processes
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SNO fluxes
84 external-source neutrons
From event rates to neutrino fluxes:
6 -2 -1in units: 10 cm s Results with salt consistent
with those from pure heavy water
Fluxes deduced from different reactions are inconsistent
Only the NC flux agrees with expectations from SSM (Standard Solar Model)
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Determination of neutrino fluxesfrom SNO measurements
Number of interactions of a neutrino of flavor x:
Assuming the spectrum of 8B neutrinos:
and knowing cross sections one can find: x
mass x time-of-exposure fluxcross section
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
SNO Results phase 1+2
Hime, Nu06 /e μ 1.00.85.05SSM
to compare
with:
SNO – final phase
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Neutron counters in SNOCounters 2-3 m long.36 strings on 1x1 m grid
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Results of all the solar experiments
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Solar neutrino experiments
Homestake S.Dakota USA 615 37Cl(νe,e-)37Ar 1968 stopped
SAGEGalex/GNO
Baksan, RussiaGran Sasso, Italy
50 30
71Ga (νe,e-)71Ge 71Ga (νe,e-)71Ge
1990 stopped
1992 stopped
Kamiokande Kamioka, Japan 2000 νxe- → νxe- 1986 stopped
Super Kamiokande
Kamioka, Japan 50000 νxe- → νxe- 1996
SNO Sudbury, Canada
8000 νed→ e- ppνxd → νx npνxe- → νxe-
1999 stopped
2001 stopped
1999 stopped
Borexino Gran Sasso, Italy
300 νxe- → νxe- 2007soon
KamLand Kamioka, Japan 1000 reactor antineutrinos
2001
Name Location Mass Reaction Start
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Odkrycie oscylacji neutrin atmosferycznych w Super-
Kamiokande
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Atmospheric NeutrinosWeak decays are sources of neutrinos:
, K mesons decay on the way to Earth
some muons also decay but many reach the surface (mμ=106 MeV; cτ=659 m)
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Atmosph
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Neutrino events in Super-K
μUpward stopping μ
different energy scale different analysis technique different systematics
Upward through-going muons
μinteractions in rocks belowthe detector
Contained events:Fully contained
FCPartially contained
PC
e/μ identificatio
n
all assumed to be μ
All have to be separatedfrom „cosmic” muons
(3Hz)
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Neutrino energy spectraFully contained
FCPartially contained
PC
e/μ identification
all assumed to be μ
Interactions in rocks
μ
Upμ stop
Upμ thru
μ
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
e-like:
μ-like:
electronsgammas
muonscharged pionsprotons
0 2
ee μμ
iT
iT
Hit times are correctedfor Cherenkov photontime of flight.
Particle Identification
1 2e N e N mostly
mostly1 2N Nμ μ
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Super-K: particle identification
the variable „PID”describes howdiffuse a ring is
points: DATAhistogram: MC simulation
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• Fluxes of as functions of energies and angles• Interactions of depending on their flavor and energy• Momenta and types of the particles produced by • Secondary interactions in nuclei (e.g. 16O )• Interactions of particles passing through e.g water• Simulation of the detector e.g.
• radiation of Cherenkov photons• photon absorption, scattering, reflections• probability to produce photoelectrons
• Reconstruction of simulated events using the same software as for real data
Monte Carlo simulationsThe purpose of Monte Carlo simulations is to prepare sample of events which resemble real data events as much as possible.
MC code considers:
Monte Carlo samples
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Data MC1ring e-like 772 707.8 μ-like 664 968.2
Sub-GeV (Fully Contained) Evis < 1.33 GeV, Pe > 100 MeV, Pμ > 200 MeV
Data MC1-ring e-like 3266 3081.0 μ-like 3181 4703.9
Multi-GeV
Fully Contained (Evis > 1.33 GeV)
Partially Contained (assigned as μ-like)
Super-Kamiokande results (contained)
( / ) 0.638 0.016 0.050( / )
dataSub
MC
eRe
μμ
0.0300.028
( / ) 0.658 0.078( / )
dataMulti
MC
eRe
μμ
913 1230.0
We take ratios to cancel out errors on absolute neutrino fluxes:
Too few muon neutrinos observed!
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Super-K I results - upward going muons
Up through-going μ, (1678days) Data: 1.7 +- 0.04 +- 0.02 (x10-13 cm-
2s-1sr-1) MC: 1.97+-0.44
Up stopping μ, (1657days) Data: 0.41+-0.02+-0.02 (x10-13cm-
2s-1sr-1) MC: 0.73+-0.16
Again one observes a muon deficit
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Double ratios in various experiments
most experiments observed muon deficits
Fizyka cząstek II D. Kiełczewska wykład 4
Atmosph
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Zenith angle distributionse-like1 ring
μ-like1 ring
μ-likemulti- ring upward going μ
Sub-GeV
Multi-GeV
up down
Red: MC expectationsBlack points: DataGreen: next lectures
Missing are the muonneutrinos passingthrough the Earth!
Interpretation of the zenith angle distributions
Let’s try to find interpretation of the deficitOf νμ after passing the Earth ......
Looks like μ disappearance...
What happens to muon neutrinos?
Let’s suppose an oscillation: xμ
We see that νe angular distribution is as expectedbut what is x
x e
Oscillations of muon neutrinos
Looks like μ oscillates:..
μ
N X
N Xμ
μ
Remember that we identify neutrinos by the corresponding charged lepton which they produce:
But look at the masses: μ 106 MeV τ1777MeV
Does neutrino have enoughenergy to produce τ?
cross sections Total CC cross sections for:
N X
N X
compared with μ
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Atmospheric neutrino experiments
The largest statistics of atmospheric neutrino eventswere collected in Super-Kamiokande. The results showed: a deficit of muon neutrinos passing long distances through the Earth.
first evidence of neutrino oscillatons
Atmospheric neutrinos were also measured in MACROand SOUDAN detectors. The results were consistentwith neutrino oscillations.