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Alan W. Brown, Jerry Fishenden, Mark Thompson © 2014 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978–1–137–44362–5 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India. Copyrighted matrial – 978–1–137–44362–5 Copyrighted matrial – 978–1–137–44362–5

description

Alan Brown, Jerry Fishenden, Mark Thompson

Transcript of Digitizing Government

Page 1: Digitizing Government

Alan W. Brown, Jerry Fishenden, Mark Thompson © 2014

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of thispublication may be made without written permission.

No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmittedsave with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publicationmay be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First published 2014 byPALGRAVE MACMILLAN

Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS.

Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.

Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world.

Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.

ISBN 978–1–137–44362–5

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fullymanaged and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India.

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List of Figures ixList of Tables xiAcknowledgements xii Figures Acknowledgements xivPreface xv

Introduction 1Pressure for Change 1The Gap – Political Vision versus Operational Reality 4Building Truly Digital Public Services 5The Challenge is not Primarily Technology 6Killing the Myths 7Aim and Structure of the Book 9

Part 1: Online Services – A Road Much Travelled 1 An International Problem 15 Between Aspiration and Implementation Falls the Shadow 18

2 The UK’s Journey, A Lesson for Us All 21 The Wilderness Years: The Failed Allure of ‘New Public

Management’ 22 A Serious Misalignment: Implementation of DEG Using

Stone-Age NPM Tools 27

3 Decades of Hope 31 Accessibility/Social Inclusion 31 Privacy, Security and Identity 34

Contents

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Policy – or How Technology will Miraculously Improve Public Services and Cost Us Less 39

The Magic of ‘e’: Electronic Government 40 Modernizing, Information Age Government 42 … and Yet more Strategies 44 Transformational Government 47 Putting the Front Line First: Smarter Government and

Digital Britain 48 Portals, Portals, Portals 51 ‘Open’ Everything 54 Outcomes and Benefi ts 56 Undercurrents of Change: Prelude to the 2010

General Election 59

4 2010 and Beyond 62 The Coalition Agreement 62 Viva la Revolución 63 ‘A Recipe for Rip-off s’ 63 Government ICT Strategy 2011 65 Digital Services and the Growth of the Government

Digital Service 66 Current State 68 The Schism between Aspiration and Implementation:

Turning a Corner? 71

5 Establishing a New Normal – Remaking Public Services for the Digital Age 74

So What is ‘Digital’ Anyway? 74 The Four Layers of the Digital Organization 75 User Empowerment through Digital 79 The Speed of Change 80 Management of Continuous Change 81 New Citizens and New Expectations: The Impact of

Mobile Technology 82 Democratizing Innovation 83 Enablers of Change 84 Summary: Characteristics of Digital Government 86 Towards Reimagined Public Services and the Big Idea 88

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Part 2: The Big Idea

6 Establishing the Cultural Framework 91 ‘Leaning’ Government 92 Understanding how the Various Moving Parts Work Together 94 Open Architecture 96 Example: Replacing Silos with Component Reuse across

Government 101 Innovate–Leverage–Commoditize (ILC) 105 But Who Sets the Standards? ‘Tight-loose’ in Action 114

7 Implementing a Mature Platform 116 So What Is, and Isn’t, a Platform? 116 So Where does the Technology Come in? 119 How Open Standards Create Innovation and Investment 122 The Platform is a Dynamic, not a Thing 123 Avoiding Evolutionary Dead Ends: Blu-ray and HD DVD 125 Existing Public Services versus the Open, Platform-based

Architecture 126 Culture Change from Closed to Open: Achieving the

Open Stack 128 Converging on Open Architecture 132 Spending More, or Less, on Technology? 133 Getting Started – Digital Profi ling 134

8 Future Digital Public Services 139 The Opportunity in Local Services 139 Change-ready Business Model 147 A Better Outcome 148 Digital Profi ling: How to Start a National Conversation 156 Open Architecture and Agile: The Yin and Yang of Digital 157 Build or Consume? 158 Summary – Characteristics of Digital Government 160

Part 3: Service Providers and Digital Delivery

9 Organizational Structures and Digital Transformation 165

The Foundations of Digital Transformation 165

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‘Elastic’ Principles of Successful Digital Organizations 171 Experimental Approaches to Organizational Agility 172 Some Challenges – and How to Overcome Them 179 Summary – the Elements of Successful Digital

Transformation 181

10 Flexible Architectures for Large-scale Systems 184 Digital Profi ling 185 Approaches to Soft ware Architecture 191 Into the Clouds 199 Impact on Government 205

11 Agile Processes and Practices 208 Agility in Soft ware Delivery 209 Rethinking Enterprise Soft ware Delivery 210 From Soft ware Development to Soft ware Delivery 211 The Basis for Agile Government 214 Agility at Scale 216 Cornerstones of Success 221 Implications for Government 224

12 API Economy, Ecosystems and Engagement Models 225

Defi ning and Using APIs 229 API Philosophy 231 Designing an API 233 Implementing an API 235 Summary – Implementing Digital Government 236

13 Conclusion and Recommendations 237 Conclusion 237 Summary of Recommendations 246 How, and Where, to Start – to Become a Digital

Organization 249

References, Sources and Further Reading 253Index 261

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Introduction

Pressure for Change

Governments and public sector organizations across the world are trying to balance essential, and often conflicting, demands: to deliver better, more relevant public services centred on the needs of the citizens and businesses they serve; to reduce costs and improve the efficiency of their operations; and to reinvent supply chains to deliver services quickly, cheaply and effectively.

The UK well illustrates the challenges of this struggle: although the initial years of the government from 1997 to 2010 were associated with public expenditure restraint, sources from the Organisation for Co-operation and Development (OECD) show that public expenditure as a share of GDP rose from around 40% in 2000 to around 50% in the recession year of 2009. In parallel, the global shifts towards emerging markets have been increasing the role and influence of these rapidly emerging economies. Without exception, these economies have much lower public spend-ing as a percentage of their GDP than the more mature economies of the UK, North America and Western Europe. Because these emerging economies are offering goods and services at ‘super competitive’ prices, and also improving their skills and hence productivity very rapidly, there is a considerable risk of other governments being caught in a trap where it becomes difficult to develop and sustain a higher cost public sector without losing competitiveness. This is an increasing problem in many EU

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economies, where it is simply not possible to afford a high ratio of public spending to gross domestic product (GDP) without doing considerable damage to much-needed growth that, in turn, puts upward pressure on the ratio of public spending to GDP.

Within the UK (the case example for many of the discussions in this book), global competitiveness is set to decline from just under 5% of world GDP around the turn of the twentieth century to 2.6% by 2028. Meanwhile, the East Asian economies are rising from about 20% of world GDP to 32.6%, or more than double the size of the Western European economy – which by 2028 will represent just 14.5% of world GDP. Within the UK, as within other Western economies, this picture has a stark implication: in order to maintain our existing standards of public services within this era of relative decline, we need to have a serious and open public debate about how we reorganize our public service delivery models or accept lower public service standards. We cannot continue to pretend that we can have both.

In fact, pressure is mounting not only to maintain but to improve service levels: for instance, Don Tapscott, author of Grown Up Digital, observes that younger, digitally native generations now ‘demand better services, more convenient access to information and an on-going opportunity to personalize or customize the services they receive from government. They want the public sector organized in ways that maximize convenience to the citizen as opposed to the bureaucracy.’

If governments are to relieve these growing internal and external pres-sures, they need to rethink, redesign and optimize their services, and place the user – citizens, businesses and the voluntary sector alike – at the centre of their operations, rather than the needs of government organiza-tions and service providers. And they need to move rapidly and effectively away from outdated business models, management cultures, technology and processes inherited from earlier eras.

This transition will involve a disruptive and painful move away from closed, top-down, bureaucratic and paper-based transactional services towards online, integrated digital offerings that encourage a new kind

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of interaction between citizens and the state. The confluence of citizen demand for greater speed and more transparency in service delivery is being met with an increased appetite within the public sector to deliver services in more innovative ways – through the use of open technologies; more inclusive citizen engagement; the increased involvement of smaller, more innovative companies; and the adoption of agile delivery practices that are better able to meet ever-changing socio-economic demands.

Since the mid-1990s, much has already changed in our private and business lives. In the private sector entirely new business models have emerged, enabled by rapid advances in technology. Many old and once-treasured high-street brands have gone into decline, or even disappeared entirely, whilst new organizations – such as Twitter, Netflix, Whatsapp and Facebook – have appeared to come from nowhere, either to define entirely new opportunities, or to reimagine and reinvent old business models. They are delivering new models of innovation and services at a scale and speed previously unknown.

As a monopoly provider of many services, however, governments have remained largely shielded from the benefits, as well as the business challenges, of these revolutionary changes. This lateness to engage effectively is damaging to governments, as well as to the citizens and businesses they serve. With such a privileged, monopoly status comes great responsibility: governments need urgently to rethink their role, engagement approach and delivery model for the digital world. Perhaps partly because governments were often amongst the earliest adopters of information technology (IT) – doing much in the 1960s and 1970s to automate their basic internal operations in areas such as taxation – it has often become more difficult for them to change: and whereas they were once often amongst the largest users of computer technology, their size and scale is now dwarfed by the largest technology-driven corporations, such as Facebook, Google and Amazon. Where government technology and services were once seen as big and ‘special’, today – with a few notable exceptions, such as national defence systems – they now often appear relatively small-scale, unnecessarily complicated and increasingly outdated.

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The Gap – Political Vision versus Operational Reality

Politicians have long recognized the opportunities offered by the internet and digital technology to bring significant benefits to the public sector. Indeed, fine sentiments have been expressed for decades about modern-izing and improving public services, but such sentiments have remained relatively unmatched by meaningful delivery on the ground. Public services appear largely to have been bypassed by developments in the private sector, and have become increasingly unable to meet the needs of a tech-savvy population accustomed to responsive, tailored and personal services. In consequence, governments run the risk of becoming isolated and outdated – almost aloof – from the internet age, artificially separated from the world outside and citizens’ expectations by their exclusive monopoly provider role, yet unable to deliver the quality and responsive-ness expected from their uniquely privileged position. As a result, their relevance, and even legitimacy, is at stake.

Whilst governments have been preoccupied with their repeated efforts to move online, elsewhere we have seen the emergence of truly digital organizations. Modern technology is typically the enabler of change, but being digital is not principally about technology: their behaviours, actions and culture must also adapt to a digital world. So, for example, successful digital organizations usually have operating models clustered around speed and adaptability, exemplified by maxims such as ‘show don’t tell’ and ‘done is better than perfect’. The culture that enables organizations to work well in this way often contrasts strongly with accepted best practice. So digital transformation actually requires rede-signing and re-engineering organizations on every level – people, process, technology and governance.

Yet just how do public service organizations successfully reinvent themselves as truly digital organizations, and ensure that investment in digital transformation delivers the intended outcomes in terms of service improvements? Nearly two decades of online government, e-government and transformational government initiatives have promised so much, spent so much, and yet delivered relatively little in terms of significant,

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sustainable benefits. One analysis suggests that an estimated US$3 trillion was spent during the first decade of the twenty-first century on govern-ment information systems, yet 60% to 80% of e-government projects failed in some way, resulting in massive wastage of financial, human and political resources, and an inability to deliver the potential benefits. We need to develop an improved understanding and consensus on what being a public sector organization means in the digital, twenty-first century.

Building Truly Digital Public Services

In this book, we focus on transforming public services and their relation-ship with citizens and businesses alike. We provide a perspective of digital change efforts, using the UK public sector as an illustration of the more ubiquitous challenges faced and improvements required to reimagine public services everywhere. We look at the mismatch between aspects of some public and private services, and the role of culture, leadership and technology in delivering truly digital organizations. We aim to provide both a vision for the future of public services in our digital world (reveal-ing the close relationship between organizational improvement and digital culture), as well as mapping out a framework for how public services need to reform and modernize in order to play their rightful, and essential, role in the digital economy at local, national and international scale.

The context within which this digital public services reinvention needs to happen is the much broader transformation taking place in our personal lives and how we conduct business – driven by a constant stream of digital technology changes, optimized production practices and flexible global delivery models. There has been a sea change in the way users expect to use technology: it has become cheap, easy to use, consumable like a utility, always on, mobile, and open (working seamlessly with everything else – well, most of the time anyway). At home, we have become sophisticated users of such technologies, and of the flexibility and freedoms they enable. There is an increasing, and undeniable, demand to see these same benefits realized in public services as everywhere else.

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One example of this digital transformation has been the use of technology platforms, whether these are proprietary (such as Apple’s iOS, which pow-ers iPods, iPhones and iPads alike) or more open (such as Google’s Android, which powers the majority of today’s mobile devices). These platforms have stimulated whole ecosystems of organizations to build products and services, attracted by the volume of demand that they generate. Such platforms can drive astonishing rates of innovation, investment, choice and competition. However, until recently very little of this platform-based thinking – and its associated benefits – have been emulated within our public services. Accordingly, the essential role of platforms forms a core theme of this book.

There is a stark contrast between these emerging business models based on digital platforms and interfaces in the best organizations in the private sector and the general state of public services: the latter are all too often underpinned by idiosyncratic processes, point solutions, top-down assumptions about users’ needs, often exclusive contracts based on obsolete commercial models, and outdated systems. Whilst some of the worst organizations in the private sector also share similar structural and management failings, their existence in a competitive market means we are able to take our custom elsewhere. As a result, poorly performing companies ultimately decline and fail, whereas governments – isolated from such dynamics – need to take conscious and deliberate corrective action if they are to modernize and improve: as citizens, we have nowhere else to turn for our public services.

The Challenge is not Primarily Technology

Despite considerable media attention on public sector ‘IT failures’, the underlying challenge is not primarily one of technology (although this is certainly important), but a lack of the capabilities and leadership skills needed to manage and deliver meaningful reform. There continues to be a widespread lack of understanding of how digital models of public service design can deliver agile, easy-to-use, consumerized services at lower cost

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and in a way that emulates our daily experiences in the best of the private sector. This lack of understanding – and the missed opportunity for public services – crystallizes the urgent need to build a common view of what the transition to digital public service delivery actually involves. Digital thinking, and its associated technologies, need to impact and influence the design and operation of public services as they are being contemplated, developed and evolved, rather than being applied merely as a means of automating old processes from the world that has passed.

The misunderstanding of the gap between applying digital technology versus implementing a digital strategy is both pervasive and common to the public and private sectors. A recent Forrester ‘State of Digital Business 2014’ report, which polled almost two thousand senior business leaders in the UK and US early in 2014, highlighted this gap and called it a ‘digital strategy execution crisis’. The data showed that only one in five business leaders had a meaningful vision for digital transformation, and that a majority of organizations had a ‘bolt on’ approach where existing practices were simply augmented with new digital technology delivery channels.

Killing the Myths

To be truly effective, digitizing government involves reimagining the way in which governments design and deliver services: a transition from traditionally organized state corporates (who have outsourced much of their work and expertise to large private corporates) to a new, diverse ecosystem of state, private and third sector activity, organized around the citizen in the form of services.

Such a de-corporatization of the state and its favoured suppliers requires an untangling of the black boxes of many siloed organizations, paper-oriented processes, proprietary technologies and opaque cost structures. Separating these out will enable easier cost comparison between commoditized components in a manner that resembles, for example, the domestic elec-tricity market: despite electricity suppliers’ attempts to build brand value, electricity remains fundamentally a price-sensitive commodity. The same

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applies to much of the infrastructure running our public services. We can ring-fence total government spending, and yet increase the amount spent on services, by becoming much more selective about whether we wish to spend our taxes on institutions, bureaucracy and supplier margins – or on people and services.

But before we get into the detail of this transition, it is important that we lay to rest two misconceptions that are sometimes raised in relation to these concepts.

The first is the fear that the transformation we propose will hand the soul of our public services to large companies. This is simply not the case. Indeed, this description actually better describes the operating model of public sector IT as it has been for the past 20 or so years, and represents a major part of what we are keen to get away from. Whilst we will show how many of the old distinctions between public sector and private sec-tor do start to become redundant within a genuinely transformed, digital public sector, this does not disrupt the political settlement. The most accu-rate characterization of this transformation is that it is anti-corporate: it is both pro public services and pro market, not pro organization. It does not seek to protect the institutional or organizational self-interests of either sector: it seeks to protect those of the citizen.

The second misconception is that when we talk about digital we are discussing the wholesale replacement of face-to-face public services with so-called zero touch, or electronically mediated forms of self-service. Digital government is emphatically not about some flashy Internet of Things gadget dangling around a lonely, housebound patient’s neck as a substitute for all-important face-to-face visits that may serve a host of other useful purposes (combatting loneliness, for instance). Quite the opposite. For us, digital public services will help drive a larger share of the public wallet to the front line – which will increase, not decrease, the resources available to spend on appropriate face-to-face services. It is about improving the funding for those activities – particularly caring, educating, policing – that (in our view) are best performed by public officials. This can only be achieved by spending less on all those unnecessary activities,

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layers of bureaucracy, or even suppliers that have inserted themselves in the way, as governments consume standard services directly from a plural, vibrant marketplace. Digital allows us to separate out important services from internal overheads: to move from multiple versions of the same thing, organized around the internal needs of the bureaucracy, to the same version of different things, organized around the citizen.

Aim and Structure of the Book

Importantly, however, we make no claims to have all the answers: instead, this book is intended to assist in opening up a broader dialogue about the future of public service delivery, by making the subject more accessible and relevant. Accordingly, instead of adopting an academic style, we offer instead a manifesto or call to arms, combined with a practitioner’s field guide. Our purpose is to bring together a wide range of experiences and lessons learned in a variety of organizations inside and outside the public sector, to set out a vision for what a truly digitized government needs to achieve, and to offer insight and guidance on how to get started on that journey. In setting out an improved set of principles for organizing our public services, our aim is to introduce our experiences and thinking to a much broader audience of citizens and practitioners who, we hope, may also start to demand better public services from an informed standpoint of the art of the possible.

The future of public services – their design, relevance and quality – is an important topic. Our aim is to provide not only an analysis of the current situation and the opportunities on offer, but also a path through this complex maze. We believe that the most effective way of accelerating the evolution of digital public services is to raise levels of awareness amongst citizens, poli-cymakers, public officials and their supplier community about the benefits of digital thinking, how these can be achieved, and ways in which their achieve-ment will require us to alter some of our past patterns of behaviour.

In Part 1, ‘Online Services – A Road Much Travelled’, we first review and summarize some of the history of previous attempts to implement

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technology-based public service transformation, examining the opportuni-ties and challenges. Part of truly understanding digital government lies in building a clear view of how it differs from those earlier attempts at using technology to drive the modernization of public services (the ‘why’ – the context and pressures that shape the current move to digital approaches).

In Part 2, ‘The Big Idea’, we develop these insights into a discussion of the objectives of digital culture and services, the digital business models that enable achievement of these objectives, and the balance that needs to be achieved between consuming services and building services: ‘the yin and the yang’ of digital (the ‘what’ – the principles we believe guide successful digital transformation).

In Part 3, ‘Service Providers and Digital Delivery’, we drill down into more detail about some of the primary tools and techniques being used as part of the move towards digital organizations. Whilst the move to digital government is not primarily about technology (and should certainly not be technology-led), the technology is an essential part of the process. Fundamental technology ideas are outlined as the basis for a discussion on digital delivery and the wider lessons to be drawn from approaches to software, the use of cloud computing, agile processes and practices, and the application programming interface (API) economy (the ‘how’ – the tools and approaches to help deliver successful digital transformation).

One of our key messages in this book is that digital transformation requires open, honest debate on the major principles and practices for the digital age. However, we recognize the need to bring these ideals to ground in practical steps that can be taken by practitioners to effect change in the projects and programmes in which they work. Consequently, we have grounded our analyses, observations and recommendations on in-depth experiences with the UK government’s transformation efforts, where the authors have detailed insight over past decades: but we do so to draw out common problems and solutions that face almost all public agencies across the world. Indeed, these challenges are not exclusive to governments and the public sector, but are shared by any large enterprise struggling to adapt to the digital age – as the authors have witnessed at first hand.

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We also believe that the UK is one of the most relevant case studies since it aims to become a bellwether itself of digital reinvention after many decades of disappointment. Technology thought-leader Tim O’Reilly has referred to the UK government’s current digital strategy as:

the new bible for anyone working in open government … [it] could be applied to every major corporation on the face of the planet. You guys are working in government and making a big difference there but I think you are potentially showing the way to a transformation of the IT sector in every organization and it’s really inspiring. When you put that ‘simple, beautiful and easy to use’ interface on government, you’re actually not just changing how government ‘appears’, you’re changing how it ‘works’. You’re changing the relationship between government and citizens. Can you imagine if people started to feel good about government again? That’s really part of what you are accomplishing. It’s not just improv-ing government websites, it’s literally going to change the relationship between citizen and governments.1

The lessons we highlight here, and the framework we set out, we hope will be of use to all of those interested in helping redesign and reimagine public services for the digital age – enabling a new era of digital public manage-ment. They relate to the major shift taking place in the digital economy, and provide relevant insight into what is needed to succeed – and how we might begin to make people ‘feel good about government again’.

1 See http://www.eduserv.org.uk/blog/2013/04/18/pioneers-of-the-new-public-sector/.

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Index

Adult Social Care application 144agile government, basis for 214–16agile innovation practice 173agile organizations 85, 177agile processes and practices 85–6,

137, 164key principles of 174

agile softwarearchitecture 196delivery techniques 85, 158–60,

195–6, 198, 209–10development 85, 175

agile thinking, principles of 216agility at scale

context for 216–18factors for 218–21

Amazon 3, 20, 80, 118, 124, 137, 196, 198, 235, 239

Elastic Compute Cloud 204Web Services platform 204

Android mobile platform 6, 97, 122anti-corporate 8AOL 51Apple 154–5, 196application programming interfaces

(APIs) 10, 86, 199, 226–7, 251availability of 234community-focused 232–3concept of 230

definition of 229–31designing of 233–4diversity in delivery 232elements of 231–3implementing of 235–6mash-ups and new solution

combinations 232meritocracies and priority-based

decision making 232outside-in design 231philosophy of 231–3use of 227

Australia‘Better Services, Better Government’

strategy 17e-government services 17‘Government Online’ policy 17

bankruptcy 161beginner organization 166benchmarking 44, 64, 113, 134Betamax video standard 125‘Better for Less’ paper (2010) 59

five principles from 60‘Better Services, Better Government’

strategy, Australia 17Blair, Tony 23, 39, 42, 47–8Blockbuster video rentals 93Blu-ray 125–6, 140

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Bracken, Mike 66Brown, Gordon 48‘brownfield’ organization 83Burton, Andy 127business architectures 141, 145, 147business intelligence 155, 223business logic 99–101, 111, 115,

119–20, 192business model

canvas 145–7reshaping of 175–6

business services delivery (BSD) 198–9

Businesslink.gov 50, 52business-to-business relationship 227

Canada, e-government services in 18capability maturity model (CMM)

191, 209capital investment 204case management system 95ceremony 210change management

methods of 81technical architecture of 101–5

change–ready business model 147–8change–ready local authority 147Chesbrough, Henry 182Chief Technology Officer (CTO)

16, 66Chopra, Aneesh 16, 182citizen centric services 41, 51, 114citizen feedback 84citizen-centric business models 85citizens card 36citizens’ information, privacy and

security of 34civil liberty 61cloud computing 61, 72, 85, 196–7,

199–200, 226

application of 236characteristic of 200–1development of 251hybrid models of 202impact on government 205–7private and public 201–2service models for 202

infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) 203

platform-as-a-service (PaaS) 203–4

software-as-a-service (SaaS) 204–5

significance of 207CloudStore 72, 156Coalition government in UK

aspiration and implementation of IT services 71–3

civil service reform 64Coalition Agreement 62–3current state of IT service 68–71digital services, growth of 66–8Efficiency and Reform Group

(ERG) 68ICT savings initiatives, impact

of 68ICT strategy (2011) 65–6influence of 62IT-related commitments 62Public Administration Select

Committee (PASC) 64, 66‘A Recipe for Rip-offs’ report 63–5Viva la Revolución 63

collaborative communities 80Combined Online Information System

(COINS) database 56commercial contracts 155Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS)

software 55commodity services, demand for 157

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competition, supply-side and demand-side 110

complex system 185Compuserve 51computer hacking 35computer technology 3confidentiality of information 35conservative organization 166Conservative Party 59, 61–2consumer-to-consumer relationships

227co-operative public system 96corporate innovations 84Craiglist 124credential management 36criminal justice 95, 140cross-departmental working group

52‘crowdsourcing’ of innovation 122,

241cryptography 36customer relationship management

187, 189customer satisfaction 137

data maintenance and quality, cost of 80

data management 167, 192, 197–8data mining 154–5data protection 35–6, 38, 60data quality 197data security 35, 38, 198data sharing, aspects of 38data sources, management of 168data warehousing 25data.gov.uk 56, 168data-interchange language 236datasets 78day-care centres 34decision making 78, 82, 85, 215, 223

meritocracies and priority-based 232

de-corporatization of the state 7, 244demand forecasting 155democratizing innovation, role for

83–4Department for Business, Innovation

and Skills (BIS) 49Department for Communities and

Local Government (DCLG) 156

digirati organization 166‘Digital Britain’ 48–51digital business model

components of 167framework for 167

digital delivery, concept of 165digital divide, concept of 32digital government 8

benefits of 86characteristics of 86–8, 160–1cultural framework required for

172implementing of 236

digital initiatives 14, 27, 29, 164, 181digital local services 154–5digital maturity of organization 166digital media delivery models 74digital organizations 98, 137, 236

adaptable culture 176–8benefits of 161business models and operating

approaches 74characteristics of 77democratizing innovation 83–4development of 163digital drivers and delivery 78‘elastic’ principles of 171–2emergence of 74–5as enablers of change 84–6

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digital organizations – continuedfour layers of 75–9recommendations to move towards

249–51software development and

deployment 184speed of change 80–1

digital profiling 134–5, 185–91, 238, 248

for starting national conversation 156

web-based 156digital public management (DPM)

11, 26, 242open-architecture approach for 132technological aspects of 163

digital public sector 8, 76, 133digital public services 5–6, 8, 63, 247

accessibility and social inclusion 31–4

achievement of 160build versus consume debate

158–60change-ready business model 147–8delivery of 173design and delivery of 85digital profiling 156elements of 90evolution of 9growth of 66–8implications of moving to 38‘Modernizing Government’

initiative 42–4open architecture and agile 157–8opportunity in local

services 139–47outcome of 148–55privacy, security and identity 34–8use of 36

‘digital strategy execution crisis’ 7

Digital Switchover of Public Services programme 49

digital technology 199adoption of 166deployment of 166implementation of 78

digital transformation 4, 10, 85, 93, 164, 170, 171, 177

creative process of 175elements of successful 181–3essential element of 165foundations of 165–70implications of 74organizational structures and

84–6of public services 169redesign and re-engineering 75

digital-era governance (DEG)implementation of 27–30innovative features of 25, 26significance of 25themes of 25

digitally enabled servicesbusiness-specific needs 79computing power and networking

capability 79development of 79expectations for 77user empowerment through 79–80

digitization, idea of 25digitizing government, characteristics

for 164Direct.gov 52‘Directgov 2010 and Beyond:

Revolution not Evolution’ report (2010) 63

disaggregation 126, 127‘do once, use many times,’ principle

of 36Dropbox 198

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Dunleavy, Patrick 24–6Durnall, Richard 181DVLA 49

East Asian economies 2eBay 118, 124, 137, 196, 234–5economic governance 213–14‘eEurope – An Information Society For

All’ initiative 54e-Government Authentication

Framework 36elastic enterprises 170

five principles of 171‘elasticity’ of an organization 170electronic government (e-government)

services 4–5, 14, 35, 176in Australia 17benefits of 56in Canada 18concept of 23costs and benefits of using 57creation of 15for delivery of public services

56–7magic of 40–2in New Zealand 16–17open source software (OSS), use of

54strategy of 44–7in United Kingdom 17, 23

electronic service delivery 44emerging markets 1enterprise application architecture

196–9enterprise resource planning (ERP)

115enterprise service bus (ESB) 193–5enterprise software 208, 211, 219

delivery 197, 210–11, 220–1traditional approaches to 191–5

enterprise-scale software system 191

enterprise-wide digital profiles 161, 248

‘e-recruitment’ system 121Essex County Council 113extreme programming 216

Facebook 3, 21, 112, 124, 196, 239, 242

face-to-face services 34, 120, 150, 155

fashionista organization 166Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956), USA

117Findlay, James 185flexible architecture

of computing 85for large-scale systems 164

Flickr 20Foden, Mark 101, 126, 148, 189

government silos 102Fox, Martha Lane 63fraud 35

detection of 155Freeman, Roger 29‘freeze–unfreeze–freeze’ change

models 81

Gartner 133Gawer, Annabelle 116

platforms typology 118, 158G-Cloud (Government-Cloud)

initiative 189, 206guiding principles of 207

geographic information interfaces 189

global capitalism 244global competitiveness 2Gmail 204

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Google 3, 124, 154–5, 157, 161, 196, 198, 234–5, 239, 248

Android mobile platform 6, 97, 122e-mail service 204innovation ecosystem 111, 123–4,

240government as a platform (GaaP)

117, 159, 161, 182Government Digital Service (GDS), UK

37, 46, 58, 89, 168–70, 184, 206, 230

by default design approach 67design principles 169establishment of 66growth of 66–8operation and delivery of public

services 70third-party identity service providers

37–8Government Gateway systems 52Government Information Service (GIS),

UK 29, 51–2‘Government Online’ policy, Australia

17government-held public data, use of

55–6government’s use of information 35GOV.UK 168, 206, 229–30gross domestic product (GDP) 2Gubbins of Government 101–9, 120,

148, 150, 154, 189

HD DVD 125–6, 140, 148Herbert, James 142High Speed 2 (HS2) railway

infrastructure programme 185Wardley Map of 188

Highsmith, Jim 175HMV 20holism, idea of 25

Hounslow, London Borough of 150–2platform and component-based

architecture 152

IBM 28, 235IdeaExchange 112, 242‘Ideal Government IT Strategy’ 60–1identity service providers, third-party

37ILC logic 186‘Improving IT Procurement’ (2004)

report 57–8industry platform, definition of 159Information Age Government 42–4information technology (IT) 3, 15–16

access to 39government outsourcing of 27for meeting needs of citizens and

business 43political interest in using 19use of 44

Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) 112

infrastructure services (IS) 197–8infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS)

203, 226, 229innovate–leverage–commoditize (ILC)

model 105–14, 160, 185, 247, 250

digital profile based on 148to generate a consistent local

services delivery model 153to reimagine revenues and

benefits 149and skills needed within

government 113innovation 144, 157

concept of 109crowdsourcing of 122democratizing of 231

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open competition and 132process of 127in public services 111R&D activity 122technological 120through IdeaExchange 112

Institute for Government 71integrated portfolio planning and

management 155Intel Corporation 84intellectual capital 122intellectual property 54internet 16, 74, 82, 202Internet of Things (IoT) 225, 227inter-organizational relationships 195interstate commerce 117iOS 6IT-centric service delivery,

development of 29IT-enabled projects, causes of failure of

58iTunes 118

JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) 236

joined-up government, benefits of 132

Jones, Capers 223

Kemp, Anthony 151knowledge-driven marketplace 84Kodak 20

Labour Party 23–5, 39–40, 45, 48, 58–9, 63, 65–6

Land Registry interface 137–8, 189Lane Fox, Martha 63large-scale systems 185, 215

evolution of an activity 187‘n-tiered’ approach for 192–3

lean thinking 161, 172–4, 248–9key elements of 173practices of 92–4

lean-based decision process 105Liberal Democrats 61–2life-cycle traceability 222–3local authority evolution,

characteristics of 143local government business

architecture 147change-ready architecture,

development of 146drivers of 145external forces shaping 145

London Borough of Hounslow see Hounslow, London Borough of

London School of Economics (LSE) 24, 116

McLuhan, Marshall 243‘Make IT Better’ 60Manifesto for Agile Software

Development 85, 195, 214Margetts, Helen 24–6Marx, Karl 122Maxwell, Liam 59, 66‘Measuring the Expected Benefits

of e-Government’ (2003) report 56–7

meritocracies 176, 232metadata 78Methods Digital 142micro-customization 84Microsoft 117, 235MIT Sloan School’s digital maturity

model 166mobile computing 197mobile technology, impact of

82–3

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‘Modernizing Government’ initiative 42–4

guiding principles of 44–5key objectives of 45responsibilities and timelines 47

monopoly 3–4, 21–2, 32, 59, 161, 240

MSN 51multi-supplier consumption models

101multi-tenancy 202

National Audit Office (NAO) 68–70

national defence systems 3national identity card 37, 61national identity systems,

state-imposed 37National Partnership for Reinventing

Government (NPR), USA 15Netflix 20new public management (NPM)

43, 57, 72accountability of 23failure of 22–6free-market doctrine of 28IT-enabled improvements in 25revival of 25wilderness years 22–6

New Zealand, e-government services in 16–17

NHS Jobs 120–1null project 208

OAuth protocol 236Obama, Barack 16oligopoly 27, 64, 70on-demand network 85, 200online government services see online

public services

online payments service 86online public services 4, 13–14, 16,

32, 35, 40, 78, 80characteristics of 36common causes of failure of 58comparison with the private sector

49delivery of 34, 49, 54evaluation of 57open source software (OSS), use of

54–6outcomes and benefits 56–9potential benefits 52transaction handling 52undercurrents of change 59–61

open access data 155open architecture 96–101, 111, 160

versus agile processes and practices 157–8

basic principles of 99converging on 132–3culture change from closed to

128–32difference with open source

software 157emergence and adoption of 128features of 127involving reuse of components

across government 103spending on 133–4

open architecture platforms 246development of 120dynamic 123–5evolution of 125–6innovation and investment,

creation of 122–3meaning of 116–19openness of 123public services versus 126–8role of 116

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technologies for 119–20utility economics of 127

Open Data Institute (ODI) 56Open Government Licence 230Open Office 131open source software (OSS) 61, 97

difference with open architecture 157

in-house development and maintenance 158

objectives of 55, 56Open Office 131use of 54–6

Open Stack 128–32open standards, principle of 158open technical standards 99, 101,

114–15‘open.gov.uk’ 51Oracle 235O’Reilly, Tim 11, 117, 118, 123–4,

182, 241, 245Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD) 1

organizational agility, experimental approaches to 172–8

organizational design 120outsourcing 25, 28, 43, 87, 90, 114,

123, 125, 239principle of 54

Oxford Internet Institute (OII) 24

Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST), UK 36–7, 244

Parliamentary Public Administration Select Committee (PASC), UK 66

Patient Opinion 20pay-as-you-earn (PAYE) tax 93

platform businesses 144platform-as-a-service (PaaS)

203–4, 226political vision versus operational

reality 4–5portals 51–4

Portal Feasibility Study (1999) 51three-tier architecture 53‘The Power of Information Review’

55Power of Information Taskforce 55privacy 34–8, 72producer–consumer partnerships 84property and information mapping

service (PIMS) 188proprietary software 54–5pseudo-markets 23public expenditure 1–2public finance 23public sector organizations 1, 3, 75,

178accessibility/social inclusion 31–4capabilities and leadership skills 6centralized administration of 24challenges faced by 179as digital organizations 4IT failures 6misconceptions 7–9technical challenges to success

180transition to digital public service

delivery 7see also digital public sector

public service transformation, technology-based 10

public services24/7 availability 42agencification of 25automation of 14citizen audits and evaluation of 25

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public services – continuedcitizen-responsive 126design and operation of 7, 18, 34digital models of design of 6–7digital procurement and delivery of

49digital profiling of 160digitalizing of 49effectiveness and efficiency of 132features of 127future of 9, 47, 117modernization of 10, 20, 24, 40, 88‘one stop shop’ for all 51online see online public servicesversus open platform-based

architecture 126–8operation and delivery of 70political desire for 89quality and efficiency of 13, 16,

84rate of innovation in 111recurrent political promises of

better 19re-engineering of 34reforms in 48, 63, 100standards of 2technology-enabled 71use of IT to reform 14, 16, 19, 29,

39–40vertical silos of 126

quality of the services 16

real-time information 74, 215‘A Recipe for Rip-offs’ report 63–5redesign and re-engineering, for digital

age 49reintegration, idea of 25relationship-based services 32–3Representational State Transfer (REST)

235–6

research and development (R&D) innovation 97

resource allocation 79revenue-collection transactional

processes 93Ries, Eric 173–4risk management 46, 68, 187, 189Rogers, Everett 105

diffusion curves 105

‘safety net of last resort’ 141Salesforce.com 204, 242screen-based service delivery 34security 34–8, 128, 157, 198self-serve business intelligence 155service architectures, for providers of

public services 120service delivery

automated processes of 39digitization of 79

service level agreements (SLAs) 101

service providers 83, 163service-based architectures 226service-based design 226service-driven procurement models

and practices 129service-oriented architecture (SOA)

120, 194, 235limitations of 195

Shared Service Centres 115, 187, 199Shaughnessy, H. 171Six Sigma 110, 112small and medium enterprises

(SMEs) 65, 70, 84, 206Snowden, Edward 38social inclusion/exclusion 31–4social insurance 25social web, notions of 25socio-economic demands 3, 170, 196software architecture 190

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agile 196approaches to 191–9capability maturity model (CMM)

191dimensions of 191elements of 185enterprise application architecture

196–9enterprise-scale 191–5lighterweight practices,

emergence of 195–6service-oriented architecture (SOA)

194–5software delivery

agile techniques for 85, 158–60, 195–6, 198, 209–10

best practices and automation for 223

delivery cycles for 218development intelligence for 223implications for government for

224improvement to reduce cost for

223in-context collaboration for 222–3life-cycle traceability 222philosophy of 214real-time planning for 221–2time-to-delivery 215

software development 85, 175, 184, 210

agile software delivery techniques 195

boundaries between maintenance and 212

business value and outcome 214common platform of integrated

process and tools 213as continuously evolving systems

211–12economic governance 213–14

released capabilities with ever-increased value 212–13

and software delivery 211–14technologies for 214web-based collaboration for 213

software-as-a-service (SaaS) 204–5, 226

solution delivery, innovation in 85solution making 78Stacey Matrix 107staff reductions, in banking and

government 245Sun Microsystems 235‘super competitive’ prices 1super-suppliers 27supplier lock-in, creation of 28supply chains 1, 24, 27, 117, 144,

200, 220, 231for digital delivery 74public sector 86software 195technology 142

system’s behaviour, analysis of 192systems integrator 104, 189

Tapscott, Don 2technology life cycle 36technology-driven corporations 3Tesco (supermarket chain) 41

Clubcard 72Thoughtworks 181‘tight-loose’ principle 114, 156total cost of ownership (TCO) 113Toyota 154–5, 173transactional services online 32transformational government

(t-government) 4, 14, 35, 47, 176

TripAdvisor 20‘Trojan horse’ 187Twitter 3, 20, 124, 234, 238

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United Kingdom (UK)civil service 22, 40Cloud Industry Forum 128Department for Media, Culture and

Sport (DCMS) 49digital inclusion 33e-government services 17, 23federated identity system 37general election (2010), prelude

to 59–61Government Digital Service

(GDS) 37Government Information Service

(GIS) 29, 51–2identity assurance standards 37national identity card scheme 37national police computer system

38Parliamentary Office of Science and

Technology (POST) 36–7public sector IT supplier revenues

(2008) 28smarter government and digital

Britain 48–51‘Transformational Government’

strategy (2005) 24UKOnline branding 52vision for making life ‘better for

people and businesses’ 42United States of America (USA)

Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956) 117

National Partnership for Reinventing Government (NPR) 15

Universal Credit (UC) programme 72

user interaction 199user interface 192user-driven service design 91utility consumption, architecture of

157utility service, standard model for

delivering 129

valuecreation of 172definition of 173

value added tax (VAT) 93value chain 173, 185

of needs 186vehicle excise duty (VED) 49,

92–3vending machine government

117vendor lock-in 60, 115, 138VHS video standard 125Visa Europe 133Visual Basic 158Vitalari, N. 171

Wardley Map 185–6, 250of HS2 188

Wardley, Simon 107–8, 110–11, 185Weill, Peter 167Western economies 2Whatsapp 3Wikipedia 124Woerner, Stephanie 167

Yahoo 196YouTube 97, 101

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