Discourse strategies

Openings and closings

Feedback in conversation

Cross-cultural variation

Gender differences

Openings and closings

Culturally and contextually dependent

Formal and informal

Pre-closings

Greetings and leave-takings

Conversation starters

Feedback in conversation

(Backchanneling)Gardner’s types of listener’s contributions:

•Continuers: mmhm, uh, huh•Acknowledgments: mm, yeah•Assessments: how awful, wonderful•News markers: really?, is it?•Questions: (Ask for details, repair misunderstandings)•Collaborative completions: (finish or repeat another’s utterance)•Non-verbal vocalizations: (laughter, sighs)

Types of speechTALK AS INTERACTION

TALK AS TRANSACTION

TALK AS PERFORMANCE

TALK AS INTERACTIONMAIN FEATURES:Has a primarily social function.Reflects role relationships.Reflects speaker’s identity.May be formal or casual.Uses conversational conventions.Reflect degrees of politeness.Employs many generic words.Uses conversational register.Is jointly constructed.

TALK AS INTERACTIONSKILLS INVOLVED:Opening and closing conversations.Choosing topics.Making small talk.Recounting personal incidents and experiences.Turn-takingUsing adjacency pairs.Interrupting.Reacting to others.

TALK AS INTERACTIONExamples:Chatting with someone on the bus,

train, plane.Chatting with friends, classmates,

etc.Telling someone an experience lived.Sharing anecdotes, gossips, etc.

TALK AS TRANSACTIONExamples:

Classroom group discussions and problem solving activities.

Discussing needed repairs to a computer with a technician.

Making a telephone call to obtain information.Asking someone for directions on the street.Buying something in a shop.Ordering food in a restaurant.

TALK AS TRANSACTIONFeatures:

It has a primarily information focus.The main focus is the message and not the

participants.Participants use communication strategies to make

themselves understood.There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and

comprehension checks.There may be negotiation and digression.Linguistic accuracy is not always important.

TALK AS TRANSACTIONSkills involved:

Explaining a need or intention.Describing something.Asking questioning.Confirming information.Justifying an opinion.Making suggestions.Clarifying understanding.Making comparisons.Agreeing and disagreeing.

TALK AS PERFORMANCEExamples:

Giving a class report about something.

Conducting a class debate.Giving a speech of welcome.Making a presentation.Giving a lecture/speech.

TALK AS PERFORMANCEMain features:

There is a focus on both message and audience.

It reflects organization and sequencing.Form and accuracy are important.Language is more like written language.It is often monologic.

TALK AS PERFORMANCESkills involved:

Using an appropriate format.Presenting information in an appropriate

sequence.Maintaining audience engagement.Using correct pronunciation and grammar.Creating an effect on the audience.Using appropriate vocabulary.Using appropriate opening and closing.