ConnectionstoaSacredForest:ALookattheForestMonkTraditioninPhnom

Kulen

MeghanTait

UniversityofGeorgia

Athens,GA,UnitedStates

CenterforMekongStudies,TheSchoolforFieldStudies

SiemReap,Cambodia

ResearchAdvisor:Dr.GeorginaLloyd

December2,2016

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TableofContentsFIGURESANDTABLES.........................................................................................................................3TERMSANDABBREVIATIONS...........................................................................................................3ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................................4DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................4ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................5INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................5FORESTTRADITIONINSOUTHEASTASIA.............................................................................................................5FORESTMONKSINCAMBODIA................................................................................................................................7PHNOMKULEN..........................................................................................................................................................8

METHODS.................................................................................................................................................9STUDYLOCATIONSANDADMINISTRATIVEPROCESS.........................................................................................9STUDYPERIODANDDATACOLLECTION............................................................................................................11DATAANALYSIS......................................................................................................................................................12

RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................12FORESTMONKSITES.............................................................................................................................................12FORESTMONKRULESANDPRACTICES..............................................................................................................15FORESTASCETICS...................................................................................................................................................16REASONSFORBECOMINGAFORESTMONK......................................................................................................17CONNECTIONSTOTHEFOREST............................................................................................................................18FORESTMONKSINTHEPAST...............................................................................................................................19FORESTMONKSTODAY........................................................................................................................................20REASONSFORCHANGESINFORESTTRADITION..............................................................................................21

DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................................................22FORESTMONKSITES.............................................................................................................................................22THEFORESTTRADITION......................................................................................................................................23FORESTCONNECTIONSANDDEVELOPINGANENVIRONMENTALETHIC.....................................................24CHANGESINFORESTMONKPRACTICES............................................................................................................26THEFORESTTRADITIONASADISAPPEARINGPRACTICE...............................................................................28THECONTEMPORARYFORESTMONK................................................................................................................28LIMITATIONS...........................................................................................................................................................29RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................................................................29CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................................30

REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................31APPENDIXI:INTERVIEWQUESTIONS...........................................................................................34APPENDIX2:PHOTOSOFFORESTMONKSITES..........ERROR!BOOKMARKNOTDEFINED.

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Figures

Figure1.MapoftheapproximatedatacollectionsiteswithinPhnomKulenNational

ParkinNortheasternCambodiabasedonnearestvillage(GoogleEarth2016)

...............................................................................................................................................................10

Figure2MapofdatacollectionsitesattwowatsinSiemReap,Cambodia(Google

Earth2016)......................................................................................................................................11

Figure3TreeordinationatPoeungBrocheav,PoeungPkaRoamDtukRoam,and

PoeungPreahPramOnginPhnomKulen...........................................................................19

Tables

Table1.ForestmonksitesvisitedinPhnomKulenNationalParkinnortheastern

Cambodia...........................................................................................................................................13

TermsandAbbreviations

Acha:Amanwhomassistswithceremoniesatalocalwat

ASPARANationalAuthority:Authorityfortheprotectionandmanagementof

AngkorandtheregionofSiemReap

Don-ji:ACambodianBuddhistnunwhomassistswithceremoniesatalocalwat

Poeung:Rockoutcroppingorcaveusedforshelter,maybeusedbyaforestmonk

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Acknowledgements

IwouldliketothanktheMinistryofEnvironmentforprovidingclearance

andsupportformyresearch.IalsothanktheArchaeologyandDevelopment

Foundationfortheirpartnershipinthisresearch.IwouldliketoacknowledgeMax

Post-Zwickerforbeingmyfellowresearchpartnerinconductinginterviews,cross

checkingdata,andhuntingforpoeungs.IamgratefulforDr.GeorginaLloydwhom

helpedmeformulateresearchtopicsandquestionsandalwaysmotivatedusbefore

ourhikes.IwouldliketothankSamrithVichetformakingitthroughallofthelong

hikestotranslatemyinterviews.Iamthankfulforthedriversforbeingableto

navigatetheroadsacrossPhnomKulenandalwayswaitinghourslongerthanwe

saidwewouldbegettingback.Finally,Iwouldliketothankthemanychildren,dogs,

rangers,andvillagersonmotorbikesthatleadusthroughtheforesttoplaceswe

wouldhaveneverfoundonourown.

Declaration I, _______Meghan Tait_____________, acknowledge that the research embodied in this paper is entirely my own work, that where the ideas of others have been used the sources have been duly acknowledged, and that no portion of this research has been submitted for grading at The School for Field Studies or University of Georgia. Signed:

______ ________ _2 December 2016__ Meghan Tait Date

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Abstract

TheforesthasbeenasignificantpartofBuddhistpracticeforcenturiesand

Buddhahimselfwassaidtohavelivedanddiedintheforest.FollowinginBuddha’s

footsteps,atraditionofforestlivinghaslongbeenpracticedbymonksthroughout

Cambodia.MonksinPhnomKulenhavebeenknowntofollowthistraditionandstay

intheforestforyearsatatime,butnoformalstudieshavebeenconductedonthe

practicesoftheseforestmonksortheirconnectiontotheforest.Inthisstudy,semi-

structuredinterviewsandsitevisitswereutilizedto(i)documentforestmonksites,

(ii)determinetherelationshipbetweenforestmonksandtheforestinwhichthey

reside,(iii)identifytheethicalframeworkthatforestmonksgainfromthis

connection,and(iv)uncoverhowpracticesandethicshavechangedovertimein

PhnomKulenNationalPark.Interviewswereconductedinandaroundlocations

nearsevenvillagesinPhnomKulenandtwowatsinSiemReap.Thestudy

confirmedthatmonksstillutilizePhnomKulenasasiteofretreatintheforest.It

wasfoundthatmonksreveretheforestastheirnaturalhomeandcreateadeep

connectiontotheforestthatprovidesthemwithamoralframeworkofrespectfor

theenvironment.Thestudyalsofoundthatthepracticesofforestmonksandtheir

reasonsforenteringtheforesttodaydiffergreatlyfromthepastduetomany

societalandsite-specificreasons.Despitethesedifferences,forestmonkstodaymay

stillplayaroleinlocalenvironmentalprotectionandcreatingabasisfor

environmentalethicsinsociety.

Keywordsforestmonk,hermitage,Buddhism,Cambodia,PhnomKulen,poeung,

environmentalethic

Introduction

ForestTraditioninSoutheastAsia

TheforesthasbeenasignificantpartofBuddhistpracticesforcenturies.

Buddhahimselfwassaidtohavespenthislifeintheforest,hewasbornintheforest

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andenlightenedintheforest;hetaughtintheforestandpassedawayintheforest

(ForestDhammaOrganization2015).Buddhaofteninstructedhisdisciplestoseek

outtheseclusionofforestdwellingsasplacestopurifytheirminds(ibid).Sincethat

time,monkshaveretreatedintotheforestsandmountainsseekingisolationtoaid

theminthedevelopmentofmeditationandunderstandingoftheBuddha’slessons.

ThepracticesoftheseearlyforestmonksembodiedtheBuddha’steachingsand

exemplifiedhispathtoenlightenment(ibid).Thesemonksseekalifeofsimplicity

andself-control,strippingthemselvesfromallmaterialandemotionalpossessionto

becomesomeofthegreatestmastersinmeditationsincetheBuddhahimself(Thate

1996).

NortheasternThailandunderwentaforesttraditionrevivalinthelast

centuryasanattempttorevitalizeancientstandardsofthelifestyleandtrainingin

traditionalBuddhistpractice(ForestDhammaOrganization2015).Monks

abandonedbusyvillagesandtownmonasteriestoseekpeaceandquietbyreturning

tobasicforestliving(Thate1996).Thesemonkstookonalifeofmoraldiscipline

followingthirteenstrictrules,includingeatingonlyonemealadayfromtheiralms

bowl,onlywearingonerobe,andusinganumbrellaforshelter,insearchofthe

Buddha’spathtoenlightenment(ForestDhammaOrganization2015;Thate1996;

Tiyavanich1997).TheemergenceoftheThaiforesttraditionisalsoassociatedwith

awanderingmonk,intentonwalkingalonethroughforestsandmountainsinsearch

ofsecludedplacesthatofferaquietenvironmenttocultivateaprofoundstateof

tranquilitytocarryoutmeditationpractices(ForestDhammaOrganization2015;

Thate1996).Insuchenvironments,forestmonksdevelopadeepappreciationof

nature,astheirentirelifedependsoncloseinteractionswiththeforestandits

wildlife(ibid).

TheforesttraditionalsohasalonghistoryinotherareasofSoutheastAsia,

suchasSriLanka,wheresomeoftheearliestevidencefortheforesttraditionexists

(Murphy2013).OverathousandcavedwellingsfoundinSriLankaaredatableby

inscriptionsfromthethirdcenturyB.C.tothefirstcenturyA.D.Studieshaveshown

that,likeinNortheasternThailand,forestmonksinSriLankaarestillpracticing

today(Conningham1995;Tambiah1984).Theseforestmonkshavealsobeen

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knowntowithdrawalmostcompletelyfromsocietyforlongperiodsoftime,

independentofsupportfromlocalcommunities(Murphy2013).Theseforest

retreatsinSriLankahavebeensoughtafteraspilgrimagesitesforlaypeopledueto

theirbelievedspiritualandsupernaturalpowers(Conningham1995).Theretreats

mayalsobeusedbymonksassociatedwithnearbypagodastoseekoutforest

monksforinstructiononmeditativetechniques.AsinThailand,monks’retreatinto

theforestinSriLankaallowsthemtointegratenaturalfeaturesintopartofthe

greaterBuddhistsacredlandscapeanddevelopadeeperappreciationforthe

environment.Thisisseenbothcognitivelyandphysicallythroughtheremainsof

manyBuddhistimagescarvedintonaturalfeaturessurroundingtheirdwellings

(Murphy2013).

ForestMonksinCambodia

CambodiaisaprimarilyBuddhistcountrylocatedinSoutheastAsia,with

90%ofitsresidentspracticingsomeformofBuddhism(Kouy2014).Traditionally,

CambodianBuddhistsregardtheirrelationshiptotheenvironmentassacredand

havingethicaldimensions(Phorst2012).ThefoundationofCambodianBuddhist

ethicsiscloselylinkedtothenaturalworld(ibid).Sahni(2008)mentionsthat,

Buddhism’sunderstandingofnatureisinnatelycosmologicalanditisonlyinthat

sensethatnaturecanberecognizedinBuddhistthought.

DespitethisreverenceofthenaturalworldintheCambodianBuddhist

tradition,theforestisalsoconsideredaplaceoffearfuldeathandwildpower(Davis

2009).Itisarealmofwildwhereprei,theunforgivingforestspirit,residesandwill

punishanyonethatenterswithoutpayingproperrespects(ibid).Itisthoughtthat

inordertoliveintheforest,onemustbelessormorehuman.Thosehumanswho

thriveoutsidethecivilizedrealmareatthefarperipheriesofhumanlifeand

morality:theyareconsideredbanditsorhermits(Edwards208).

Forestmonks,sometimesconsideredhermits,havebeenknowntoresidein

theforestsandmountainsofCambodiaforcenturies.Thesemonksarethoughttobe

abletotameandconquerthewildspiritsoftheforest,andforthisreasontheyare

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highlyrespectedandevenfearedbytheCambodianpeople(KentandChandler

2008;Davis2009).

PhnomKulenisonelocationwhereforestmonkstraditionallypracticed

isolatedwanderingandmeditation.Bareau(1969)wroteaccountsofmeetinga

hermitwhomaftertenyearsinvariousmonasteriesinandaroundPhnomPenh,

escapedtoacaveinKulenwherehepracticedmeditation.Hansen(1969)alsokept

recordsofencounterswithhermitsthatinhabitedcavesandrockstructuresin

PhnomKuleninthesameyear.

Anumberofinformalsourceshaveindicatedthatforestmonksstilloccupy

cavesandforestedareasthroughoutPhnomKulen(TheTelegraph2016;Brouwer

2005;Betts2014).Onesourcediscussedtheecologicalimportanceofmonkcave

dwellings:“thepresenceofthemonksatthislocationalsoaddsanelementoffree

protectionforroostingcavebatcoloniesfrombathuntingactivities(Hayesetal.

2013).”Thesourcefurtherindicatedthatitisreasonabletosuggestthatwithout

thislevelofprotectionfromthemonks,roostingcavebatoccupancywouldbe

negativelyaffected,asseeninothercavesthroughoutPhnomKulenthatdonot

containresidentmonks(ibid).Thisisevidenceofthenecessitytounderstandthe

connectionofforestmonkpracticesandtheenvironmentinwhichtheylive.This

gapindatacanbefilledbyformallydocumentingthelivesofcurrentforestmonks

andthesitesinwhichtheyreside,whichhavepreviouslyonlybeensitedininformal

sources.

PhnomKulen

PhnomKulencontains37,373hectaresofprotectedforestinNorthwestern

Cambodia,nearSiemReap.TheareawasdesignatedanationalparkbyRoyal

Decreein1993duetoitsvastecologicalsignificance(Hayesetal.2013).Phnom

KulenNationalPark(PKNP)usedtocontainsomeofthelastpristineexpansesof

forestinCambodiaprovidinghabitatforthreatened,vulnerable,andendangered

species(ibid).TheforestsofKulenfaceconstantthreatsfromhunting,forest

fragmentation,logging,expansionofhumanpopulations,andconversionofforestto

agriculturalland.Arecentbiodiversitysurveyoftheparkfoundthatforestcover

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onlyremainsin25%ofthepark,withtherestlargelyconvertedtoagriculturalland

(ibid).

PhnomKulenalsoholdshistorical,spiritual,andculturalsignificanceas

Cambodia’smostsacredmountain(Kouy2014).Itwasbelievedtobethebirthplace

oftheAngkorianperiodwhenKingJayavarmanIIfoundedhiscapitaltherein802

(Hayesetal2013;Hansen1969).Duringthistime,PhnomKulenwasconsideredthe

centeroftheuniverseandkingdom(Hansen1969).Mostofthesandstoneusedto

buildthegreattemplesofAngkorwasextractedfromPhnomKulenandthewater

thatflowsintotemplesfromthemountainisconsideredpureandsacred(Hayeset

al2013).Accordingtolocallegend,theBuddhaevenvisitedthemountainandleft

hisfootprintswhencrossinganaturalarchinKbalSpean(Boulbet1970).Today,

themountainisconsideredtobethemostholyplaceinallofCambodia,a

pilgrimagesiteformanylocals,andaplaceformonksandasceticstomeditateand

learn(Tan2014).Monksareevendeemedtohavesuperiorauthorityandabilityif

theyhavespentsometimemeditatingonPhnomKulen(ibid).

DespitetheecologicalandspiritualsignificanceofPKNPandgrowing

evidenceforthenecessityofmonk-leadenvironmentalaction,fewstudieshave

beenconductedonthelivesandpracticesofforestmonksinCambodiaandno

formalstudieshavebeenpublishedonforestmonksresidinginPhnomKulen.The

primaryobjectivesofthisstudyare(i)documentforestmonksitesinPKNP,(ii)to

determinetherelationshipbetweenforestmonksandtheforestinwhichthey

reside,(iii)identifytheethicalframeworkthattheygainfromthisconnection,and

(iv)uncoverhowtheseethicshavechangedovertime.

Methods

StudyLocationsandAdministrativeProcess

Thisstudyutilizedsitevisitsandsemi-structuredinterview(SSI)

methodologytoobtaindatainPhnomKulenNationalParklocatedinNorthwestern

Cambodia.SSImethodfeaturedlooselystructuredinterviewsbasedonatopicguide

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andconsistedofopen-endedquestionsthatdefinedthethemestobeexplored(See

AppendixI).Thefirststudysite,AnlongThom,waspreselectedbythePrinciple

Investigator(PI)usingkeyinformantmethodologytolocatemembersofalocal

monasterywithknowledgeonforestmonksresidingwithinPKNP.Thesnowball

samplingtechniquewasthenusedtolocateotherpossibleinformants.Fieldsites

includedlocationsinandaroundthevillagesofAnlongThom,PreahAngThom,

SangkeLak,ThmorChroun,TaPeng,KhlaKhmum,andPhumThmeyinPhnom

Kulen(Fig.1)andtwowatsinSiemReap(Fig.2).ThePIobtainedresearch

clearancefromtheMinistryofEnvironmenttocompletethestudy.Permissionfrom

eachinformantinterviewedwasobtaineduponarrivalatlocation.ThePIensured

totalconfidentiality,indicatingthatindividuals’nameswouldnotberecordedin

thisstudy.

Figure1.MapoftheapproximatedatacollectionsiteswithinPhnomKulenNationalParkinNortheasternCambodiabasedonnearestvillage(GoogleEarth2016)

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Figure2MapofdatacollectionsitesattwowatsinSiemReap,Cambodia(GoogleEarth2016)

StudyPeriodandDataCollection

Datacollectionwasconductedoveraten-dayperiodfrom14November2016to

25November2016.OneKhmer-Englishtranslatorfacilitatedallinteractionswith

theinformants.Thetranslatorwasgiventheinterviewquestionsandfamiliarized

withtheresearchbeingconductedpriortodatacollection.Onthedayofthe

interview,thetranslatorreadconsentandconfidentialitylanguagetoeach

participantintheresearchandreceivedverbalconsentfromeverysubjectpriorto

eachinterview.Attheendofeachmonkinterview,properrespectwaspaidthrough

anoffering.

Theresearchconductedforthisstudyinvolvedcombinedinterviewsfortwo

researchersunderthesupervisionofthePrincipleInvestigator.TheSSItopicguide

wascreatedtosuitthethemesofbothresearchersandquestionsforeachproject

wereaskedinthesameinterviewlastingapproximatelyanhour.Relevantdata

collectedfromallquestionswasusedforbothprojects.

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DataAnalysis

NotestakenduringallSSIsweretranscribedintoMicrosoftWordDocuments

aftereachdayofdatacollection.ThedocumentswerethenanalyzedinAtlasTI

softwarebycodingacrossthematiccategoriesrelatingtotheprimaryobjectivesof

thisstudy.Thelocationsofallforestmonksiteswerephotographedandrecorded.

Thesesiteswerealsocross-referencedwiththe“InventoryofArcheologicalSitesin

theNationalParkofPreahJayavaramanNorodom”report(Sangetal2015).

Results

ForestMonkSites

NineteeninterviewswereconductedatlocationsinPhnomKulenandtwo

watsinSiemReap.Theseinterviewsincludedsevencurrentorformerforestmonks,

threedon-jis,twoachas,twovillagers,oneMinistryofEnvironment(MoE)ranger,

andtwoforestascetics.Twenty-threeforestmonksiteswerevisitedacrossPhnom

Kulenduringtheten-daydatacollectionperiod(Table1&Appendix2).Thepast

andcurrentusesofeachsiteweredetermineduponarrivalbasedoffof

observationsandfrominterviewrespondents.Observationsweremadeto

determineiflandsurroundingeachsitewasforestedorcultivated.Eachsitewas

alsoobservedforpresentstructures.Manyforestmonklocationsnowhave

structuresbuiltnearthemformonkstostayinforshortperiodsoftime,afewdays

tothreemonths,includingPoeungBrocheav,PoeungKla,andThmorChroun.Other

locations,includingWatSaramChas,WatSangkeLak,PoeungPkaRoamDtukRoam,

andPoeungLokTaSuang,haveactivewatsbuiltonsiteswherepreviousforest

monkswerereportedtostay.PoeungChatAsaiyislocatedrightoutsideWatPreah

AngThomandiscurrentlyusedasanactiveshrine.Asceticscurrentlyliveat

PoeungBrocheavandPoeungPrasatKrahom.Theonlysitewhereacurrentforest

monkwasobservedtostayforanextendedperiodoftime,5years,wasPoeung

DtukLech*.APSARANationalAuthorityworkersnowstayatSrahDomrei,Poeung

Tbal,andPoeungOPa-ongtoprotecttheAngkoriancarvingslocatedthere.APSARA

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NationalAuthorityworkersreportedforestmonksstaying1to2daysatSrah

DomreiandPoeungOPa-ong.Remnantsofpastforestmonkswereobservedat

PoeungTbal,PoeungTaEo,PouengLokTaTlang,PoeungPreah,Poeung

Dabchhoun,PoeungPreahPramOng,PoeungTaChoi,andPoeungManoah,butno

currentforestmonkswereobservedorarereportedtostayatthosesites.Poeung

Preah,PoeungTaChoi,andPoeungPkaaRoamDtukRoamarereportedtohave

beenabandonedwithinthelastsevenyears.

Table1.ForestmonksitesvisitedinPhnomKulenNationalParkinnortheasternCambodia.

NameReportedbyRespondents

SiteDocumentedbyMoE(Sangetal2015)

Location StillinusebyForestMonks

UsedinthePastbyForestMonks

ForestedorCultivatedSurroundingLand

PermanentStructuresPresent

PoeungBrocheav

Pp111 WatPreahKrau

Yes Yes Forested Yes

SrahDomrei

WatPreahKrau

Yes Yes Forested No

PoeungKla ThmorChroun

Yes Unknown

Cultivated Yes

ThmorChroun

ThmorChroun

Yes Unknown

Cultivated Yes

WatSaramChas

TaPeng Yes Yes Cultivated Yes

PoeungPreah

Pp106 TaPeng No Yes Forested No

PoeungTaChoi

PoeungToukPreah(pp127)

TaPeng No Yes Forested Yes

PoeungRupSomnak

TaPeng No Yes Forested No

PoeungPreahPramOng

Pp108 Ticketcheckpoint,satellitephonetowers

No Yes Forested No

PoeungPreahPramOng

PoeungDabchhoun(pp88)

Ticketcheckpoint,satellitephonetowers

No Yes Forested No

Poeung Poeung Anlong No Yes Forested No

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Tbal Manoa,includes4poeungs(pp121)

Thom

PrasatOPa-ong

AnlongThom

Yes Yes Forested Yes

PoeungTaEo

SangkeLak

No Yes Forested No

PoeungDtukLech*

FoothillsofPhnomKulen

Yes No Forested No

PoeungPkaaRoamDtukRoam

PreahAnChop

No Yes Forested Yes

PreahAngChop

Pp107 PhumThmey

No Yes Forested Yes

PoeungPrasatKrahom

KhlaKhmum

Yes Yes Forested No

PoeungChatEisey

Pp87 PreahAngThom

No Yes Forested Yes

PoeungManoah(largeareawithmanypoeung)

PoeungTathlang(pp149)

PreahAngThom

No Yes Forested No

PouengLokTaTlang

PoeungNgnogoet(pp92)

PreahAngThom,PhnomManoa

No Yes Forested No

PoeungNgong-it

PreahAngThom,PhnomManoa

No Yes Forested No

PoeungLokTaSuang

PoeungSamPan(pp113)

WatPreahAngThom

No Yes Forested Yes

WatChas PreahAngThom

No Yes Forested Yes

*fullnamewithheld

Giventhetimerestrictionoftendayssomereportedforestmonksiteson

PhnomKulenwerenotvisited.ThesesitesincludePoeungAramRoamChen,

PoeungKomnou(Sangetal2015,pg94),PoeungAisay,WatPreahKrau,Puark

Chern,PoeungTaTeay,PoeungTbengMeanRith,PoeungMeDa,andPhumNeak

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SaccanginPhnomKulen.ForestmonksitesoutsidePhnomKulenwerealso

reported,includingPhnomDongreik,PhnomKroban,PoeungBorataey,Phnom

Tapeday,PhnomAndouk,andPhnomKamping.

ForestMonkRulesandPractices

Themajorityofinterviewrespondentsreferredtotherequirementofaforest

monks’adherencetoasetofthirteenstrictrulesorsteps.Themostemphasizedrule

throughoutthedatacollectioninterviewswasthatforestmonksmustkeepastrong

andpuremindthroughouttheirforeststay.Mostrespondentssaidthataforest

monkisnotallowedtosharehisexperiencesintheforestwithlaypeopleorother

monks.Otherrulesindicatedbyrespondentsinclude,thatforestmonksmustgive

upallmaterialpossessionsandemotions.Aforestmonkisonlyallowedtobringa

bowl,stick,pot,andumbrelladuringtheirstayintheforestandcanonlyhaveone

robe.Itwasalsoreportedthataforestmonkissupposedtoliveunderarockshelter

ortree.Themajorityofrespondentssaidthatforestmonksmovetomanydifferent

locationsthroughouttheirstayintheforest.Respondentsalsoindicatedthat

traditionallymonkswouldstayintheforestforanextendedperiodoftimelasting

twoyearstoovertwentyyears.Onerespondentsaidthataforestmonkmuststayin

theshelterthattheyfindfirst,suchasarockortree,andcannotmoveiftheshelter

isnotsuitable.

Onemonkstayingataforestmonasterylistedfiveofthethirteenrulesthat

forestmonksmustfollow.Theserulesinclude,thefiveBuddhistpercepts:don’tkill,

don’tsteal,nosexualmisconduct,nolying,andnoalcohol.Duringmeditation,don’t

thinkaboutthepastorfuture,onlythepresent.Onemustalsofocusontheir

breathingduringmeditation.Aftermeditation,aforestmonkmustshareblessings

withtheheavensandtheforest.Thelastrulethatthemonksharedwastousethe

soil,water,fire,air,colorblue,yellow,white,red,light,andatmosphereasyour

feelingsduringmeditation.

Almostallrespondentsprovidedthataspartoftherulesaforestmonkmust

onlyeatonceadayandgotoanearbyvillagetoreceiveofferingsforfood.

Occasionally,offeringswillbebroughttothemonkintheforestinthiscasethe

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monkwillnothavetogotothevillage.Whenamonkisgivenfoodofferings,hemust

eateverythingthatisputinhisbowl.Onerespondentsaidthatwhenaforestmonk

comestothevillagetogetfood,hemustnotlookorstareatanyone;theforestmonk

mustkeephisheaddown.Threerespondentssaidthataforestmonkmusteata

vegetariandiet.Twooftheserespondentswerepracticingforestmonksthat

explainedthattheyonlyeatbeanandsesametofocusstrictlyonmeditation.When

theseforestmonkseatbeanandsesame,theyvowtosilenceforthedurationof

theirforeststay.

Themajorityofrespondentsexplainedthatforestmonksspendtheirdays

meditatingandlearningBuddhistlessons.Thisincludesapracticecalledacircle

walk.Duringthiscirclewalk,forestmonkswalkaroundmeditatingandgiving

blessingstotheforest.Aforestmonkisonlyallowedtosit,stand,sleep,andwalk.

Onerespondentsaidaforestmonkmustputhisrightlegontopofhisleftlegand

righthandontopofhislefthandwhilemeditating.Anotherrespondentsaidthata

forestmonkmustsitupstraightandmustnotmoveduringmeditation.Duringthese

activities,onerespondentstatedthataforestmonkmustalwaysbelearningand

thinkingabouttheirBuddhistlessons.Itwasfurtherstatedthataforestmonkmust

followastrictscheduleandcarryoutthesameactivitiesatthesametimeeveryday.

Themajorityofrespondentssaidthatyoungmonksaren’tallowedtogointothe

forest.MonksmustlearnBuddhistlessonsanddevelopastrongmindbeforethey

canbecomeaforestmonk.Monksmustalsoreceivepermissiontocompleteaforest

stayfromtheheadmonkattheirmonastery.

ForestAscetics Twoforestasceticswereinterviewedduringthedatacollectionperiod.They

livewithasmallgroupofotherasceticsinstructuresintheforest.Theascetics

reportedthatthesiteisalsoutilizedbyforestmonkstocompleteshorthermitages

lastingapproximatelythreemonths.Oneasceticwaswearingatigerorleopard

printrobe.Heexplainedthatthisindicatedthathewastheteacherandhadbeenin

theforestforatleasttwoyears.Theotherasceticwaswearingallwhite.He

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explainedthatthisindicatedthathewasastudentandhadonlybeenintheforest

fortwoorthreemonths.

Theasceticinwhitereportedthathecametoliveintheforestforaquiet

placetopracticemeditation.HesaidthatinBuddhistpractice,oneisnotsupposed

tohaveambitions.TheforesthelpshimliveasimplelifeandfollowtheseBuddhist

practices.Theasceticinwhitealsocametotheforesttolearnmagic.Hestatedthat

hebelievesthatlearningmagicisanimportantpartofmeditation.

Theasceticsexplainedthattheyfollowsimilarrulestoforestmonks,suchas

eatingonceadayandonlywhatisputintheirbowl.Theasceticseatavegetarian

diet,butthestudentsprepareallofthefoodratherthangoingtothevillageto

receivealms.OneasceticreportedthattheyfollowBuddhistandHindupracticesin

theforestbypracticingmeditationatshrineslocatedinanearbycaveandwalking

aroundtospreadblessings.

Theasceticinwhitealsomentionedthathisteacheraskslocalpeoplenotto

cutdowntreesintheforestinwhichtheylive.Hereportedthattheasceticsand

monksthatcometothissiteprotectfourkilometersofsurroundingforest.

Anasceticwasobservedlivingaloneunderapoeunginadifferentlocation,

butwasunabletobeinterviewed.Basedonobservations,helivedinisolationfrom

localvillageswithveryfewpossessions.

ReasonsforBecomingaForestMonk Themostcommonreasongivenforbecomingaforestmonkistofindpeace

andquietinnature.Respondentsstatedthatlivinginapagodaisloudand

distracting.Manyofthemonksinterviewedsaidthatinthepagoda,“youreyes

wouldseeandyourearswouldhear.”Theyexplainedthatthesesensesorderthem

todothingsanddistractthemfromtheirstudies.Theforestoffersaquiet,isolated

placetopracticeBuddhistlessonsandfocusonmeditation.Italsogivesmonksa

pureandpeacefulmind.

Othersstatedthattheforestisthenaturalhomeofamonk.Manymonks

wentintotheforesttofollowthelifeofBuddha.Onerespondentexplainedthat

Buddhawasbornunderatreeandthatiswhyitisimportantformonkstolearn

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Buddhistlessonsamongstthetrees.AnotherrespondentstatedthatinBuddhism,

oneisnotsupposedtohaveambitionsandinsteadissupposedtoliveasimplelife.

Thisrespondentbelievestheforesthelpsonefollowthispath.

ConnectionstotheForest

Themajorityofmonksinterviewedstatedthattheybelievethateverything

haslife,includingtreesandinsects.Theyalsostatedthattheybelievekillingatreeis

killingalife.Whenmonkswereaskedabouttheirconnectiontotheforest,they

respondedthattheforestistheirhomeandtheycouldn’tsurvivewithoutit.

Themajorityofrespondentsstatedthatforestmonksplayarolein

protectinglocalforests.Formerforestmonksstatedthattheyusetheconnection

theymadewiththeforestduringtheirstaytoencouragelocalpeopleandother

monkstoprotecttheenvironment.Respondentsacknowledgedthatforestmonks

oftenaskvillagersnottocutdowntreesinareasthattheyarestaying.Ifforest

monksdonotdirectlyask,laypeoplewillstillrefrainfromcuttingdowntreesoutof

respectforthemonk.Respondentsalsonotedthatforestmonkshavebeenknown

todotreeordinationceremoniestoprotectthetrees.Observationsofthese

ceremoniesweremadeatthreepoeungsites(Fig.3).Onerespondentsaidthatmore

monkstrytoprotecttheforestnowbecausemorepeoplearecuttingdowntrees.

Respondentsatpoeungsiteswherenotableforestmonkswereknowntopreviously

residesaidthatvillagerscontinuetoprotecttheforestoutofrespectevenafterthe

monkhasleft.

Tait19

Figure3TreeordinationatPoeungBrocheav,PoeungPkaRoamDtukRoam,andPoeungPreahPram

OnginPhnomKulen

Twoofthemonksinterviewedsaidthatdespiteaskingpeoplenottocut

downtrees,peoplecontinuetodoit.Manymonkssaidthattheonlythingtheycan

doisaskvillagerstoprotecttheforest.Theycan’tdirectlystoppeoplefromcutting

downtrees.Oneofthesemonkssaidthatthepeoplearepoorandhavenochoice,

buttocutdowntrees.Thismonkalsostatedthatpeopleinthepastusedtojustcut

downsmalltreesclosetotheirhomes,butnowpeoplegodeeperintotheforestand

cutdownthelargertrees.

ForestMonksinthePast Themajorityofrespondentsagreedthatforestmonkstodayarevery

differentfromforestmonksinthepast.Amonasticmonkandanachasaidthat

forestmonksinthepastwouldliveintheforesttheirwholelife.Manyrespondents,

includingaformerforestmonk,citedthedesireforasimplelifeasareasonfor

goingintotheforestinthepast.Monkswouldalsogointotheforesttofollow

Buddha’spathbylearningandpracticingBuddhistlessonsamongstthetrees.

Respondentssaidthatpastforestmonkswouldsetgoalsfortheirtimeintheforest

andfollowthem.Itwasalsostatedthatpastforestmonkswentintotheforestalone.

Theywerestrictandhonest,alwaysfollowingthe13forestmonkrules.

Themajorityofrespondentsalsoagreedthatthereweremoreforestmonks

inthepast,morespecificallybeforethewar.Manyrespondentsexplainedthat

Tait20

forestmonksbeforethewarwerestrictandpowerful.Manyevenremembered

notableforestmonks.Thesenotableforestmonkslivedintheforestfor

approximatelyeighttotenyears.Onerespondentsaidthatallmonkswererequired

tospendtimeintheforestinthepast.Anotherrespondentsaidthatonceamonk

reached50or60yearsold,theywentintotheforest.

ForestMonksToday Respondentsagreedthattherulesforforestmonkstodayarethesame,but

themajorityofformerforestmonksagreedthatmonksthatgointotheforestno

longerhaveapureheartormind.Itwasalsoreportedbythemajorityofformer

forestmonksthatforestmonkstodaystillhavefeelingsandambitions.Many

respondentsattributedtheseambitionsandfeelingstoforestmonksbeingyoung.

Oneheadmonkstatedthathedoesnotallowmonksathispagodatogointothe

forestuntilthey’vespentthreeyearslearningBuddhistlessonsatthepagoda.The

headmonksaidthisgivesthemonkstimetodevelopandopentheirminds.

Itwasreportedthatmonkstodayonlystayintheforestforafewmonthsata

timebecausetheyareyoungandhavenopatience.Themajorityofrespondents

agreedthatmonkstodaystayintheforesteitherforthreemonthsduringvosa,the

periodduringtherainyseasonthatmonksmuststayinthepagoda,orenterthe

forestaftervosatostayforafewdaysuptothree,six,orninemonths.

Basedonobservationsandinterviewresponses,themajorityofforestmonks

todaystayinstructuresorwatsbuiltaroundapoeungsitewhentheygointothe

forest,ratherthanunderatreeorrockshelter.Respondentsalsoindicatedthat

moremonkstodaygointotheforestingroups,ratherthanalone.Twocurrent

forestmonkswereobservedstayingintheforesttogether.Twoothercurrentforest

monkswereobservedstayingintheforestalone.Respondentssaidthatforest

monkstodaydonotwishtopracticeBuddhistlessons.Instead,theyonlywishto

read‘thebook’andlearn.Threeformerforestmonksindicatedthatforestmonks

todaydonotstrivetofinishthethirteenrules,whiletwocurrentforestmonks

statedthattheydostrictlyfollowtherules.

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Alargemajorityofrespondentssaidthatpeopledon’ttrustforestmonks

anymoreandreferredtothemas‘fakemonks’.Oneformerforestmonknotedthat

monksonlygointotheforesttodaybecausetheyhearstoriesofspiritsshowing

monksgoldanddiamonds.Manyrespondentssaidthatthese‘fakemonks’ruinthe

powerofpreviouslyholyplacesthattheystay.

Respondentssaidthattodaymonksgointotheforestforadifferentpurpose.

Onepurposethatwasstatedbyrespondents,includingbothformerandcurrent

forestmonks,wasthegoaloflearningmagic.Adon-jiworkingatthesiteofthe

notableforestmonk,SokSan,explainedthatSokSanleftthepagodahebuiltaround

hispoeungandrefusedtoteachstudentsthereanymorebecausemanyofthe

studentsthatcametolearnfromhimonlywantedtolearnmagic.SokSanwasafraid

thatthesestudentsweregoingtousethemagichetaughttheminabadway.

Anexceptiontothemajorityofresponseswasaninterviewconductedwitha

currentlypracticingforestmonk.Thisforestmonklivesaloneunderapoeungwith

veryfewpossessions.Hehasbeenintheforestforapproximately20years.During

thistime,theforestmonkmovedtomanydifferentlocationsaroundLaosand

Cambodia.Theforestmonkexplainedthathecameintotheforesttopractice

meditationandlearnBuddhistlessons.Healsostrictlyfollowsthethirteenrulesof

forestmonks.

ReasonsforChangesinForestTradition

Therewereseveralreasonsprovidedforchangesintheforesttradition.

Respondentsstatedthatthereweremoreforestmonksbeforethewar,butmany

indicatedthatmostforestmonksdiedduringwartimes.Onemonkthatspentten

yearsintheforestexplainedthathehadtoleavetheforestafterthewarended

becausetherewerenomonksinthepagodas.Themonksaidthathefeltpityforthe

villagebecauseeveryonewaspoorafterthewar.

Respondentsstatedthattheforestwasquietandpeacefulinthepast.The

largeexpansesofforestallowedforestmonkstotraveltomanydifferentlocations

onPhnomKulen.Themajorityrespondentsagreedthatsincethewarmuchofthe

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foresthasbeencutdown.Thismakesitharderformonkstofindcleanwaterand

isolationallowingforaquietplacetomeditate.

Respondentssaidthatinthepastcoupleofyears,monkshavehadtoask

permissionfromtheauthoritiesbeforegoingintotheforest.Mostrespondents

referredtotheMinistryofCultsandReligionastheauthorities.Respondentssaid

thattheauthoritieshavestrictrulesandwanttoknowexactlywheremonksare

goingintheforest.RespondentsalsonotedthatAPSARANationalAuthorityandthe

MinistryofEnvironmentdon’tallowmonkstogotocertainsitesinPhnomKulen

NationalPark.

Anachastatedthatanotherreasonforthechangeintheforesttraditionis

thatmonksdon’thavethedesiretogointotheforestanymore.Otherrespondents

statedthatthereasonspeoplebecomeamonkarechanging.Alargemotivating

factorforpeoplebecomingmonksistogetaneducation.Respondentssaidthat

todaymonkswanttostayinurbanpagodastolearn,providingthemwith

opportunitiestogotoauniversityandlearnEnglish.Respondentsalsosaidthat

societyisalsodifferentnow.Anachastatedthatpeopletodayaregreedyand

ambitious;theyneverthinktheyhaveenough.Aformerforestmonk,acha,and

villagerblamedtechnologyfortheseambitions.Theformerforestmonkalso

explainedthatsomemonksgointotheforesttoescapethepagodawhentheyget

intopoliticalissues.Hesaidthatthesemonkshidefromtheirissuesintheforest

andbringtheirphonesandlaptops.

Discussion

ForestMonkSites PhnomKulenisoneofCambodia’smostsacredlandscapes(Hayesetal

2013).Forestmonkshavebeendocumentedwanderingitsmountainsandforests

fordecades(Hansen1969;Bareau1969).Thisstudyhasconfirmedprevious

documentationsthatPhnomKulenhasbeenutilizedasaplaceofisolationand

peaceformonkstofollowthepathofBuddha(Table1&Appendix2).Thestudy

Tait23

alsoconfirmedthatforestmonksstillretreatintothesameforeststodayandeven

usesomeofthesamesites.Specificsitesweredocumentedinandaroundseven

villagesinPhnomKulenNationalParkshowingavastdistributionofforestmonk

locationsacrossthemountain.ThoughmanysitesaroundPhnomKulenhavenow

beenmodifiedtoaccommodatethepracticesofcurrentforestmonks,somesitesare

stillleftuntouchedfromthetimethatnotableforestmonksofthepastwere

reportedtohavestayedthere.Manyofthesitesdocumentedwerefarfromvillages

allowingforthepeaceandquietthataforestmonk’spracticesrequire.

Thestudydocumentssitesthathavenotbeenpreviouslyrecorded,addingto

theofficialMinistryofEnvironment“InventoryofArcheologicalSitesintheNational

ParkofPreahJayavaramanNorodom”report(Sangetal2015).Thestudyalso

obtainedverbalconfirmationofsitesthatwereunabletobevisitedduringthedata

collectionperiod,suchasPoeungKomnou.Tan(2014)mentionedawoodenhutand

rattanbedframeunderrockcarvingsatPoeungKommousimilartoremnantsof

pastorcurrentforestmonksthatwereseenatmanyotherpoeungsitesdocumented

inthisstudy.Basedontheseaccountsandotherssitesreportedinthisstudy,there

areinevitablymanymorepastandcurrentforestmonksitesaroundPhnomKulen

thathaveyettobeformallydocumented.

TheForestTradition

DataindicatedthattheforestisstillanimportantpartofBuddhisttraditionand

monksstillhaveadeepconnectiontotheforesttoday.Retreatstotheseforestsites

allowmonkstofollowthepathofBuddhaandobtainstrengthandpuritythrough

meditation.Becomingaforestmonkisapersonaljourneythatallowsthemonkto

increasetheirunderstandingofBuddhistlessonsanddeveloptheirmind.Byliving

intheforestforanextendedperiodoftime,monksdevelopamoralandethical

frameworkofrespecttowardstheforestandtheenvironmentasawhole(Forest

DhammaOrganization2015).

ManyofthesamerulesandpracticesthatwerereportedinPhnomKulenare

alsoseenthroughouttherestofSoutheastAsia,suchaseatingonceaday,following

astrictschedule,andmeditationastheprimaryfocus(Hermitary2006).Though

Tait24

thistraditionofforestlivingisrapidlychanginginPhnomKulenNationalPark,

therearestillimportantBuddhistandenvironmentallessonstobelearnedfrom

forestmonkpractices.

ForestConnectionsandDevelopinganEnvironmentalEthic

Religion,andmorespecificallyBuddhism,playsasignificantandinfluential

roleinthelivesofCambodians(Kouy2014).Alargepartofthisrolehashistorically

beengeneratingastrongconnectionwithnatureandCambodianBuddhists

traditionallyregardtheirrelationshiptotheenvironmentashavingethical

dimensions(ibid;Phorst2012).Manycurrentandformerforestmonkswerefound

tohavedevelopedadeepconnectiontonatureduringtheirstayintheforest.This

connectionandtheirabilitytopracticetheBuddhistlessonstheylearned,rather

thanjustreadingthemastheywouldinapagoda,createdamoralframeworkof

respecttowardstheenvironment.TheBuddhistlessonstheypracticedincluded

followingthemiddlepathbylivingandtravelingwithfewpossessions.Themiddle

pathispracticedbylivingmodestlyandnevertakingtoomuchortoolittle(BBC

2014).Anotherlessonpracticedbyforestmonkswasgivingupallfeelingsand

ambitionsbyfocusingsolelyonmeditationinordertomoredeeplyunderstandthe

forestandhowthenaturalworldworks.Buddhistsaretaughtthathumanlifeand

otherformsoflifeareregardedasbeingofthesamematter(Phorst2012).The

forestmonksinthisstudylivedasonewithnature,ratherthaninopposition.One

forestmonkinterviewedstatedthatalllifecomesfromthesamefourelements:air,

wind,earth,andfire,andthereforeshouldbeequallyprotected.Theselessons

createanenvironmentalethicofunityandequality.

Recently,foundationsofenvironmentalethicsinBuddhismhave

materializedintoactionstowardsenvironmentalprotectionaroundSoutheastAsia,

andmorespecificallyinCambodia.Resultsfromthisstudysuggestthatforest

monksusetheirconnectiontotheforestandtheethicstheydevelopfromthis

connectiontoprotecttheenvironmentallocally.Themajorityofcurrentandformer

forestmonksinthisstudyrecognizedthatmuchoftheforestinPhnomKulen

NationalParkhasbeencutdowninthelastdecade,asonly25%oftheforestcover

Tait25

intheparkstillremains(Hayesetal.2013).Tocombatthisrapiddeforestationand

preservethelastremainingpiecesofforestforthemtoretreatto,forestmonks

oftenasklocalvillagerstorefrainfromcuttingtreesaroundthesiteswherethe

forestmonksstay.Itwasfoundthatforestmonksreferredtothetreesashavinglife

whentryingtoeducatevillagersandthereforegavethemmoralconsideration.This

isaformofeco-centrism,inwhichoneappliesethicstoecosystemsincluding

biologicalandnon-biologicalelements(Kouy2014).

Theonlytwocurrentforestmonksthatreportednottakingactiontoprotect

theforestwerestayingattheonlytwositesvisitedthatweresurroundedby

cultivatedland.Otherwise,therewasasignificantcorrelationbetweenthesitesof

forestmonksthatwerevisitedduringthisstudyandthepatchesofforestedland

thatremained.Eventhesitesthatnowcontainedstructuresoractivewats,had

forestsonthemajorityoftheirsurroundingland.Itispossiblethatthe

establishmentofthesepermanentstructurescouldprotectthelastfragmentsof

forestinPKNP.InmanyareasofSoutheastAsia,theonlypatchesofforestthat

remainarethoseprotectedbehindforestmonasterywalls(Thate1996).

AtwatsaroundCambodiamonkshavebeenseentakingincreasedaction

againstenvironmentaldegradation.Monkshavebeenobservedcarryingouttree

ordination,asseenatthreeforestsitesvisitedduringdatacollectionceremonies

(Fig3),toprotectforestsagainstdegradationanddeforestation(Duggleby2013).

Thepurposeofthisceremonyistograntthetreethesameregardandrespectasis

grantedtoamonk,inanattempttoevokeanenvironmentalconsciousnessand

awarenessinthegreaterpublic(Rajagoplan2015).MonksintheCardamom

Mountainshavebeenreportedtakingactionagainstharmfuldamdevelopment

projectsthatthreatenforestsandvillagesneartheirpagodas(Kourabas2014).One

groupofmonksinNorthwestCambodiaestablishedaMonkCommunityForestto

combatillegallogginginaforestthatisessentialtothesurvivaloflocal

communities(CarbonConvenant2016).Theseactionsareraisingawarenessof

environmentalchallengesaroundCambodiabycallingontheethicsandmoralityof

CambodiancitizensthroughBuddhistleaders.

Tait26

ChangesinForestMonkPractices

Thereweremanydifferentreasonsstatedforthechangesinforestmonk

traditionsandeachsitehadspecificreasonsforundergoingthesechanges.Themost

prevalentreasonsmentionedwerechangesinsociety.Respondentsstatedthat

monksinthepastwentintotheforestseekingasimplelifewhereasmonkstoday

don’twanttoleavetheirmoderntechnologyandqualityoflifetostayintheforest.

Thisdataisinconclusiveduetothedifferingresponsesbetweenpastandcurrent

forestmonks.Currentforestmonkswereobservedgivinguptheirmodernluxuries

tospendtimeintheforest,whilethemajorityofformerforestmonksbelievethisis

notrepresentativeofallmonkspracticingintheforesttoday.Rather,thechangein

thetypeoflivingconditionsshouldbeanalyzedastheobserveddifferences

betweenpastandcurrentforestmonkscorrelatemorestronglywithinterview

responses.

Asareligion,Buddhistpracticesandlessonsadjustwithchangesinsociety.

Buddhistsbelievethatnothingisfixedorpermanentandthatchangeisalways

possible(BBC2014).Observationsweremadeofofferingscontainingsodaand

candygivenatshrines,monkscarrycellphones,andstatuesofBuddhaarenow

decoratedwithneonlights.Followingthistrendinasocietyofdevelopmentand

modernization,monasteriesandotherpermanentstructureshavebeenbuilt

aroundpreviousforestmonklocations.Thiswasobservedatthemajorityofforest

monksitesvisitedduringthedatacollectionperiod.Fullmonasterieswerebuiltat

PoeungChatAsaiy,PoeungTaSuang,andPoeungPkaRoamDtukRoam.

Developmentofpermanentstructuresandmonasterieshasalsotakenplacein

Thailandduetosocietalchange(Thate1996).SimilartoPhnomKulenNational

Park,monksbegandevelopingpermanentmonasticcommunitieswhereforest

monkscouldcontinuetopracticemeditation(ForestDhammaOrganization2015).

Practicingmonkshavegravitatedtowardstheseforestmonasteriesinlarge

numbersinThailandandtransformedthemintogreatcentersofBuddhistpractice

(ibid).

Tait27

AnotherreasonforchangesinforestmonkpracticesinPhnomKulenNational

Parkisalossinforestcover.Mostsitesvisitedonlycontainedsmallpatchesof

surroundingforest.OneformerforestmonkinPKNPrecountedthatduringhis

twentyyearsormoreintheforest,heusedtotravelbetweeneverysitehestayedat

withoutleavingthecoveroftheforest,butnowwithrecentdeforestationthis

traditionofmovingthroughtheforestinisolationisnearlyimpossible.Thethreatof

deforestationtotheforesttraditionisnotjustseeninCambodia,butthroughout

muchofSoutheastAsia.Bythe1950s,thewanderinglifestyleofmonksfollowing

theforesttraditionhadcomeunderthreat(ForestDhammaOrganization2015).

RapiddeforestationinThailandhasalsoleftveryfewisolatedcavescausingforest

monkstomodifytheirlifestyle(Tiyavanich1997).Similartotheforestmonkin

PhnomKulen,amonkinThailandrecountedthatalltheforesthewalkedthrough

duringhistimeasaforestmonkhasbeendestroyedduringhislifetime(Thate

1996).Thereasonsforestmonksspendlesstimeintheforesttodayandgenerally

onlyvisitonelocationduringtheirstaycouldbeattributedtorapiddeforestation.

Afinalreasonthatwasoftenmentionedwastheauthorities,including

APSARANationalAuthority,notallowingforestmonkstostayincertainareas.

APSARANationalAuthorityhasrecentlystationedemployeesatmanyprevious

forestmonksitestoprotectthesites’archeologicalfeatures,suchasSrahDomrei,

PoeungTbal,andPoeungOPa-ong.ItisunclearwhetherAPSARANational

Authorityhasmadedirectpoliciesagainstforestmonksresidingatthesesitesor

whethertheemployeessimplytakeawayfromthepeacefulandquietisolationof

theforestthatmonksseek.Eitherway,forestmonksnolongertraveltothesesites

tostayforextendedperiodsoftime.Theauthoritiesmentionedbymany

respondentsalsoincludedtheMinistryofCultsandReligionsandtheMinistryof

Environment.Accordingtomanyrespondentsthesegovernmentalentitieshave

recentlystartedrequiringanapprovalprocessinordertoallowmonkstoenterthe

forest.Itispossiblethatthisprocessisdifficultorintimidating,thereforedeterring

monksfromgoingintotheforestatall.Theexactprocessofreceivingapprovalis

alsounclearthereforenosignificantconclusionscanbemade.

Tait28

TheForestTraditionasaDisappearingPractice

Itwasfoundthatknowledgeofpastandcurrentforestmonksisisolatedto

villagesclosetohermitageandpoeunglocations.Often,olderpeopleinthevillage

hadthemostknowledgeofforestmonks.Theolderpeopleinterviewedmentioned

thatyoungergenerationsarenotinterestedinthehistoryofforestmonksorcurrent

forestmonkpractices.Therefore,knowledgeandstoriesdonotgetpasseddownto

youngergenerations.Evenpastforestmonksexplainedthattheyrarelysharetheir

experiencesfromtheforestwithyoungermonks.Thisindicatesthatthelackof

transferofknowledgeandthechangeindesiresofcurrentmonkscouldleadtothe

foresttraditionnolongerbeingpracticed.

TheContemporaryForestMonk

Thecontemporaryforestmonk’slifestyleisdefinedbysite-specific

combinationsofuncontrollableoutsidefactors,includingtheenvironment,

government,andsociety(ForestDhammaOrganization2015).Thecontemporary

forestmonkgoesintotheforestformanydifferentreasons,whetheritisthe

traditionalreasonsofmediationandBuddhistpracticeortolearnmagicinthe

comfortofmoderntechnology.ResultsofthisstudyindicatedthatmonksinPhnom

Kulentodaytypicallygointotheforestasagroupandstayinastructureorwat

builtnearapoeungsite.Themonkstypicallyonlystayintheforestforafewdaysup

tothreemonthsatatimebeforereturningtothemonastery.Thesecontemporary

forestmonksstillreveretheforestashavingsignificantimportanceinBuddhist

lessonsandpracticeanddevelopadeepconnectionbyspendingtimethere.This

trendisalsoseeninThailandasmonksdeveloppermanentforestmonasteriesto

continueBuddhistpracticesinthefaceofoutsideinfluences,suchasdeforestation

(ForestDhammaOrganization2015).

Basedonthelargevariationinresponsesfrompastandcurrentforestmonks

andlimitedinterviewswithcurrentforestmonks,itishardtodrawgeneral

definitiveconclusionsaboutforestmonkstoday.Basedonresponsesfrompast

forestmonks,monksthatpracticeintheforesttodaystillhaveambitionsand

Tait29

feelingsandlackapureheartandmindtofollowthehighstandardoftraditional

practices.Basedthecurrentforestmonksinterviewed,thisisnottrue.InThailand,

monktraditionsarealsochanging(WatPahNanachat2016).Thisiscreatinggreat

diversityandaflexiblemonasticorder(ibid).Whilesomemonksstillretreattothe

foresttolivequietlives,othersareseenintabloidsandnewspaperarticles(ibid).

Despitethesedifferinglifestylesbetweenmonksandthechangesinpractices

observed,thecontemporaryforestmonkstillhasadeepconnectiontotheforestin

whichtheyliveandplayaroleinenvironmentalprotection.

Limitations

Conductingresearchinremotelocationshasitschallengesdespitethewealth

ofknowledgethatawaitsdiscoverythere.InPhnomKulen,hermitagelocationsare

ofteninremoteareaswithnocleartrailaccess.Therefore,somesitescouldnotbe

visited.GiventhelimitedliteratureonPhnomKulenanditshistory,wehadtorelay

onthememoriesofthelocalpeople.Knowledgeofforestmonksandwherethey

stayintheforestwasusuallylimitedtooldermembersofthevillageandthese

villagersoftendisagreedontheexactlocationsofnearbyhermitagesites.

Anotherchallengewasthetraditionalnatureofforestmonks.Monksgoto

theforestforquietseclusiontoconcentrateontheirmeditationpracticesandare

oftenrequiredtofollowastrictsetofrules.Therefore,visitingforestmonksto

conductinterviewscaninterruptthesepractices.Interviewsmustbalancerespectof

eachindividualmonk’spracticeswhileobtainingresearchinformation.

Recommendations

FutureresearchisneededinPhnomKulenandotherareasofCambodiato

getamoreholisticviewofthecurrentlivesofforestmonks.Poeungsites

documentedbytheMinistryofEnvironmentandsitesthatwerereportedduring

interviewsthatwereunabletobevisitedduringthedatacollectionperiodshouldbe

visited.Moreresearchisneededontheroleofthegovernmentandother

organizationsincontributingtochangesinforestmonkpracticesandlimitingforest

Tait30

monksfromtravelingtodifferentsitesaroundPhnomKulen.Finally,moremonks

thatgototheforestforshortperiodsoftime,forexampleongrouphermitagetrips,

needtobeinterviewedtodetermineiftheyfollowthetraditionalforestpractices

andtheiractionstowardsenvironmentalprotection.

Conclusion TheforesttraditionhasdeeprootsinPhnomKulen.Forestmonkshaveused

sitesaroundthemountaintopracticemeditationandBuddhistlessonsforcenturies

andmonkstodaystillretreattosomeofthesamelocations.Inthefaceof

environmental,governmental,andsocietalchange,therehavebeenshiftsinthe

forestmonktraditiontowardstheestablishmentofpermanentstructuresand

shorterstaysintheforest.Despitethesechanges,somemonksstillcarryontheir

traditionalpractices.Forestmonkstodayalsocontinuetoplayavitalroleinthe

protectionofthelastexpansesofforestinPhnomKulenNationalPark.The

developmentofpermanentstructuresandtheincreasinguseoftreeordination

ceremoniescouldserveaslastingenvironmentalprotection.

Tait31

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AppendixI:InterviewQuestions1–Ageandhowlongyouhavebeenamonk/achar/doun-ji?

2–Whereareyoufrom?

3–Whatdoyouknowaboutforestmonks?

4–Doyouknowanystoriesaboutforestmonks?

5–Howlongdoforestmonkliveintheforest?

Doyouonlycomecertaintimeoftheyear?

6–Are(you/forestmonks)withothersoralonewhenyouareintheforest?

Whoareyouwith?

Howmanypeople?

7–Dopeoplefromlocalcommunitiescomeheretoseeyou?

Whatdotheycomefor?

8–Whydoforestmonkscometotheforest/liveintheforest?

9–Areforestmonksconnectedwithamonastery?Whichone?

10–Doyou/forestmonksneedapermissiontogointotheforest?

11–WhatBuddhistpracticesdoyoudointheforest?

12–Doforestmonkshavedifferentpracticesthanmonasterymonks?

Doforestmonkshavedifferentstatus?

13–Whatisyourconnectiontotheforest?

14–Doyoutalktoanyoneabouttheconnectionwiththeforest?

15–Haveyouheardstoriesofforestspirits?

Whatstories?

16–Haveyouheardstoriesofmonksandspiritsinteracting?

Whatstories?

17–Haveyoueverheardaboutforestmonksandmagicormagicalpractices?

18–Doyou/forestmonksactivelyworktoprotecttheforest?

Whatdoyou/theydo?

19–Doyouknowofanyfamousforestmonksofthepast?

20–Doesanyoneelseknowaboutforestmonksofthepast?

21–Howwereforestmonksdifferentinthepast?

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22-Whathaschangedaboutforestmonkstoday?

23-WhatotherforestmonksdoyouknowinPhnomKulen?Wherearethey?