DigitalSpeciesDigitalCompendiumofForestrySpeciesofCambodiaPhnomPenh,Cambodia2008www.digitalspecies.blogspot.com Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.] 1 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.] A. Latin name (s) Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. B. English name (s) northern black wattle, Darwin black wattle, ear-pod wattle, tan wattle [1], auri, black wattle, ear leaf acacia, earleaf acacia, Papuan wattle, wattle [8], coast wattle, Japanese acacia [9] C. Synonym Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex Benth., Racosperma auriculiforme (A. Cunn. ex Benth.) Pedley [1] D. Other1 northern black wattle (Trade name) [1] - akashmoni, Australian babul, kasia, sonajhuri (India) [1] - ngarai, unar (Papua New Guinea) [1] - Japanese acacia, auri (Philippines) [1, 9] - akasai, akasia, kasia, ki hia (Indonesia) [9] - akasia kuning, kasia (Malaysia) [9] - mkesia (East Africa) [9] - krathin-narong (Thailand) [9] - smacht:hes (Vietnam) [9] E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter) GakasaswktUc Source: [3] F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) smachtehs [4], acacia sleuk touch [6] G. Taxonomic position(complete) Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Fabaceae (Subfamily: Mimosoideae) Gunus: Acacia Species: Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. 2 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Source :[ 1] H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A. auriculiformus is a deciduous or evergreen, leguminous tree which reaches on favorable sites a total height of 25-35 m [1] (25-30 m [3], 30-40 m [2], 15-30 m [9]) with a straight bole which has a stem height of 12-15 m [3] (up to 12 m [9]) and a maximum DBH of 60-80 cm [3] (80-100 cm [2], 50 cm [9]). However, more commonly it is a small to medium-sized tree of 8-20 m [1, 2] or a shrub with 3-5 m [1] (2-8 m [4]) which is heavily branched with a short bole. It has a spreading, deep [8] (shallow [9]) and dense root system. The crown is large, spreading and dark green with dense foliage. Young branches are slightly depressed, angular, hairless and green. [Bark]: The bark is grey to black-grey or brown sometimes blackened at the base, 2-3 mm thick [3], smooth in young trees, becoming rough and deeply longitudinally fissured with age. The inner bark is white-grey and 7-9 mm thick [3]. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple flattened phyllodes (= leafstalks which function as a true leaf), sickle-shaped, alternate, spear-shaped or oblong, bow-like, becoming progressively thinner at both ends, 10-16 x 1.52.5 cm [8] (7-17 x 1.5-2.7 cm [3], 8-20 cm x 1.0-4.5 cm [1]), thick leathery, greyish green and hairless. There are 3 prominent parallel veins [1] (6-8 veins [3], 3-8 veins [9]) running together towards the lower margin or in the middle near the base, with many fine secondary veins and a distinct gland at the base of the leaf. The leaves mostly remain on the tree during the dry season; their average life is about 1 year [1] in West Java. [Flowers]: The inflorescence is an axillary, interrupted spike to 8.5 cm long [1] in pairs at the leaf bases. The flowers are 0.3 cm long [8], light-golden to yellow in color, bisexual, tiny, sessile and fragrant. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused together into an up to 0.1 cm long [1] tube which is shortly lobed and hairless. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) form a corolla which is up to 0.2 cm long [1] with many stamens (=male organs) which are about 0.3 cm long [1]. The ovary (=female organ) is small and densely covered with hairs. Flowers are pollinated by insects. Flowering and fruiting occurs irregularly from July to October [3]. In many places the tree can flower and fruit continuously all year round [3]. However, "there is usually a distinct peak flowering season which may vary considerably with location. In the Northern Territory of Australia, flowering occurs from April to July with ripe seed available some 4-5 months later in August to October. Sedgley et al. (1992) found that peak flowering occurred in February to May at Atherton in Queensland (Australia), and near Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia, and Tawau in Sabah, with ripe seed pods available between October and April. In Java (Indonesia), peak flowering occurs in March to June." [1]. [Fruits]: "Mature seeds can be collected between August and February in Thailand" [1]. The fruit (=thin compressed pod) has a size of 7-8 x 1.2- 1.4 cm [3] (6.5 x 1.5 cm [1], 6-8 x 1-1.5 cm [8]), is strongly curved, flat, flexible but hard, rather woody, covered with a whitish, waxy bloom, hairless, transversely veined with undulate margins. Fruits are initially straight or curved, but on maturity become twisted with irregular spirals. The fruit-stalk is 1.2 cm long [3]. Each pod contains 5-7 [3] shiny 3 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report black seeds which are broadly ovate to elliptical, 0.4-0.6 x 0.3-0.4 cm [1] in size (5 mm long [8]) and each is encircled by a long red, yellow or orange seed-stalk. [1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9] I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is large-sized and straight. The sapwood is white to yellow with inconspicious ribs and the heartwood is light brown to dark red, straight grained and reasonably durable. A. auriculiformis wood has a high basic density with 0.5-0.65 g/cm [1, 3, 9] and a calorific value of 4,700-4,900 kcal/kg [1] (4,500-4,900 kcal/kg [9]). The timber is fine-grained, often attractively figured and finishes well. Wood fibers are relatively short, about 0.85 mm in length [1] and 0.2 m in width [1]. "The chemical composition of the wood is 59% cellulose, 24% lignin, 19% pentosan and 0.4% ash. Flavonoid substances are also present" [1]. The heartwood is typically hard and durable, but the sapwood is highly susceptible to termite and borer attack and requires preservative treatment when in contact with the soil. Boards may sometimes split when sawn. [1, 3, 9] J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 5S to 17S [1]. This species is native to Australia but has been cultivated in many areas of the world as a forestry tree, especially in South-, Southeast Asia and in Africa and has escaped from plantings in various places. "Natural stands of A. auriculiformis are found in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. A. auriculiformis occurs in the lowland tropics growing naturally in narrow belts along river banks, where it may be dominant or one of the principal species. It also occurs in small pockets in depressions and in open-forest dominated by various eucalypts and acacias. It is also found in littoral rain forest behind either mangroves or coastal dunes" [1]. It also has a strong ability to recolonize wasted land and problem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. Generally it occurs as a scattered tree in riparian habitats (perennial rivers and semi-perennial creeks), dry deciduous forests, open moist deciduous forests (monsoon forests) and tall savanna woodland. It is a component of swamp forest, dominated by Melaleuca species, usually on the better drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these forests include Acacia mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi. It was recently introduced to Cambodia via Vietnam, where it is cultivated with eucalyptus for reforestation. [1, 2, 3, 4, 9] K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A. auriculiformis grows from sea level to 400 m [2, 9], but is most commonly found at elevations less than 80 m [2] (0-500 (-1,000) m [9]). "A. auriculiformis occurs naturally in hot humid and hot subhumid climatic zones. For the natural distribution of this species, the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month (November-December) is within the range of 32-34C, and the mean minimum 4 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report temperature of the coolest month (May-September) is 17-22C. Outside the natural distribution, a wider range of temperatures is tolerated, indicating the adaptability of A. auriculiformis. Frost does not occur in its natural range, but elsewhere light frost is tolerated. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 760 mm in the Northern Territory of Australia, to 3,400 mm in Papua New Guinea (6,000 mm [9]). However, for most of the planted and natural distribution, rainfall is generally much lower with up to 2,500 mm (1,000-2,000 mm [3], 700-2,000 mm [2], 650-2,000 mm [9]). It has a summer monsoonal pattern, with most rain falling from December to March" [1]. A auriculiformis tolerates a dry season of 0-7 months [2] (0-6 months [3]) but also fast drying (=desiccation) and forest fires. Shade is not tolerated at all, because this tree is a strong light demander and wind tolerance is low, as branches break easily in strong winds. Also weeds may become a threat in the establishment phase. [1, 2, 3, 8, 9] L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available. M. soil and site conditions : "In Australia A. auriculiformis grows on dissected lateritic lowlands and alluvial coastal plains, along drainage channels just above the tidal range, on the edges of sand dunes, behind mangrove swamps, and along river levees (also on unstable slopes [8]). The soils are frequently yellow earths, but vary from dune sands and sandy loams to alluvials with a high clay and humus content. The pH usually ranges from 4.5-6.5, but it also grows on alkaline beach sands with a pH of 8-9 (general pH range: 3.0-9.5 [8], 4.3-9 [9]). In West Timor it is one of the best species for cultivation on highly alkaline soils. A. auriculiformis is also highly tolerant of acidic conditions. In Australia, Malaysia and the Philippines it has grown on acid mine spoils of pH 3, while A. auriculiformis is one of the few tree species to become widely planted on the acid sulphate soils (pH 3) of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. It can also tolerate saline soils. In an experiment in Thailand, it continued growing under saline conditions ranging from 0.15 to 7.25 dS/m, in both wet and dry soils. A. auriculiformis was also amongst the best performing acacias on slightly to moderately saline seasonally waterlogged soils in southeastern Queensland. They are on shallow well drained sandy loam overlying heavy clay or imperfectly drained soils subject to temporary or prolonged flooding in the wet season. These soils are strongly acid and of poor fertility with low values for nitrogen, exchangeable potassium and available phosphorus" [1]. It can also grow in soils ofproblem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. Generally it will grow on a wide range of deep and shallow soils with practically no maintenance. Soil types include: Yellowish red basalt, alluvial soils, compacted clay soils, coral soils, lateritic soils, limestone soils, mine spoil, podzols, saline soils, sandstone soils, savanna soils, sandy soils and vertisols. [1, 2, 3, 8, 9] 5 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: This species has been widely planted for fuelwood and charcoal production due its a high basic density and calorific value of 4,700-4,900 kcal/kg [1] (4,500-4,900 kcal/kg [9]), its fast growth and adaptibility to a wide range of site conditions, which makes it an ideal tree species for fuelwood production. The charcoal is not very heavy, glows well and does not smoke or spark. "The annual fall of leaves, twigs, and branches can amount to 4-6 t/ha, which is useful as household fuel" [1]. Besides fuelwood the wood is extensively used for paper pulp. "Plantation-grown trees have been found promising for the production of unbleached kraft pulp and high-quality, neutral, sulphite semi-chemical pulp. Large-scale plantations have already been established, as in Kerala (India), for the production of pulp" [9]. "The sulphate process with 13% alkali yields up to 55% of screened pulp. It is less suitable for high-yield mechanical type pulps although there is significant variation in pulp-making properties between provenances" [1]. The wood of A. auriculiformis also makes attractive furniture if it is large sized and straight and is also excellent for toys and handicrafts. It is also used for wood turning (e.g. framing, flooring), carving, joinery, round wood, posts, stakes, tool handles, boxes, carriage making, composite boards, wood cement and for construction if trees of suitable girth are available. However, the crooked and multiple stems which are a common feature of the species largely restrict its use as poles or other forms of timber that requires reasonable length. [1, 2, 3, 9] [Non-wood]: It is not widely used as fodder, but in India 1-year-old plantations are browsed by cattle [9]. "A preliminary study of fodder values has shown that A. auriculiformis meets the minimum requirements for certain nutrients and warrants further investigation" [1]. The bark has sufficient tannins (about 13% [1], 13-25% [9]) for a possible commercial exploitation and is also appreciated as fuelwood. The bark also contains 6-14% [9] of a natural dye which used in the batik textile industry in Indonesia. Lac insect culture using the species as host plant is possible. Leaves can be used as mulch for improving the soil. An edible mushroom (Tylopylus fellus) is common in plantations of A. auriculiformis in Thailand and Vietnam. [1, 4, 9] [Others]: "Plantations of A. auriculiformis improve soil physio-chemical properties such as water-holding capacity, organic carbon, nitrogen and potassium through litter fall. Its phyllodes provide a good, long-lasting mulch. Acacia auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating with a range of Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains. It also has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi" [9]. Although it is not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping of A. auriculiformis with peanut, rice, mung beans and kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has proved to be successful, while intercropping with corn was rather unsuccessful. It has also been used satisfactorily as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is sometimes planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or improve soil fertility. This species is planted to provide shelter along the sea front and to revegetate mining spoil heaps. The spreading, densely-matted root system can stabilize eroding land. It has been used widely in revegetation of degraded land and rehabilitation of grassland in India, Indonesia and 6 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Vietnam. It also has a strong ability to recolonize wasted land and problem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. The dense, dark-green foliage, which remains throughout the dry season, makes it an excellent tree for shade and ornamental purposes in cities where its bright-yellow flowers are desirable attributes. It is also suitable as a host tree in the nursery propagation of sandalwood (Santalum album) plantations, or as a secondary or tertiary host when sandalwood is established in the field. Generally this tree is placed into nurseries for shading and wind protection. "It is also used for the cultivation of the lac insect in India" [3]. Flowers are a source of bee forage for honey production. [1, 2, 3, 8, 9] O. Cambodian wood classification : No class [5] P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. auriculiformis occurs generally as a scattered tree in riparian habitats (perennial rivers and semi-perennial creeks), dry deciduous forests, open moist deciduous forests (monsoon forests) and tall savanna woodland. It is a component of swamp forest, dominated by Melaleuca species, usually on the better drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these forests include Acacia mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi. This species is fast growing, light demanding and nitrogen fixing, which makes it a popular tree for plantation forestry. It was recently introduced to Cambodia via Vietnam and is now cultivated with eucalyptus for reforestation purposes. It has the ability to coppice, but it is not a vigorous sprouter and responses well to pollarding. It is intolerant to shade and weeds, at least in early development stages. [Natural regeneration]: "Profuse natural regeneration may appear after fire or on disturbed sites in the absence of severe weed competition" [1]. [Provenances]: "The crooked stem form and tendency of trees to produce multiple leaders of trees in plantations currently limits utilization of A. auriculiformis for poles and heavy construction timber. Careful selection and introduction of provenances which produce a higher proportion of straight stems should minimize this drawback in the future. Provenances from Queensland (Australia) appear to have a higher proportion of straight stems in combination with fast growth. Several countries have genetic improvement programmes aiming to improve these traits simultaneously, and thus enhance the industrial utility of the species for commodities such as paper pulp and sawn timber" [1]. (For more information on provenances please have a look at the chapter 'Variation and breeding' in the 'Miscellaneous' category) [Establishment]: Stands are established successfully by using containerized seedlings or by direct sowing. Containerized seedlings generally give higher survival rates especially in areas of heavy weed competition and are especially used for Acacia plantations. In general, 3-4 months [9] are needed to raise transplantable seedlings that are 25 cm tall [9]. Aerial seeding has sometimes been successful but appropriate site preparation prior to sowing is required. In the field, weed control is 7 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report essential especially during the first 1-2 years [2]. A small amount of NPK fertilizer in the first year helps to improve initial growth. The fertilization rates depend on the site quality. The optimum spacing for A. auriculiformis depends on utilization and management considerations. Most current plantings use spacings ranging from 1 x 1 m to 4 x 4 m [1] ( 2 x 2 or 2 x 4 m [2], 2-4 x 2-4 m [9]). "Spacings of 1 x 2 m and 1.5 x 1.5 m are favoured by farmers in China producing fuelwood and poles. In India, planting takes place during the monsoon into preprepared pits 30 cm in size which are filled with loamy soil mixed with farm yard manure, chemical fertilizers, and insecticides to discourage termites." [1]. Once established, the tree is quite competitive with weeds. However, good control of weeds in the first two years is very important, as the species is shade intolerant and young seedlings can easily be suppressed by weeds. Young seedlings produce 2-3 bipinnate leaves, which are soon followed by phyllodes (=leafstalk with the shape of a leaf). Seedlings grow quickly and reach a height of 25-30 cm in 3-4 months [1], 6 m in 2 years [1], and 6-12 m in 3 years [1] under favourable conditions. Flowering usually starts within 2 years [1] after sowing. Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade [9]. Once they are established, 70% full sunlight [9] is optimal. It often becomes naturalized where planted. [Management]: [1] "A number of silvicultural systems are appropriate for A. auriculiformis. In India, common practice is to clear fell at 10-15 years, followed by natural or artificial regeneration" [1]. The recommended rotation is 4-5 years for pulp [2] and 12-15 years for timber [2]. One or two thinnings are required with longer rotations, depending on initial spacing, site quality and tree growth. "Although A. auriculiformis has the ability to coppice, it is not a vigorous or prolific sprouter and careful management is required to obtain good results from coppicing. Stump height is an important factor in sprouting; better results are obtained when stumps are cut 60-100 cm from ground. Age or stump diameter and season of cutting also affect coppicing ability. The species also responds well to pollarding. A. auriculiformis is sometimes included in trials of mixed species management systems in the tropics, where it is grown in combination with various native rain forest species and occasionally eucalypts. The aim of these systems is to use the nitrogen-fixing ability of the acacia for soil improvement, and its fast growth, as a cover crop initially and then as an income source through sale of thinnings, to enhance the economic viability of planting the slower growing species. Plantings in Imperata grasslands have survived fires, but are generally too severely damaged by fire to make A. auriculiformis a suitable tree for Imperata control. A. auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating with a range of Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains in many tropical soils. In the Philippines, 52-66% of nitrogen uptake was shown to be derived from nitrogen fixation. This nitrogen-fixing potential may only be realized in many soils if adequate fertilizer, especially phosphorus, is applied. A. auriculiformis has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi. The ecto-mycorrhizal fungus (Thelephora spp.) forms a beneficial association, and several species of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizas, including Glomus etunicatum and Gigaspora margarita, are effective. Many soils on which A. auriculiformis is planted have low levels of available nutrients and there is usually a positive response to fertilizer application. For example, a good growth response was achieved in India by applying fertilizer one month after planting. A dose of 30 g of nitrogen, 25 g of phosphorus and 8 g of potassium per plant was useful in soils with a high potassium content. Removal of lower branches of 8 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report young plants has been suggested as a means of improving stem form, but when tried in Thailand was unsuccessful" [1]. [Yield]: "A. auriculiformis has shown excellent growth under plantation conditions, and an annual increment in height of 2-4 m in the first few years is common even on soils of low fertility. Under optimum conditions, A. auriculiformis is vigorous and reaches 15-18 m tall and 15-20 cm diameter at age 10-12 years. On relatively fertile Javanese soils receiving over 2,000 mm annual rainfall, a mean annual increment (MAI) of 15-20 m3/hectare is possible, but on less fertile or highly eroded sites the increment is reduced to 8-12 m/ha. Yield is further reduced on sites where low rainfall or a prolonged dry season is a limiting factor. The expected MAI, without fertilizer, on red lateritic soils in a semi-arid area of India is 2-6 m/ha. On Imperata grasslands and very infertile soils A. auriculiformis will usually grow faster than species of Albizia, Eucalyptus, Leucaena and Pinus. Growth differences between provenances are large. On a well drained site in Thailand receiving about 1,500 mm rainfall annually, a provenance from Balamuk (Papua New Guinea) produced a total above-ground biomass of 135 t/ha in 3 years, while a provenance from Springvale (Australia) reached only 60 t/ha" [1]. [Agroforestry]: Although it is not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping of A. auriculiformis with peanut, rice, mung beans and kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has proved to be successful, while intercropping with corn was rather unsuccessful. Pruning of A. auriculiformis is recommended to improve light availability to crop plants. It has also been used succellfully as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is sometimes planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or improve soil fertility. [1, 2, 4, 9] Q. Propagation : [Reproduction]: "Acacia auriculiformis is hermaphroditic and pollinated by a wide range of insects including Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, which forage mainly on pollen" [9]. [Seed collection and storage]: This species produces large quantities of seed at an early age. Seeds have a very hard seed coat when fully ripened and keep viable quite well (several years) if stored properly in airtight containers in a dark, cool room. A pre-germination treatment, such as mechanical scarification of the seed coat or immersion in boiling water (1 minute immersion is suitable [1], 1-2 minutes [9]), is required to break seed coat dormancy, followed by soaking in cold water overnight or soaking in warm water for 24 hours. Good results have also been achieved by soaking A. auriculiformis seed in concentrated sulphuric acid for periods of 6-30 minutes [1]. Germination is rapid (6-15 days [9]) after suitable treatment and typically exceeds 70% [1] (40-80% [9]). There is an average of 71,600 viable seeds/kg. [1] (53,00062,000 seeds/kg [8], 55,000-75,000 seeds/kg [9]) [Propagation]: Seedlings in the nursery require little attention. Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade [1]; once established 70% full sunlight [1] is optimal. "Methods of vegetative propagation of A. auriculiformis through juvenile cuttings have been developed and are now a routine 9 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report and simple operation" [9]. Trees can be pollarded to produce cuttings. Micropropagation techniques can also be employed. Direct seed sowing by hand has been successful. Plantations are established using seedlings raised in containers. In general, 3-4 months [2] are needed to raise seedlings to a plantable size, 25 cm in height [2]. Inoculation with appropriate rhizobia may be beneficial, especially when seedlings are raised in sterilized soil. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 30,000 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 2,500. Rate of loss: 3,000 (20% in planting site), 3,334 (10% in transit), 4,168 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 60%. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 0.27 kg" [10]. [1, 2, 8, 9, 10] R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: There are several insect pests of A. auriculiformis, but none are limiting the establishment on appropriate sites at present. Especially stressed trees are susceptible to insect attacks. A beetle (Sinoxylon sp.) can girdle small stems or branches, causing them to break. "This beetle is of concern because damage causes the tree to develop multiple leaders and reduces the length of clear bole. In Australia the wood is attacked by borers and termites, and scale insects are prevalent on young trees. Experimental results suggest that A. auriculiformis has some resistance to termites. A. auriculiformis was recorded as host to Xystrocera festiva at two locations in South Sumatra" [1]. [1, 9] [Diseases]: Also the diseases of A. auriculiformis are not limiting to establishment if this tree. However, a number of diseases were identified as potential threats to the future productivity of industrial plantations based on A. auriculiformis. They included stem cankers caused by a range of pathogens (Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botryosphaeria spp. and Hendersonula sp.) and most often associated with stem borer damage, pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) which is most prevalent in high rainfall areas, and phyllode rust (Atelocauda digitata [1], Uromyces digitatus [9] ) which has impaired the growth of A. auriculiformis in Australia and Indonesia. It is not susceptible to the heart rot which affects A. mangium. "A root rot fungus, Ganoderma sp., was observed to cause crown dieback and defoliation in A. auriculiformis plantations in parts of West Bengal (India). A species of Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae) has also been recorded as a parasite of A. auriculiformis in West Bengal" [1]. Seedlings in the nursery can be infected by powdery mildew (Oidium), especially where there is heavy shading. The avoidance of problems through careful site and provenance matching is generally preferred to chemical control measures. [1, 9] [Others]: This tree does not tolerate shade and it is quite susceptible to damage by frost and wind, as branches break easily in strong winds. Another limitation is the relative sensitivity of young trees to weeds and fire (up to about 20 months [1]), but even trees which are 10-15 years old can be killed by fire [2]. [1, 2, 9] 10 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report S. Conservation : The estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) is more than 10,000 trees threatened by logging and more than 1,000 threatened by fire. [11] T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Australia (Australian Northern Territory, Queensland), Papua New Guinea, Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Moluccas). [1, 2, 3, 8] [Introduced]: Asia: (Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam) Africa: (Benin, Burundi, Congo Democratic Republic, Cte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Uganda, Zimbabwe) Caribbean: (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago) Central America: (Costa Rica) North America: (USA, Hawaii) South America: (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador) Oceania: (Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu) [1, 2, 3] V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The generic name acacia comes from the Greek word akis meaning a point or a barb and the specific epithet comes from the Latin auricula- external ear of animals and forma- form, figure or shape, in allusion to the shape of the pod" [9]. [Hybrids]: "A. auriculiformis is related to A. polystachya A. Cunn. ex Benth., A. cincinnata F. Muell. and A. spirorbis subsp. solandri (Benth.) Pedley and more distantly to A. aulacocarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. and A. crassicarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. (Pedley, 1975). It hybridizes readily with A. leptocarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. and A. mangium Willd. in nature and in cultivation. The hybrids with A. mangium 11 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report are intermediate between the two parents in morphology and wood properties. They inherit the straighter stem form of A. mangium and the self-pruning ability and the stem circularity of A. auriculiformis. Hybrids tend to have more vigorous growth and are more resistant to heart rot. There is much interest in the domestication of this hybrid as a result of this combination of commercially desirable characteristics. Aspects of seed production and vegetative propagation of the hybrids are covered in Carron and Aken (1992)" [1]. [Variation and breeding]: "A. auriculiformis is predominantly outcrossing and exhibits marked genetic variation. Isoenzyme studies revealed three distinct clusters of populations corresponding to the geographic distribution of the species in the Northern Territory, Queensland and Papua New Guinea; Queensland populations are more closely related to populations from Papua New Guinea than populations from the Northern Territory. These studies showed about 73% of the isoenzyme variation was among progenies within populations and indicated that weight should be given to both intra- and inter-population genetic variability in initial selections in domestication programmes of this species. These regional groupings were also apparent in differences in seedling morphology. Variation was examined at 12 months for 28 provenances of A. auriculiformis in a trial in Malaysia. All provenances had a survival rate of greater than 92%, but differed significantly in their growth performance. At 5 years from planting in Sabah, eight provenances including three from Papua New Guinea and five from Queensland were identified as superior for height and diameter growth. Provenance trials on four, low fertility, test sites in Zaire showed variation in growth and morphological characters when assessed at ages 3, 9, 15 and 21 months. The provenances with the greatest volume production were from Papua New Guinea. International provenance trials were established in 1989 to examine the extent of genotype/environment interactions. Results from Australia and Thailand showed that provenances from Queensland have a higher proportion of straight stems. In a trial on an Imperata grassland site in South Kalimantan, variation in growth and form at 69 months after planting showed that the most highly productive A. auriculiformis provenances in this environment were from Papua New Guinea (MAI up to 35.6 m/ha), Queensland (MAI up to 30.3 m/ha) and Northern Territory (MAI up to 30.2 m/ha). There were also differences in tree quality with Queensland sources generally having the lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees. Similar results were obtained 8 months after the planting of a seedling seed orchard of A. auriculiformis in South Sumatra, where the best height and diameter growth, and lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees were shown by the Wenlock River provenance from the far north of Queensland. The relative performance of provenances of A. auriculiformis in provenance trials on several sites in Vietnam has been reported by Nguyen Hoang Nghia and Le Dinh Kha (1996). Provenance variation in salt and waterlogging tolerance has been noted in pot trials. Several countries have genetic improvement programmes which aim to produce better quality seed for future planting programmes. Seed orchards established on Melville Island in the Northern Territory of Australia have failed to produce worthwhile amounts of seed. The best clones are being relocated to environments where better seed production can be obtained. The use of A. auriculiformis as a parent of hybrids, particularly in combination with A. mangium, is of great potential. Many hybrids show desirable commercial characteristics such as fast growth, fine branching and straight boles. Sedgley et al. (1992) found that the cross A. auriculiformis x A. mangium was more 12 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report successful than the reciprocal, but fertile seed was produced following interspecific pollination in both directions. Vacuum drying of pollen and storage in a deep freeze is recommended for the medium length storage (3 years) of pollen used in crossing programmes of these species. Experimental A. mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrid seed orchards have been established in Indonesia to build up a base for a clonal forestry programme. Outstanding hybrid clones have been selected and mass propagated for clonal forestry in Vietnam. The Australian Tree Seed Centre of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra, Australia maintains seed stocks of representative provenances from throughout the natural range of the species" [1]. W. Further readings5 : Kamis Awang, Venkateswarlu P, Nor Aini AS, djers G, Bhumibhamon S, Kietvuttinon B, Pan FJ, Pitpreecha K, Simsiri A, 1994. Three year performance of international provenance trials of Acacia auriculiformis. Forest Ecology and Management, 70(1/3):147-158; 31 ref. [1] Banerjee AK, 1973. Plantations of Acacia auriculaeformis (Benth.) A. Cunn. in West Bengal. Indian Forester, 99(9):533-540 + 1 pl. [1] Boland DJ, 1989. Trees for the tropics. Growing Australian multipurpose trees and shrubs in Developing Countries. ACIAR Monograph, No. 10:ii + 247 pp.; 11 pp. of ref. [1] Boland DJ, Pinyopusarerk K, McDonald MW, Jovanovic T, Booth TH, 1990. The habitat of Acacia auriculiformis and probable factors associated with its distribution. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 3(2):159-180; 32 ref. [1] Booth TH, Turnbull JW, 1994. Domestication of lesser-known tropical tree species: The Australian experience. In: Leakey RRB, Newton AC, eds. Tropical trees: The Potential for Domestication and Rebuilding of Forest Resources. ITE Symposium No. 29, ECTF Symposium No. 1. London, UK: HMSO, 189-194. [1] 13 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report dela Cruz RE, Umali-Garcia M, 1992. Nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizae in acacias on degraded grasslands. In: Awang K, Taylor DA, eds. Tropical Acacias in East Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a First meeting of COGREDA held in Phuket, Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Research, 59-71. [1] Doran JC, Guan BV, 1987. Treatments to promote seed germination in Australian acacias. ACIAR Proceedings, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, No. 16:57-63; [In Australian acacias in developing countries. Proceedings of an international workshop, Gympie, Qld., Australia, 4-7 August 1986 [edited by Turnbull, J.W.]]; 5 ref. [1] Huang S, Zheng H, 1993. Coppicing of Acacia auriculiformis. ACIAR Forestry Newsletter No. 16, 3. [1] Ibrahim Z, 1991. Reproductive biology of Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. [1] Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Studies on natural hybrids of Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis in Vietnam. In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM, eds. Tree Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Gympie, Australia: Queensland Forestry Research Institute, 328-332. [1] Marcar NE, Hussain RW, Arunin S, Beetson T, 1991. Trials with Australian and other Acacia species on salt-affected land in Pakistan, Thailand and Australia. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 35:229-232; 3 ref. [1] Marcar NE, Ganesan SK, Field J, 1991. Genetic variation for salt and waterlogging tolerance of Acacia auriculiformis.. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 35:82-86; 6 ref. [1] 14 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1996. Climatic requirements of some main plantation tree species in Vietnam. In: Booth TH, ed, Matching Trees and Sites. ACIAR Proceedings No. 63, 43-49. [1] Nguyen Hoang Nghia, Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Acacia species and provenance selection for large-scale planting in Vietnam. In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM, eds. Tree Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Gympie: Queensland Forestry Research Institute, 443-448. [1] Nor Aini AS, 1993. Recovery of Acacia auriculiformis from fire damage. Forest Ecology and Management, 62(1-4):99-105; 9 ref. [1] Nor Aini AS, Kamis Awang, Venkateswarlu P, Abd Latib Senin, 1994. Three-year performance of Acacia auriculiformis provenances at Serdang, Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science, 17(2):95-102; 27 ref. [1] Nor Aini AS, Kamis Awang, Mansor Mohd Rashid, Abd Latib Senin, 1994. Provenance trial of Acacia auriculiformis in Peninsular Malaysia: 12-month performance. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 6(3):249-256; 25 ref. [1] Pinyopusarerk K, 1990. Acacia auriculiformis: an annotated bibliography. Winrock International and Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. [1] Turnbull JW, Awang K, 1997. Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. In: Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxiliary plants. Leiden, the Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, 52-56. [1] 15 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Vuthy, C. C. 2004. Study of the effects of potting media on growth performance of Acacia auriculiformis seedlings in the nursery of Svay Reang Forestry Triage. MSc thesis, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh. 78 pp. [10] Yantasath K, Anusontpornperm S, Utistham T, Soontornrangson W, Watanatham S, 1993. Acacias for fuelwood and charcoal In: Awang K, Taylor DA, eds. Acacias for Rural, Industrial and Environmental Development. Proceedings of the Second meeting of Consultative Group for Research and Development of Acacias (COGREDA). Udorn Thani, Thailand: Winrock International and FAO, 144-152. [1] X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [2] NFTA / FACT, 1989-1999: Agroforestry Species and Technologies - a compilation of the highlights and factsheets. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA), Waimanalo Hawaii. [3] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi [4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [5] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh. [6] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp. [7] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations. [8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source) [9] http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=10 (Internet source) 16 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report [10] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh [11] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source) Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra] 1 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra] A. Latin name (s) Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra [4] B. English name (s) Golden Apple, Bengal quince, bael fruit, bael tree;[4,6,9,19] C. Synonym Feronia pellucida, Crateva marmelos [9] D. Other1 Oranger de Malabar (French) [4] bnau, (Cambodia); maja, maja batu, (Indonesia); toum (Laos); bilak, bila, bel (Malaysia); opesheet, ohshit (Burma); matum, tum, ma pin (Thailand); tri mam (Vietnam) [6]. E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter) Source: [3] F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) phnu [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete) Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Rutaceae Gunus: Aegle Species: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Source :[4 ; 11] 2 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 13 m, with slender drooping branches and rather shabby crown [5]. A small, deciduous tree up to 15 m high and 50 cm diameter with 1-2 cm long spines on older branches. Trunk usually fluted at base [6], limbs often spiny (9). [Bark]: Pale brown or greyish, smooth or finely fissured and flaking, armed with long, straight spines, 1.2-2.5 cm, singly or in pairs, often with a slimy sap oozing from cut parts [5,9]. [Leaves]: Trifoliate, alternate, on stalk 2-4 cm long. Each leaflet 5-14 x 2-6 cm, ovate with tapering or pointed tip and rounded base, untoothed or with shallow rounded teeth. Young leaves pale green or pinkish, finely hairy, mature leaves dark green , completely smooth. 4-12 pairs of side-veins, joined at margin, raised above. End leaflet with long stalk, 0.5-3.0 cm, side ones with very short stalks, pH 4.6) soils for best growth (Franco et al., 1995), but can also tolerate heavy clays (vertisols) and infertile, or seasonally waterlogged soils [12]. Tolerance towards alluvials, cambisols, regosols, vertisols and tropical soils [12]. N. Utilization and importance : In tWood]: Hard and heavy, used in construction, suitable for tool handles, crates and boxes, carving furniture, boats, veneer and plywood [6,8,17]. With its rich dark-and-light pattern, the wood is highly prized for carvings, furniture and panelling. The wood shrinks so little that products may be carved out of green wood without fear of splitting or warping as the wood dries. In Hawaii, bowls and other craft products made from the wood are in such high demand that the local wood supply is supplemented by imports from Indonesia and the Philippines. A moderately durable wood, it is also used in boat building. The beautiful, high-quality wood is used for interior trim, crafts, boxes, veneer, plywood and general construction [20]. [Non-Wood]: Planted as solitary tree or roadside tree, as a shade tree but also for ornamental reasons. In the humid tropics Albizia saman is also employed as a shade tree for various cultivated plants, e.g., cocoa, coffee, tea or pepper plantations [13]. The fruit forms 20-30 cm long pods with the seeds making a suitable fodder for cattle, pigs and goats [8,13], the reason why in English the tree is also called cow tamarind. Pods, which fall to the ground when ripe, have a crude protein content of 12-18% (dry matter) with 41% digestibility for goats, and are popular with cattle, horses, goats and other animals. Some South American countries have begun exporting the pods. Although the leaves are nutritious, they are not considered an important fodder [20]. Fuel: The facts that A. saman wood produces 5200-5600 kcal/kg when it burns and that it regrows vigorously after lopping or pollarding make it a valuable source of high-quality firewood and charcoal. However, where there is a strong market for wood carvings, the wood is considered too valuable to be used as fuel [20]. Fruit edible, leaves eaten raw in times of scarce food supplies [4] The bark also contains gum and resin [6,20]. In traditional medicine a decoction of the inner bark and fresh leaves is applied as treatment for diarrhoea, while a brew of small sections of the bark is taken to treat stomach-ache. A crude aqueous 5 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report or alcoholic extract of the leaves is observed to have an inhibiting effect on Mycobacterium tuberculosis. O. Cambodian wood classification : not included P. Silviculture and management : The characteristic spreading tree form of S. saman with a short bole, extremely heavy branching and a wide, spreading crown mean that it is not adaptable to plantation conditions and has rarely been planted successfully at close spacings (Raintree, 1987; Little and Wadsworth, 1989; Roshetko, 1995) [12]. It is a light-demanding species and generally has a very extensive shallow root system. It is, however, highly compatible with pasture and it is in extensive silvopastoral systems that S. saman fulfils its true potential. It tolerates weeds, is suitable for coppicing and pollarding and is able to fix nitrogen. (Raintree, 1987; Escalante, 1985; 1997; Roshetko, 1995). Planted at wide spacings (10 to 20 trees/ha), it provides shade and dry season fodder [12]. Wide spacings, however, can still be compatible with timber production. Given the preference for heartwood, the demand for large girths and the specialist uses of S. saman wood (which never produces clear sawlogs), wide spacing encourages rapid diameter growth and a thick bole with plenty of heartwood. Branch wood is also often of sufficient diameter to be used. A. saman trees resprout vigorously and can be managed for fuelwood by pollarding in agricultural areas, as in the Philippines (Raintree, 1987) [20]. If trees are planted at close spacing, e.g. 1.5-2 m x 2 m, they will carry less branches and form a better stem. Under favourable conditions the trees can attain 18cm dbh (diameter at breast height) within 5 years. Mean annual increment is estimated to lie around 25m/ha. Due to the organic input under the trees the grass does not lose dry in matter content but contains more protein. A. saman coppices well and reacts to pollarding with strong growth so that it can be managed as a source of fuelwood [26]. Q. Propagation : Seeds of A. saman are usually widely available and easily collected. Seed extraction however, requires pounding of the hard dry pods and subsequent winnowing to separate the seeds from pod fragments. There are between 4,400 and 7,700 seeds/kg. Seed requires pretreatment, or scarification, prior to sowing. Hot water pretreatment by pouring boiled water (5 times the volume of seed) over the seeds, soaking for two minutes then draining the hot water and soaking the seed overnight in cold water before sowing is the most widely used method (Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1989). Mechanical scarification - by manual nicking (Roshetko, 1997), the hot wire method (Robbins, 1986; Poulsen and Stubsgaard, 1995) or using the seed gun (Poulsen and Stubsgaard, 1995) - are likely to be equally, or more (Roshetko, 1997), effective, though more tedious and time-consuming. Container stock is normally used for successful establishment. Large bags (10 x 6 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report 20 cm) are used with a potting mixture of 3 parts soil, 1 part sand and 1 part compost. In the first 2-4 weeks seedlings are kept in partial shade. It generally takes 3-5 months to produce seedlings 20-30 cm tall [20]. Propagation is commonly done through potted seedlings, although cuttings and stump cuttings may also be used [20]. Albizia saman has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Trees have been shown to nodulate effectively in Hawaii, Malaysia and the Philippines with a wide range of strains of Rhizobium (reviewed by Allen and Allen, 1981). Seedlings therefore do not require inoculation with specific strains of Rhizobium [20]. R. Hazards and protection : In most places, A. saman is free from pests and diseases. Many defoliators, including the Leucaena leucocephala psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana, attack the tree in various countries, but usually do not cause severe stress problems. Cicadas also feed on A. saman [20]. A number of minor insect pests affect S. saman in different areas, but none of these have, so far caused serious problems. The bean maggot, Hylemya platura [Delia platura] infests cotyledons of S. saman seedlings and may kill them in nurseries in Haiti (Timyan, 1996). In Costa Rica, parrots may harvest up to a third of the expanded green fruits of S. saman (Janzen, 1982) [12]. Insect pests recorded are: Acizzia acaciaebaileyanae, Delia platura, Delia platura, Heteropsylla cubana, Merobruchus columbinus (1), Pammene theristis (2), Psylla acaciabaileyanae (3), Rastrococcus iceryoides (4), Stator limbatus (5) Nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita (6) Fungus diseases: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae (7), Fusarium pallidoroseum (8) Footnotes: 1. damages seeds, 2. in Maharashtra, India, 3. non-preferred name of Acizzia acaciaebaileyanae, 4. In Africa and Asia, this pest attacks cocoa, mango, cotton and A. lebbek as well as A. saman, 5. a bruchid, which damages seeds, 6. nursery seedlings in Cuba were susceptible to damage, 7. causes stem canker and gumnosis in Orissa, India, 8. non-preferred name for F. pallidoroseum [12]. Roots threaten to lift up road and sidewalk cover [9]. S. Conservation : not an endangered species[9] T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : in the lowlands U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native of Central and South America, occures in Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, but has been introduced or naturalized in most tropical countries [5], e.g. in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua 7 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands Tonga, in Africa in Tanzania and Kenya, also in Southeast Asia, in India, Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines etc. [26]. V. Miscellaneous4 : This tree is called raintree because even on dry days it may rain below its crown. This rain is caused by a minute cicada, Ptyleus grossus, protecting itself with foam against drought. The insects tap the branches for its liquor and then excrete considerable amounts of water. This may be enough to cause the formation of puddles below the tree [13]. W. Further readings5 : Hensleigh, T.E.& HolawayB.K. 1988: Agroforestry species for the Philippines. AJA Printers, Malabon, 404 pp. Akkasaeng,R, Gutteridge,RC, Wanapat, M,1989: Evaluation of trees and shrubs for forage and fuelwood in northeast Thailand. Int. Tree Crops Journal 5(4): 20-220; 3 ref. Hunter, IR, Stewart, JL ,1993: Foliar nutrient and nutritive content of Central American multipurpose tree species growing at Comayagua, Honduras. Comm. For. Review 72(3): 193-197; 19 ref. MacDicken GK, 1994: Selection and management of nitrogen-fixing trees. Winrock International and FAO Bangkok. Perry LM 1980: Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia: attributed properties and uses.; MIT Press. South East Asia. Poulsen, KM, Stubsgaard, F 1995: Three methods of mechanical scarification of hardcoated seeds. Tech. Note 27, DANIDA Forest Seed Center, Humlebaek, Denmark Roshetko, JM 1995:Albizia saman: Pasture improvement, shade, timber and more NFT highlites. No. 95-02. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Arkansas; USA. Winrock International Ahn JH, Robertson BM, Elliott R, Gutteridge RC, Ford CW, 1989. Quality assessment of tropical browse legumes: tannin content and protein degradation. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 27(1-2):147-156; 25 ref. Sunand, C., Sharmiastha, D, Bhaduri, SK, Dharmadas, S, 1993: Chemical evaluation of leaf fibre from 4 tropical trees; a social forestry resource. Bioresource Technology 46(3):259-261; 19 ref. Takeda, S, 1990: Lac cultivation and host tree plantations in northern Thailand. South East Asian Studies 28(2): 182-205; BIDC Taylor DH and MacDicken KG 1990: Research on multipurpose treespecies in Asia. Proceedings Int.Workshop, November 19-23, 1990, Los Banos Thole, NS, Joshi, AL, Rangnekar, DV 1992: Nutritive evaluation of raintree (Samanea saman) pods. Ind. J. of Animal Sciences 62(3): 270-272; 6 ref. 8 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Chicco CF, Garbati ST, Muller-Haye B, 1973. A note on the use of saman fruit (Pithecellobium saman) in pig food rations. Agronomia Tropical (Maracay, Venezuela), 23: 263-267. X. References: 4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp. 6) Jensen, M. 2001: Trees and Fruit of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok; 224 pp. 8) Sam, H. V., Nanthavong, Kh. and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. , Nat. Herbar. Nederlande, Univ. Leiden, Branch. Leiden The Netherlands, 349 pp. 9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide Thames & Hudson Ltd.,London. 484 pp. 11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp. 12) CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM) 13) BAERTELS, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart,Germany, illustrated, 384 pp. 17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp. 20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM). 9 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report 26) World Agroforestry Centre: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Oroducts/AFDbases/AF/asp/ BotanicList.asp? (Internet source). Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Anacardium occidentale L.] 1 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Anacardium occidentale L.] A. Latin name (s) Anacardium occidentale L. B. English name (s) cashew [1] , cashew nut [2] C. Synonym Cassuvium pomiferum [4], Acajuba occidentalis Gaertn. [7] D. Other1 cajou, anacardier, acajou, cachou, pomme de cajou (France) [1, 2] - jambu monyet, jambu mede (Indonesia) [1] - gajus, jambu monyet (Malaysia) [1] - kasoy, balubad, balogo, kasui (Philippines) [1, 2] - thiho thayet si (Myanmar) [1] - mamuang himmaphan, yaruang, mamuang letlor (Thailand) [1] - [dd][af]o l[ooj]n h[ooj]t, [dd]i[eef]u, cay dieu, dao lon hot (Vietnam) [1, 2] - anacardo, casa, maranjon, merci, pajuil (Spain) [2] - kazu badam (Bangladesh) [2] - yao kuo (China) [2] - andipapuppa, andiparuppu, balia, bojan, gera-bija, gerybija, godambe, hijali-badam, hijuli, jidi-mamidi, jidivate, kaju, kashu-mavu, kempu geru bija, lanka-ambo, mindiri, mundri, muntha-mamidi (India) [2] - kashu nattsu (Japan) [2] - caju, kaju, montinkai (Sri Lanka) [2] E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter): sVaycnI Source: [9] F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) svaay chantii [1, 11], chanty, kchov [3] G. Taxonomic position(complete) Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae 2 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Anacardiaceae Genus: Anacardium Species Anacardium occidentale L. Source :[ 2] H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small to medium-sized, evergreen shrub or tree with a height of up to 12 m [1] (6-15 m [2], 4-10 m [4], 2-8 m [14], 0-6 m [12]). Bole is 0.5-1.5 m short [1], stout and crooked with a DBH of 25 cm [2] (30-45 cm [13]) and has few irregularly orientated branches usually near the base, giving a spreading appearance. Bark resinous, light grey or brown, smooth in the young stages but becoming rough with abundant warts with age. The middle part of the bark has a tinge of brown with red sticky and caustic fibers. Taproots are up to 3 m deep [1], persistent. Lateral roots are spreading beyond the crown projection, with sinker roots to a depth of 6 m [1]. Crown dome-shaped, wide, early branched and densely foliated. The leaves are commonly crowded at the ends of the branches. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, simple, thick and leathery, hairless, opposite egg-shaped or oblong, often notched at the apex, purplish-green or red-brown when young, later shining dark green with entire margin and hairless. The leaf blade is 6-24 x 4-15 cm [2] (6-25 cm 5-15 cm [8]) with prominent midrib and veins, lateral veins pinnately spreading with 10-20 [2] bow-like pairs. The leaf stalk is short (1-2 cm [2]), swollen at the base and flattened on the upper surface. [Flowers]: The inflorescence is polygamous with ca. 60 hermaphrodite and 10 male flowers [8]. "The inflorescence is a slightly branched lax terminal, drooping, many-flowered panicle, with the branches at 90to the axis" [8]. It is up to 25 cm long with fragrant male and hermaphrodite flowers. Flowers are small, regular, sweet-scented, white to light green at flower growth, later turning to pinkish-red. The size of flowers varies from 1-2 mm for male and 6-12 mm for hermaphrodite flowers [2]. The structure of both types of flowers is similar except that the female organ is either absent or rudimentary in the staminate flowers. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are green spear-shaped to oblong, 4-15 mm x 1-2 mm [8] and hairy. The 5 inner flower-leaves (petals) are linear, spear-shaped, 7-13 mm x 1-1.5 (-2) mm [2, 8], reflexed in open flowers, pale greenish-cream with red strips at the time of flower growth and later turning to red. There are 10 stamens (=male organs). The male flowers have 7-9 short (2-3 mm [2], 4 mm [8]) and 1-3 long (6-9 mm [2], 6-10 mm [8]) stamens, the female or hermaphrodite flowers have 9 short and 1 long stamen projecting just above corolla [2]. Flower buds and fully open flowers may be found in the same tree. In general, flowering normally occurs at the beginning of the dry period and varies with latitude (Flowering season SE-Asia: January-May [12]). The flowers are pollinated by insects (honey bees, flies, possibly also ants). Both cross- and self-pollination occur, but there is evidence of some self-incompatibility. The fruiting starts in April [12]. 3 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report [Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is a kidney-shaped nut, about 3 x 1.2 cm [1] (3-5 x 2-3.5 cm [2], 2-3 x 1 cm [4], 2-3 x 1.5-2.5 cm [8]), with a greyish green to grey-brown, resinous hard fruit coat. The fruit is embedded in an enlarged and swollen flower stalk called a cashew apple (false fruit), which is pear-shaped, 10-20 cm x 4-8 cm [1], waxy, red to yellow, soft and juicy. Seed kidney-shaped with reddish-brown seed coat, two large white cotyledons and a small embryo. The kernel remaining after removal of the testa is the cashew nut of commerce. [1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14] I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is reddish brown, light and hard but crooked. "The timber has an unusual feature, in that wood density and fiber length decrease with tree age" [2]. [5, 13] J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 27N to 28S [2] (20N to 24S. [5]). Cashew's high adaptability is characterized by its omnipresence in diverse latitudes. As a naturalized exotic it occurs in dry forests, dunes, grasslands, savanna woodlands, savannas, coastal plant communities and is also found growing wild in other situations. Cashew is a well-known backyard tree in South-East Asia. [1, 2, 5, 12] K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Cashew grows well from 0-1,200 m a.s.l. [2, 8] (0-1,000 m [5, 7] but is best suited to lower altitudes. Normally an altitude of 600 m a.s.l. [5, 13] is the limit for commercial cashew cultivation. It tolerates both uni- and bimodal rainfall regimes but the latter one is more appreciated. The distribution of rainfall within the rainy season is more important than quantity. However it can be grown in arid, semi-arid and humid climates with annual rainfall range of 500-3,500 mm/yr [7] (500-3,700 mm [2], 500-4,000 mm [5], 800-1,500 mm [8], 1,200-2,200 mm [13]). Heavy rains and cloudy weather during flowering adversely affect nut yield. A dry season length of 3-5 months [8] (4-5 months [5], 4-6 months [2]) is needed for a good flower flushing, fruit- and root development. It can also adapt to very dry conditions as long as the root system has access to soil moisture. Cashew requires high temperatures, the optimal temperature for growth is 22-26C [8]. It thrives in areas with a mean annual temperature of 22-35C [2] (17-38 C [7]), a mean maximum temperature of 35-48C [2] in the hottest month and a mean minimum temperature of 16-24C [2] in the coldest month. The absolute minimum temperature is above 0C [2] because cashew is susceptible to frost damage [8, 15]. Other sources mention cashew as a very frost resistant species [1]. A. occidentale is a strongly light-demanding species and readily colonizes open ground. It does not tolerate excessive shade. However it tolerates strong winds and termites. [1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15] 4 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available. M. soil and site conditions : Cashew can adapt itself to varying soil conditions, from the sandy sea coast to laterite hill slopes, even soils which are too stony or too dry for other crops. It also grows well in soils which are very poor in nutrients. However, it prefers shallow, fertile, well-drained to dry, bare sandy soils, hard laterite soils and deep red loamy soils or soils rich in organic matter. The species can bear heavy, waterlogged clay soils or saline soils but with an extreme poor growth. Brackish soils near seashores and inundated or swampy soils are not suited. It prefers slightly acidic to neutral (pH 6.3-7.3 [2]) soil conditions. "In drier areas (annual rainfall 800-1,000 mm), a deep and well drained soil without impermeable layers is essential. A simple water budget with the aid of pan evaporation figures will show the required soil depth." [1]. Suitable soils for growth include: ferrallitic, lateritic, rocky soils, coastal sandy soils, luvisols, fluvisols and red soils. [1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15] N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: A. occidentale is not really a timber species due to its low-quality timber. Unless trees are old or uneconomical for nut production, they are not felled for timber or fuelwood purposes. However it produces wood that can be used for round wood, sawn or hewn building timbers, light construction, house- and shed posts, fencing poles and even for building boats. It produces excellent fuelwood and charcoal. The wood pulp is used to fabricate corrugated and hardboard boxes or crates. [1, 2, 5, 13] [Non-Wood]: Food: The nutritious kernel (=cashew nut) is the main economic product of the species, the world trade in cashew ranks third after almond and hazelnut. The nut is highly regarded as food, usually roasted. Cashew nuts are also used as snack foods, in confectionery and baked products. They are often marketed in cans of mixed nuts. Cashew apple is a good source of vitamin C, and can be eaten fresh or mixed in fruit salad or squeezed to make fresh juice. In Cambodia the cashew apple is eaten fresh with salt. Also the young leaves, buds and shoots are eaten raw in salads or cooked, especially in time of shortage. The juice of cashew apple is slightly fermented and distilled to make strong alcoholic drinks in Brazil, Guatemala, India and Mozambique. Oil: The nut contains a high quality oil and the cake remaining after extraction serves as an animal feed. However, due to the current high price of the kernels the oil is not usually extracted. By-products of the nut collection are seed-coats which can be used as poultry feed and shells which are utilized as a source of fuel and yield cashew nut shell liquid oil (CNSL). CNSL is used as a waterproofing agent and a preservative e.g. to treat wooden structures and fishing nets and in the manufacture of numerous industrial products. Distilled and polymerized the oil is used in insulating varnishes and in 5 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report the manufacture of typewriter rolls, oil- and acid proof cements and tiles, brake linings, inks, etc.. CNSL has also been used to produce several pesticides, dyes and drugs. Medicine: All parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine to treat wounds, toothache, dysentery, scurvy, sores, warts, ringworm and psoriasis. "The leaves contain flavonoids, mainly glycosides of quercetin, kaempferol and hydroxybenzoic acid. The bark contains anacardic acid, anacardol, cardol and ginkol. The caustic liquid in the shell contains about 39% anacardic acid, which is a mixture of alkyl salicyclic acid derivates. The bark and leaves are used as an infusion for tooth aches and sore gums. The infusion may also be used as a febrifuge in malaria. Anacardic acid is bactericidal against Staphylococcus aureus as well as being fungicidal. Extracts of the leaves have reportedly shown to be hypotensive in rats. Infusion of the dried leaves have reputed anti-hyperglycaenic and anti-ulcerative properties" [4]. The fruit sap is used as a medicine for leucoderma. Fruit and kernel can also be used as an antidote against skin diseases and leprosy. Tannins and dyes: The bark is used in the tanning industry, and the resinous sap from the bark yields an indelible ink. The wounded bark exudes a yellow gum which has insecticidal properties and can be used as an adhesive (woodwork panels, plywood, bookbinding). [1, 2, 4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15] [Others]: In Cambodia's past Cashew was rather cultivated as an ornamental than as a fruit tree. It is also grown as a shade tree, as a hedge and for dune stabilization. It is also suitable for shelterbelts and windbreaks, for afforestation of barren, slash-and-burned farmland and coastal saline sandy lands and for the rehabilitation of degraded lands. [2, 8, 14] O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [ 6] P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. occidentale occurs in dry forests, dunes, grasslands, savanna woodlands, savannas, coastal plant communities and is also found growing wild in other situations. As a well-known agroforestry species it is often intercropped with coconut, citrus, banana, cassava and maize. Cashew is a multipurpose species suitable for shelterbelts and windbreaks, for afforestation of barren, slash-and-burned farmland and coastal saline sandy lands and for the rehabilitation of degraded lands. The tree is easily cultivated, vigorous and requires little care. It is a strongly light-demanding and does not tolerate excessive shade. It coppices easily. [Establishment]: A.occidentale can be planted in the full sun. In general planting holes are 30 x 30 cm [2] in size. On heavy or compact soils planting holes should be 50 x 50 x 50 cm [5] in size and refilled with a soil-manure mix. Two or three seeds are planted per hole at a depth of 5-8 cm [2]. After germination only one seedling is retained. For initial spacing 3.4 x 3.4 to 5 x 5 m [5] (6 x 6 m to 10 x 10 m [2]) is recommended to suppress weeds and maintain soil moisture. The seedling emerges 3 6 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report weeks after sowing. The root grows fast, maintaining a depth of 1.5 times the height of the shoot [1]. The shoots grow in flushes that follow the onset of the rainy season. The seedling stem soon branches and pruning may be needed to attain a trunk height of 0.5-1.5 m [1]. Fertilizer application is not a common practice. The juvenile phase lasts only 3 or 4 years. [Management]: To ensure a uniform stand, moisture should be stored (e.g. by mulching, terracing, half-moon basin making), soil aeration should be improved by soil tillage, root penetration should be eased by digging appropriate pits. Careful weeding - cleaning the area within 1 m of the trunk and slashing the remainder - is essential until the trees shade out most of the weeds. "Weed control and erosion prevention can be done by cover cropping (using legumes like Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopogonium mucunoids, Mucana sp., Mimosa invisa etc.)" [5]. The wider spacing allows mixed- or intercropping making this species ideal for agroforestry systems, esp. hedgerow systems. Fertilizers promote growth of the seedlings and advance the onset of flowering in young trees, however it is not necessary where only nuts are harvested. "Since A. occidentale has a low-spreading branching habit, at about 2 years old trees may be pruned to form a strong scaffold, which removes dead, unproductive and diseased branches. Trees are shaped by removing the lower branches and any shoots arising from the base of the tree during the first 3 years. Thereafter little or no pruning is necessary" [2]. After 5 years thinning is required to reduce competition. In closely spaced plantations, thinning may be carried out to obtain 120 trees/ha [2] (44-69 trees/ha [1]). Final spacing varies from 8 x 8 to 20 x 20 m [5] (12 x 12 to 15 x 15 m). "Spacing experiments have shown that at ten years of age productivity in plots with 44, 69, 111, 135 and 278 trees/ha was about 450 kg/ha. The larger tree size compensated for smaller numbers of trees. Thus, only the canopy surface area determines productivity. Hedged rows of trees planted at 2-3 m x 12-15 m almost double the canopy surface area per ha and increase the yield over the first 10 years. The optimum width of the interrows depends on climatic conditions and on planting material" [1]. The growth and development is relatively fast and trees normally start bearing fruits from the 4th year. Trees reach maximum production at about age 10 years [2], and maximum productive rates can continue for a further 20 years [2] (25 years [1]). "Replanting is costly and leads to loss of income for at least five years. Thus, cashew raising in hedgerows is a good alternative. The resulting high productivity can be maintained by coppicing alternate rows at 50-75 cm when adjacent hedges come within 1 m distance of each other. Tree rows may also be grubbed out and replaced with superior selections. The replanted rows come into production after 5 years. However, during that time the remaining hedges can expand fully and reach top yields. When the gap between hedges again becomes less than 1 m the rows of unchecked trees should be cut back, giving room for expansion of the rejuvenated/replanted rows. This system allows continuous cropping at higher than normal productivity and gradually improving yield levels" [1]. After the tree starts bearing, it is important to apply fertilizers and spray against pests and diseases. [Harvest]: Harvest is seasonal and lasts 2-3 months [1]. Best quality is attained where freshly fallen nuts are dried and stored immediately. Nuts should be gathered at least weekly. The area under the tree should be weed-free and swept clean to facilitate nut collection. After removal of the cashew apple the nuts are sun-dried to reduce moisture from 25% to below 9% [1]. With proper drying, the kernel retains its quality, in particular the flavour. The nuts should not absorb moisture during storage. 7 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report The equilibrium moisture content is about 9% at 27C and a relative humidity of 70% [1]. The cashew apples ripen before the raw nuts are mature. Ripe apples for fresh use should be picked almost daily. [Yield]: Yields of seedling trees are low in South-East Asia, usually in the range of 400-600 kg/ha/year [1], the global average is slightly higher with 670-1,350 kg/ha/year [2]. "Average yields per tree increase from 3 kg at ages 3-5, to 4 kg at ages 6-10, 4.7 kg at ages 11-15 and 5.3 kg from the 16th-20th year" [1]. Farmers in southern Myanmar reported a productivity at 6.1 kg/tree [1]. In general a mature tree can yield 45-100 kg [2] of cashew apple and 9-8 kg [2] (some trees up to 45 kg [2]) of nuts annually. [1, 2, 5, 7, 12] Q. Propagation : Natural regeneration occurs when animals such as bats eat the cashew apple and scatter the nut. A. occidentale is also a fairly good coppicer and also produces root suckers, therefore natural regeneration may also occur vegetatively by coppice shoots and root suckers. However coppicing can not be duplicated on a huge field scale. For commercial production cashew is propagated by seed. Nuts are collected from heavily and regularly bearing trees with known parentage. Only fully mature, medium-sized nuts of good shape with a high specific gravity are used. It is also a common practice to select only those seeds which do not float in water or do not give a rattling sound. They give a higher germination percentage and rate of growth. Seeds are collected during April and May [10]. Seeds with a low moisture content are viable for 12 months [10] if stored in air tight containers. After 14 months the seeds completely loose their viability. The number of viable seeds per kilogram varies from 120 to 250/kg [2] (120-125/kg [5], 150-200/kg [10]). Purity percent: 100% [10]. Moisture percentage: 6.5% [10]. Germination percentage: 80-90% [10]. Plant percent: 50% [10]. No. of seedlings per kg of seed: 150 [10]. Pretreatment is not required. Seeds are sown in polybags with the stalk end facing upwards and in a slanting position. Three to four kg of seeds/ha are needed for a layout of 7 x 7 m [4]. "Germination starts in about 10-30 days [2] (10-20 days[10]) and is completed within 2 months. As trees propagated by seed vary considerably in growth rate, yield and quality due to outcrossing, vegetative propagation can be used to produce planting materials from selected mother trees or superior phenotypes. Techniques used include split- and wounded cuttings, air- and ground-layering (most successful method), patch and forked budding (about 30% take), veneer, side, whip, cleft and tip grafting" [2]. "Recently the first successes with propagation through tissue culture have been obtained at Gembloux, Belgium" [1]. [1, 2, 5, 7, 10] R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: The Helopeltis bug or tea mosquito (Helopeltis antonii) is a major pest and causes severe damage to tender shoots and inflorescences, leading to drying up of the inflorescences and shedding of fruits. This can cause a severe economic loss. It can be controlled by contact insecticides. "Application of endosulfan and dimethoate at the time of emergence of new flushes and panicles has been suggested. However, because A. occidentale is insect pollinated, extensive use of pesticides is not recommended. Resistant accessions have been observed in India"[2]. Similarly other pests may 8 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report be locally destructive, e g. wood borers, stem girdlers or sucking pests such as thrips. Other pests include Acrocercops syngramma, Conopomorpha syngramma Meyrick, Crimissa cruralis, Hypatima haligramma Meyrick, Lamida moncusalis Walker, Nephopetryx sp., Metanastria hyrtaca Cramer, Monolepta longitarsus Jac., Oligonychus mangiferus Ratman, Paradasynus rostratus Distant, Plocaederus ferrugineus, Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna, Selenothrips rubrocinctus and Thylocoptila panrosema Meyrick. [1, 2]. [Diseases]: Under hot and humid conditions anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) attacks young shoots and flowers, which dry up and are shed. Infections of the fruits also cause necrosis and shedding. This disease is often associated with insects and/or other fungi. Control is done by removing and burning infected parts and selection of resistant material, the use of fungicides is generally uneconomic. Another disease is powdery mildew (Oidium anacardii) which occurs in plantations, esp. with humid environment and densely planted trees. Affected plant parts become covered with white fungal growth. Leaves and flowers may shrivel, dry up and be shed. It can be controlled by sulphur. Other fungi like Capnodium sp. (Sooty Mould), Corticium salmonicolor, Cylindrocladium scoparium (Seedling Blight), Diplodia natalensis Evans. (Gummosis), Glomerella cingulata, Gloeosporium mangiferae P. Henn., Oidium anacardii (Powdery Mildew), Phomosis anacardii, Phytium ultimum Tron. (Seedling Root Rot), Pestalotia paconiae Servazzi (Leaf Spots), Pestalotia dichatae (Leaf Spots), Phytophthora palmivora (Damping off) have been recorded. [1, 2, 5] S. Conservation : [In-Situ Conservation]: "Field gene banks are maintained in Brazil (130 accessions), India (the NRCC maintain 213 accessions, with 600 accessions in other parts of India), Mozambique (530 clones), Thailand (744 cashew types) and the Philippines with 1,300 cashew accessions" [2]. T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Cashew is cultivated extensively throughout the regions of Cambodia as a commercial product. [4] It is especially found in Phnom Penh, Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, Kp. Thom, Kp. Cham, Kandal, Svay Rieng, Kp. Saom, Battambang, Siem Reap, Pursat, Prey Veng. [16] U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Brazil [Introduced]:Asia (Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam), Africa (Angola, Benin, British Indian Ocean Territory, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo Democratic Republic, Cte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia), 9 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Caribbean (Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago), Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama), North America (Mexico), South America (Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela) Oceania (Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea) [1, 2, 5, 11] V. Miscellaneous4 : [History]: It was one of the first fruit trees from the New World to be widely distributed throughout the tropics by the Portuguese and Spanish. [15] [Nutrients]: "With a production of 420 kg of raw nuts per ha, 13 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of P2O5 and 3 kg of K2O are removed." [1] [Nut properties]: The seed contains 21% protein and between 35 and 45% oil. [2] [Nut-processing in Asia]: "The small-scale production in South-East Asia is suited to manual processing, often followed by sorting and packaging procedures in central plants." [1] [Pollination and seed dispersal]: "Is pollinated primarily by honey bees (Apis mellifera). Ants and flies of the genera Ligyra and Helophilus also visit the flowers. Wind may also disperse pollen, although it plays little part in pollination. It is a self-compatible species with a high level of outcrossing. However, pollination is ineffective with pollen collected from staminoid flowers. A. occidentale produces floral, panicle and leaf nectaries. Fruit-set under natural conditions ranges from 5 to 10%. In India, pollination was not efficient and fruit-set has been increased by artificial pollination, whereas in Tanzania, pollination and fruit-setting are efficient and do not normally limit yield. Seed dispersal occurs through water (seashores, by ocean currents), by large fruit-eating birds (for example, toucans, Ramphastidae) or by fruit bats such as Epomophorus wahlbergi." [2] W. Further readings5 : Aiyadura SG, Premanad PP. 1965. Can cashew become a more remunerable plantation crop? India Cashew Journal. 4(1):2-7. [7] Food and Agriculture Organization, 1982. Fruit-bearing forest trees: technical notes. FAO Forestry Paper, No. 34:v + 177 pp. [2] French JH, Tingsabadh C, Taylor D, Byrnes F, Pan FJ, Wood H, Chung HH, Kamis Awang, Lasco RD, Bhumibhamon S, Latimer W, 1994. Growing multipurpose trees on small farms. Growing multipurpose trees on small farms., Ed. 2:li + 315 pp.; 69 ref. 10 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report [2] Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text]. [2] Johnson DV, 1973. The botany, origin, and spread of the cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. Journal of Plantation Crops, 1:1-7. [2] Nayak MG, 1996. Training and pruning practices for cashew. Cashew, 10(2):5-9; [3 pl.]. [2] Ohler JG, 1979. Cashew. Communication, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, No. 71:260 pp. [2] Northwood PJ. 1966. Some observations on flowering and fruit setting in the cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Trop. Agriculture, Trin. 43(1). [7] Verheij E.W.M. Coronel R.E. (1991) PROSEA - Plant Resources of South-East Asia; 2 - Edible fruits and nuts. [8] Villachica H. Carvalho J. E. U. de. Mller C. H. Camilo Diaz, S. Almanza M. (1996) Promising Amazonian Fruits and Vegetables. [8] X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [3] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM). [4] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses. 11 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report [5] Mandal, R.C., 2000: Cashew - Production and Processing Technology. [6] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished. [7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database - http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source). [8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=401&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source) [9] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. [10] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture (Internet source). [11] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe/spd?spd=352&tx=PL&sub=0 (Internet source). [12] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/Individual.php?id=447 (Internet source) [13] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. [14] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [15] Purseglove, J-W., 1968: Tropical Crops - Dicotyledonae 1. London. 332 pp. [16] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations. Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Anisoptera costata Korth.] 1 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Anisoptera costata Korth.] A. Latin name (s) Anisoptera costata Korth B. English name (s) No information available. C. Synonym Anisoptera cochinchinensis Pierre (1886), Anisoptera marginatoides Heim (1902), Anisoptera mindanensis Foxw. (1918) [1], Anisoptera oblonga Dyer, Anisoptera cochinchinensis Pierre, Anisoptera robusta Pierre, Anisoptera glabra Pierre, Shorea nervosa Kurz. [4] D. Other1 mai bak, mersawa (Trade Name) [12] - mersawa kesat (Brunei) [1] - masegar, mersawa daun lebar, ketimpun (Indonesia) [1] - mersawa kesat, mersawa terbak, pengiran kesat (Malaysia) [1] - Mindanao palosapis, balingan (Philippines) [1] - kaban-thangyin (Myanmar) [1] - bak, maiz bak (Laos) [1] - krabak, krabak khok, krabak daeng (Thailand) [1] - v[ee]n v[ee]n, v[ee]n v[ee]n tr[aws]ng, v[ee]n v[ee]n xanh (Vietnam) [1] E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter): epk Source: [8] F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) phdiek, phdiek krham, phdiek s [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete) Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: