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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND
LEARNING TO TEACH READING COMPREHENSION
VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic Year of
2009/2010)
THESIS
By
Kitri Katon Peni S 890209119
Submitted to Fulfill One of the Requirements for the Completion of the Graduate
Degree in English Education
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE SCHOOL
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY OF SURAKARTA
2011
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PRONOUNCEMENT
This is to certify that I myself write this thesis, entitled “THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING TO
TEACH READING COMPREHENSION VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’
INTELLIGENCE” (An Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic
Year of 2009/2010). It is not a plagiarism or made by others. Anything related to
other’s work is written in quotation, the source of which is listed on the bibliography.
If then the pronouncement proves incorrect, I am ready to accept any academic
punishment, including the withdrawal or cancellation of my academic degree.
Surakarta, June 2011
Faithfully yours
Kitri Katon Peni
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ABSTRACT
KITRI KATON PENI. The Effectiveness of Contextual Teaching and Learning to Teach Reading Comprehension Viewed from Students’ Intelligence: An Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010. A Thesis: English Education of Graduate School, Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta, 2010.
The objectives of the research were to examine: (1) whether the contextual teaching and learning method was more effective than grammar translation method in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; (2) whether the students having high intelligence quotient had better reading comprehension than those having low intelligence quotient for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; and (3) whether there was an interaction between teaching methods and the students’ intelligence in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.
The research was carried out at SMPN 14 Surakarta, from November 2009 to August 2010. The method used for the research was experimental study. The population of the research was the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta. The sampling technique used was cluster random sampling. The sample of the research was two classes; they were experimental class which was taught using contextual teaching and learning method and control class which was taught using grammar translation method. The number of sample used in the research was 36 students from experimental class and 36 students from control class. The technique of collecting data was documentary and test technique. The first was used to collect the data of students’ intelligence scores. The latter was used to know the students’ ability in reading comprehension. The reading test was in the form of multiple choices with four options. It had been tried out first, in order to know the validity and reliability of instrument. Meanwhile, to analyze the data, Multifactor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test of 2x2 and Tukey test were used. Before conducting the ANOVA test, normality and homogeneity test were conducted.
The result of data analysis showed that: (1) contextual teaching and learning method was more effective than grammar translation method in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; (2) the students having high intelligence had better reading comprehension than those having low intelligence for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; and (3) there was an interaction between teaching methods and students’ intelligence in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.
Seeing the result of the research, it could be concluded that contextual teaching and learning method was an effective method to teach reading comprehension. The research also showed that the effect of teaching methods depended on the degree of intelligence. Therefore, the English teachers were recommended to apply the seven components of contextual teaching and learning method in the classroom, particularly in teaching reading comprehension.
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MOTTO
Our goal as faculty is to train minds, not merely transmit subject matter
(G. Doyle Daves)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to Allah S.W.T., Almighty God, for the blessing, mercy, health, and
guidance in leading her thesis entitled “The Effectiveness of Contextual Teaching and
Learning to Teach Reading Comprehension Viewed from Students’ Intelligence: An
Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010” to
the accomplishment.
She realizes that this thesis can be finished with the help of so many people.
She would like to express her profound gratitude and appreciation to:
1. Prof. Drs. Suranto, M. Sc., Ph.D. as the Director of Graduate School of Sebelas
Maret University who has given his permission to write this thesis.
2. Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd. as the Head of English Education of Sebelas Maret
University and the first consultant who has patiently and willingly given
valuable advice, guidance, and time.
3. Dr. Abdul Asib, M. Pd. as the second consultant who has patiently and willingly
given valuable advice and guidance.
4. Hj. Ratna Purwaningtyastuti, S. Pd., M. Pd as the Headmaster of SMPN 14
Surakarta for her generosity in giving permission to study or conduct the
research.
5. Her beloved husband, mother, children and friends by whom the writer has been
assisted, supported, and encouraged over the months.
6. All her students, who have taken part in her research.
The writer realizes that this thesis is still far from being perfect. Therefore,
she will accept all constructive criticism and suggestion for the progress of the next
study. May this thesis be useful to increase the quality of the educational activities.
Surakarta, June 2011
KK
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Page TITLE .................................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL .......................................................................................................... ii
LEGITIMATION ................................................................................................. iii
PRONOUNCEMENT ............................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v
MOTTO ................................................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................ x
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1
A. Background of the Study ...................................................... 1
B. Identification of the Problems .............................................. 5
C. Limitation of the Problems.................................................... 6
D. Statement of the Problems .................................................... 7
E. Purpose of the Study ............................................................. 7
F. Benefits of the Study ............................................................. 8
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES ............................... 9
A. Theoritical Description ......................................................... 9
1. Reading Competence ..................................................... 9
a. Definition of Reading ................................................ 9
b. Types of Reading Competence ................................. 10
c. Reading Comprehension Skill ................................. 11
d. Approaches to Reading ............................................ 13
e. Strategies for Reading Comprehension ..................... 15
f. Micro Skills for Reading ........................................... 17
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g. Classroom Approaches to Reading .......................... 20
h. Factors Influencing Reading .................................... 22
2. Teaching Method ............................................................ 25
a. Grammar Translation Method .................................. 25
1) The Characteristics of GTM ................................. 25
2) The Advantages of GTM ...................................... 29
3) The Disadvantages of GTM .................................. 30
4) The Teaching Procedure of GTM. ........................ 32
b. Contextual Teaching and Learning .......................... 34
1) Contextual Teaching and Learning ...................... 34
2) The Characteristics of CTL .................................. 35
3) The Components of CTL ..................................... 36
4) The Principles of CTL ......................................... 37
5) The Teaching Procedure of CTL .......................... 40
6) The Advantages of CTL ...................................... 43
7) The Disadvantages of CTL .................................. 46
3. The Nature of Intelligence ............................................. 46
a. The Meaning of Intelligence .................................... 46
b. The Elements of Intelligence .................................... 47
c. The Requirements of Intelligence Test ..................... 52
d. The Types of Intelligence Test .................................. 53
e. The Influence of Intelligence on Reading ................ 56
B. Rationale .............................................................................. 56
C. Hypotheses ........................................................................... 60
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................. 61
A. Place and Time of the Research ........................................... 61
B. Research Method .................................................................. 61
C. Research Design ................................................................... 62
D. Subject of the Research ........................................................ 63
E. Technique of Collecting the Data ........................................ 64
F. Technique of Analyzing the Data ........................................ 67
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CHAPTER IV THE RESULT OF THE STUDY .................................................. 71
A. The Description of the Data ................................................. 71
B. Normality and Homogeneity Test ......................................... 80
C. Hypothesis Test .................................................................... 82
D. Discussion of the Result of the Study .................................. 86
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION ............. 94
A. Conclusion ............................................................................. 94
B. Implication ............................................................................. 94
C. Suggestion ............................................................................. 95
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 97
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................... 100
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Lesson Plan ............................................................................. 101
Appendix 2 Blueprint of Reading Test (1) ................................................ 201
Appendix 3 Instrument of Reading Test (1) .............................................. 202
Appendix 4 The Valid and Nonvalid Items of Reading Test (1) .............. 215
The Valid and Nonvalid Items of Reading Test (2) .............. 221
Appendix 5 Reliability ............................................................................... 226
Appendix 6 Blueprint of Reading Test (2) ................................................. 227
Appendix 7 Instrument of Reading Test (2) .............................................. 228
Appendix 8 Scores of Reading Test ........................................................... 238
Appendix 9 Scores of Intelligence Test ...................................................... 243
Appendix 10 Descriptive Statistic ................................................................ 247
Appendix 11 Normality Test ........................................................................ 267
Appendix 12 Homogeneity Test ................................................................... 281
Appendix 13 Hypothesis Test ...................................................................... 283
Appendix 14 Lilliefors Tabel ....................................................................... 290
Appendix 15 Table Values of rproduct moment ................................................... 291
Appendix 16 Q Table Tuckey ...................................................................... 292
Appendix 17 Table Chi-Square .................................................................... 294
Appendix 18 Table Nilai F0,05 ...................................................................... 296
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 Teaching Procedure of GTM in Teaching Reading ....................... 32
Table 2 Teaching Procedure of CTL in Teaching Reading ........................ 40
Table 3 Important Elements of Intelligence ................................................ 47
Table 4 Sample Items Similar to Those Used in WAIS-R .......................... 55
Table 5 Time Schedule for the Research .................................................... 61
Table 6 Frequency Distribution of Data A1 ................................................ 72
Table 7 Frequency Distribution of Data A2 ............................................... 73
Table 8 Frequency Distribution of Data B1 ................................................. 74
Table 9 Frequency Distribution of Data B2 ................................................ 75
Table 10 Frequency Distribution of Data A1B1 ............................................ 77
Table 11 Frequency Distribution of Data A1B2 ........................................... 78
Table 12 Frequency Distribution of Data A2B1 ............................................ 79
Table 13 Frequency Distribution of Data A2B2 ........................................... 80
Table 14 The Summary of Normality Test using Lilliefors .......................... 81
Table 15 The Homogeneity Test ................................................................... 81
Table 16 Multifactor Analysis of Variance .................................................. 82
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Research Design ............................................................................ 62
Figure 2 Design of Multifactor Analysis of Variance .................................. 67
Figure 3 Histogram and Polygon of Data A1 ................................................ 73
Figure 4 Histogram and Polygon of Data A2 ................................................ 74
Figure 5 Histogram and Polygon of Data B1 ................................................ 75
Figure 6 Histogram and Polygon of Data B2 ............................................... 76
Figure 7 Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B1 ............................................ 77
Figure 8 Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B2 ............................................ 78
Figure 9 Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B1 ........................................... 79
Figure 10 Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B2 ............................................ 80
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Based on School-Based Curriculum (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan
Pendidikan) 2006 for junior high school, the aim of teaching English is to
develop communicative competence. Having communicative competence here
means to understand and express the information, minds and feelings in their
daily life. It is also to develop technology, science, and culture. The learners
are expected to master the ability to communicate completely. The ability is
called communicative competence. This is supported by the learners’
linguistic, actional, socio-cultural, and strategic competences in an integrated
way. The learners afterwards are able to produce the spoken and written text
realized in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
One of the four language skills that the students have to master is
reading skill. Aebersold and Field (1997: 15) state, “Reading is what happens
when people look at a text and assign meaning to the written symbols in that
text”. Moreover, Dawson and Bamman (1997: 1) say, “Reading is truly a
basic mean of learning in all subjects” because in every subject, students’
learning activities involve reading. Through reading, students are able to
expand their view of all things, such as information, ideas, skills, values, and
ways of thinking, as it is stated by Williams (1996: 13) below:
The teachers’ reasons of having the learners read a foreign language (i.e.
English) are as follows:
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1) Learners can have further practice of language that they have already met
through listening and speaking,
2) They can practice language in order to re-use it in writing,
3) They can learn how to make sense of texts, in order to extract the
information they need from them,
4) They can find enjoyment through reading, and finally
5) The teachers can relax from time to time in the classroom.
The objective of teaching reading for junior high school students is
providing them with comprehending knowledge. It means that the ability of
reading must be followed by understanding or comprehending the text. The
competence standard and the basic competence for the eighth grade want the
students to be able to comprehend meaning. This meaning covers ideational,
interpersonal, or textual from various interactive and monolog written texts.
These texts are short functional text and genre, particularly in the form of
descriptive and recount. The comprehension of reading is measured from the
ability to identify words’ meaning, main idea, supporting details, factual
information, rhetorical steps, and purpose.
However, in reality the students of SMP 14 Surakarta still get
difficulties in comprehending the English text. It is indicated by their low
score of reading comprehension. Commonly, the students face the difficulty in
finding the main idea and supporting details, in getting meaning of word,
phrase, and sentence, in understanding text organization; and in answering the
questions dealing with the text. In addition, the students are not enthusiastic
and interested in learning reading. They find it difficult in comprehending a
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text when finding many new vocabularies and look sleepy and bored during
the lesson. The students are not actively engaged in learning activities.
Another factor influencing to the problem is the condition of the
students that come from different social situation, creativity, intelligence and
others. In the teaching and learning process, frequently, there are some
students that are able to study fast, but some cannot understand the items.
Meanwhile, the teachers get difficulty to be able to control the child one by
one whether they have understood the lesson or not. It happens because the
time available is limited, the number of the students is 35-40 children and
sometimes the students do not have the bravery to express the questions. That
is why it needs a method of teaching to make the students interact, collaborate,
assist and discuss with each other to solve the problems.
The fact that the teaching method is still dominated by traditional
system arises some serious problems. Most students could not relate what they
have learnt with the knowledge in recent and future life. It means that learning
was not meaningful for students to solve the problems occurring in their lives.
Learning had not been able to develop language knowledge, language skills,
and language competence comprehensively. It happened because the teaching
and learning process did not correlate the materials with the students’ daily
life, was not contextual, gave more abilities to memorize, but not to think
creatively, critically, and analytically.
Therefore, the researcher is interested in conducting an experimental
study by proposing a method of teaching reading comprehension, namely
contextual teaching and learning (CTL). This approach assumes that learning
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process would be actually occurring if the students could find meaningful
correlation between abstract thinking and practical application in the real
context. In such learning experience, facts, concepts, principles and
procedures as subject materials that are internalized through discovery,
reinforcement, interrelationship, and integrated processes. Contextual learning
is coordination between subject materials or content and intellectual skills that
should be possessed by the students in a situation which is suitable with the
students’ cognitive psychology and environmental needs (http://coe.ssusb.edu/
scarcella/help.pdf)
Furthermore, Johnson (2005: 25) describes contextual teaching learning
as an educational process that aims to help students see meaning in the
academic material they are studying by connecting academic subjects with the
context of their daily lives, that is, with context of their personal, social, and
cultural circumstance. To achieve their aims, the system encompasses the
following eight components: making meaningful connections, doing
significant work, self-regulated learning, and collaborating, critical and
creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high standards, and using
authentic assessment.
Besides the teaching method, other factors which may influence the
effectiveness of students’ learning are external factors and internal factors.
External factors can be classified into two groups: social and non-social
factors. Social factors usually come from the students themselves and non-
social factors can be the place, the weather, and the time when the learning
process happens. Internal factors can also be classified into two groups. They
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are physiological factors and psychological factors. The physiological factors
include the function of certain organs that students have. The psychological
factors cover students’ intelligence, motivation, and interest.
Intelligence is an important determinant of reading. Reading is a
process of thinking. Intelligence is the ability to learn and to apply what has
been learned. A measure of verbal intelligence was significantly more strongly
correlated with the rate of reading, single- word reading, vocabulary or word
knowledge, and understanding of what was read in a text (Sue, et al., 2009: 2)
Considering the characteristics of contextual teaching and learning
method and the intelligence, thus there is an expectation that this learning
method will be able to give a positive contribution towards English teaching
and learning particularly in improving students’ reading comprehension. In
order to be more convinced whether this research works well, the writer tends
to compare the result of students’ reading comprehension achievement
between the control class taught using grammar translation method (GTM)
and the experimental class taught by using CTL viewed from their
intelligence.
B. Identification of the Problems
Based on the background of the study, there are many problems that
may arise. The writer identifies some problems as follows:
1. Why do students tend to have low reading comprehension?
2. Do students need a good environment in teaching learning process?
3. Can students apply the knowledge in their daily life?
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4. Does the teacher create a real situation in a class which supports teaching
and learning process?
5. What kinds of technique can be used to improve students’ reading
comprehension?
6. To what extent is CTL effective and helpful in teaching reading
comprehension?
7. Does students’ intelligence also influence their reading comprehension?
C. Limitation of the Problems
The research has a broad scope and it is nearly impossible for the writer
to handle all of the problems. Therefore, in this research the problems are only
focused on the following aspects:
1. The teaching methods used in this research are CTL and GTM
2. Reading comprehension in this study is limited to the level of literal and
interpretative comprehension such as identifying main points,
understanding explicitly stated information, understanding implicitly
stated information, guessing the meaning of words from context,
understanding or finding reference, identifying the generic structure of a
text and finding the communicative purpose of a text.
3. The effectiveness in this study is based on the mean score of reading
comprehension test conducted after the teaching learning process for the
students taught using CTL (experimental group) and those taught using
GTM (control group)
4. The research is viewed from the students’ intelligence of the eighth grade
students of SMP 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.
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D. Statement of the Problems
In order to be operational, the problems of the study can be formulated
into the following questions:
1. Is CTL method more effective than GTM in teaching reading
comprehension for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the
academic year of 2009/2010?
2. Do the students having high intelligence have better reading
comprehension than those having low intelligence for the eighth grade
students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010?
3. Is there any interaction between teaching methods and students’
intelligence in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth grade
students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010?
E. Purpose of the Study
Related to the title and the problems stated above, the purposes of the
study are as follows:
1. To examine whether the CTL method is more effective than GTM method
in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth grade students of SMPN
14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010
2. To examine whether the students having high intelligence have better
reading comprehension than those having low intelligence for the eighth
grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010
3. To find out whether there is an interaction between teaching methods and
the students’ intelligence in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth
grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010
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F. Benefits of the Study
1. For students
a) The students hopefully are able to develop their deep understanding of
reading material thoroughly.
b) The students are more interested in studying English since the
materials given are related to students’ real life, not abstract.
c) The teaching learning process will be fun, so the students are actively
involved during teaching and learning process.
2. For teachers
a) The teachers will be able to implement the suitable teaching method to
improve students’ reading comprehension.
b) The teachers are able to determine the contextual materials which
relate to students’ real life, so what she gives to her students will be
meaningful for their life.
c) The teachers are able to explore their creativity to teach reading
comprehension for students with high and low intelligence.
3. For other researcher
a) Hopefully the coming researchers can conduct any further research in
the field by extending it to other levels and subjects.
b) The research can give additional contribution to develop instructional
model and strengthen the similar theory.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
A. Theoretical Description
1. Reading Competence
a. Definition of Reading
William (1996: 2) defines reading as a process whereby someone looks
at and understands what has been written. Along with the definition it is said
that reading involves processing language messages, a process of receiving
and interpreting information encoded in language via the medium of print
(Urguhart, 1998: 15). According to Nunan (2003, 68) reading is a fluent
process of readers combining information from a text and their own
background knowledge to build meaning.
Moreover, Dechant and Smith (1977: 237) explain that an effective
reading should include not only a literal comprehension of an author’s word,
but also an interpretation of his mood, tone, feeling, and attitude. It means that
reading for comprehension skill is not only merely the ability to recognize
words and sentences but the intention of the writer as well. When people read
something they understand it at three levels. First, the purely literal responding
to the graphic signals only with little depth of understanding, the second level
at which the reader recognizes the author’s meaning and the third level where
the reader’s own personal experiences and judgments influence his response to
the text.
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On the other hand, there is a definition of reading stating that there are
three basic definitions of reading. The first definition states that learning to
read means learning to pronounce words. The second definition says that
learning to read means learning to identify words and get their meaning. And
the third definition explains that learning to read means learning to bring
meaning to a text in order to get meaning from it
(http//www.ncrel.org/sdrs/ares/issues/content/cntares/reading /li7lkl.htm)
So, it can be concluded that there are two types of reading. They are
reading aloud of written material and reading for comprehension.
b. Types of Reading Performance
Reading aloud of written material is also called oral performance but
reading for comprehension is recognized as silent performance. Reading aloud
is closer to pronunciation than to comprehension. The reader shares
information that the members of the audience want. The real life purpose of
reading aloud to others is to convey information to them, to entertain them, or
to share a good story that they do not have.
Brown (2001: 312) shows a chart of classroom reading performance as
follows:
Classroom Reading Performance
Oral Silent Intensive Extensive Linguistic Content Skimming Scanning Global
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Reading performance in classroom activity can be classified into oral
and silent performance. The first deals with pronunciation skill and the latter
with intensive and extensive performance. Intensive reading performance
focuses on linguistic and semantic details of a passage. Intensive reading calls
students’ attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface
structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning,
implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like.
Extensive reading performance has to do with general understanding of
a text, usually longer text (book, long article, or essays, etc.).
c. Reading Comprehension Skill
Comprehension takes place when a person is reading. It needs a set of
skills that let her find the information and able to understand it. Grellet (1998:
3) states that reading comprehension means extracting the required
information from it as efficiently as possible. And according to Smith and
Robinson (1980: 54), reading comprehension is the understanding, evaluating,
and utilizing of information and idea gained through an interaction between
the reader and author.
Kennedy (1981: 192) defines reading comprehension as a thought
process through which readers become aware of an idea, understand it in terms
of their experiential background and interpret it in relation to their own needs
and purpose. Husein and Postlethwaithe (1994: 4940-4941) state that reading
comprehension is an extraction of certain meaning from text by the reader. It
is an adaptive that is a dynamic process where the reader applies different
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cognitive strategies according to both their aims and the given situational
context. This idea is supported by Yoakam (in Smith and Dechant, 1961: 213).
He says that comprehending reading matter involves the correct association of
meanings with word symbols, the evaluation of meanings which are suggested
in context, the selection of the correct meaning, the organization of ideas as
they are read, the retention of these ideas and their use in some present or
future activity.
Kustaryo (in Widiastuti, 2003: 18) states that reading comprehension
skill cannot be completely isolated because they are so interrelated that one
skill depends on some degree on another skill. In a broader sense
comprehension could be divided into three levels of skills, namely:
1) Literal Comprehension
Literal reading refers to the ideas and facts that are directly stated on
the printed page. Literal reading places much emphasis on what a writer
says. It requires ability to locate specific facts, to identify happenings that
are described directly, to find answers to questions based on given facts, to
classify or categorize information given and to summarize the details
expressed in a selection.
2) Inferential Comprehension
Inferential reading is referred as reading between the lines. It means
that if students want to get inferences, implied meaning, from the reading
material one must read between lines. Inferences are ideas a reader
receives when he goes beneath the surface to the sense relationships, put
facts and ideas together to draw conclusions and make generalizations, and
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detects the mood of the material. Making inferences requires more
thinking on one’s part because one must depend less on the author and
more on personal insight. Finding what a writer says is not always enough.
3) Critical Comprehension
Critical reading requires higher degree of skill development and
perception. Critical reading requires reading with an inquiring mind and
with active, creative looking for false statement by making judgment. It
means questioning, comparing, evaluating and appreciating.
d. Approaches to Reading
Nuttall (1996: 16-17) proposes two approaches to reading: a top-down
approach and a bottom-up approach.
1) The top-down approach
The top-down approach is the approach to reading in which one can make predictions based on the schemata he/she has acquired – to understand the text. This kind of processing is used when one interprets assumptions and draws inferences. He/she makes conscious use of it when he/she tries to see the overall purpose of the text, or get a rough idea of the pattern of the writer’s argument, in order to make a reasoned guess at the next step. This approach might be compared to an eagle’s eye view of the landscape. From a great height, the eagle can see a wide area spread out below; it understands the nature of the whole terrain, its general pattern and the relationships between various parts of it, far better than an observer on the ground. A reader adopts an eagle’s eye view of the text when he considers it as a whole and relates it to his own knowledge and experience. This enables him to predict the writer’s purpose, the likely trend of the argument and so on, and then use this framework to interpret difficult parts of the text. The top-down approach gives a sense of perspective and makes use of all that the reader brings to the text: prior knowledge, common sense, etc, which have sometimes been undervalued in the reading class.
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In this case, the reader brings a great deal of knowledge (cultural,
syntactic, linguistic, and historical) they already possess to the text, then
check back when new/unexpected information appears.
2) The bottom-up approach
The bottom-up approach is the approach to reading in which the reader builds up a meaning from the black marks on the page: recognizing letters and words, working out sentence structure. One can make conscious use of it when the initial reading leaves him confused. Perhaps he cannot believe that the apparent message was really what the writer intended; this can happen if his world knowledge is inadequate, or if the writer’s point of view is very different from his own. In that case, one must scrutinize the vocabulary and syntax to make sure he has grasped the plain sense correctly. Thus bottom-up processing can be used as a corrective to ‘tunnel vision’ (seeing things only from one’s own limited point of view). One’s image of bottom-up processing might be a scientist with a magnifying glass examining the ecology of a transect – a tiny part of the landscape the eagle surveys. The scientist develops a detailed understanding of that one little area (which might represent a sentence in the text); but full understanding only comes if this is combined with knowledge of adjacent areas and the wider terrain, so that their effects on one another can be recognized. In other words, bottom-up and top-down approaches are used to complement each other.
Here, the readers construct the text from the smallest units (letters to words
to phrases to sentences, etc) and use their linguistic data to understand the
text well.
3) The interaction of top-down and bottom-up processing
Although logically one might expect that he ought to understand the plain sense if he wants to understand anything else, in practice a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict the probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says. This has become known as interactive reading. Both approaches can be mobilized by conscious choice, and both are important strategies for readers.
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In order to be able to understand or interpret the text comprehensively,
both top down and bottom up approach can be used to complement each
other.
e. Strategies for Reading Comprehension
A successful reading comprehension is much determined by the effective
strategies conducted in classroom activities. Brown (1984: 291-296) shows ten
strategies for reading comprehension as follows:
1) Identifying the purpose in reading
Effective reading consists of clearly identifying the purpose in reading
something. Therefore, learners will understand what they are looking for
in the reading materials.
2) Using grapheme rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding
At the beginning levels of learning English, one of the difficulties
students encounter in earning to read is making the correspondence
between spoken and written English. In many cases, learners have become
acquainted with oral language and have some difficulty learning English
spelling conventions. They may need to be given hints and explanations
about certain English orthographic rules and peculiarities.
3) Using efficient silent reading techniques foe relatively rapid
comprehension
The efficiency of silent reading techniques can be increased by giving
learners some reading rules as follow:
3.1. Minimizing to pronounce each word
3.2. Trying to perceive visually more than one word at a time
3.3. Trying to infer meaning through context
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4) Skimming
Skimming is one of the most important and useful reading skills. It is a
method of quickly gathering information from the printed page. It also
gives readers the advantages of being able to predict the purpose of
passage, the main topic or message, and possibly some of the developing
or supporting ideas (Brown, 1994: 293).
5) Scanning
In scanning the reader runs his eyes down the page with the purpose of
finding an answer to a specific question (Dechant and Smith, 1983: 284).
The purpose of scanning is to extract certain specific information without
reading through the whole text (Brown. 1994: 293).
6) Semantic mapping
The strategy of semantic mapping helps the readers to provide some
order to the chaos. Learners attempt to explore ideas or events relating to
certain passage.
7) Guessing
Guessing is an extremely board category. Learners can use it to their
advantage to:
7.1. Guess the meaning of a word
7.2. Guess a grammatical relationship
7.3. Guess a discourse relationship
7.4. Infer implied meaning
7.5. Guess about a cultural reference
7.6. Guess content messages
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Teachers can make their students become accurate guessers by
encouraging them to use effective compensation strategies in which they
fill gaps in their competence by intelligent attempts to use whatever clues
are available.
8) Vocabulary analysis
Several techniques in analyzing vocabulary are as follows:
8.1. Looking for prefixes
8.2. Looking for suffixes
8.3. Looking for roots that are familiar
8.4. Looking for grammatical context that may signal information
8.5. Looking for the semantic context for clues
9) Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings
The fact that not all language can be interpreted appropriately by
attending to its literal, syntactic surface structure makes special demands
on readers. Implied meaning usually has to be derived from processing
pragmatic information.
10) Capitalizing on discourse markers to process relationships
There are many discourse markers in English that signal relationships
among ideas as expressed through phrases, clauses, and sentences. A clear
comprehension of such markers can greatly enhance learners’ reading
efficiency.
f. Micro Skills for Reading
Reading comprehension involves some skills that can indicate the
students’ competence in having good reading skill. Brown (2001: 307) states
that there are fourteen micro-skills for reading comprehension:
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1) Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns
of English.
2) Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
3) Processing writing at efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
4) Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their
significance.
5) Recognizing grammatical word classes (noun, verb, etc), systems (e.g.
tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
6) Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in different
grammatical forms.
7) Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in
signaling the relationship between and among clauses.
8) Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their
significance for interpretation.
9) Recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to
form and purpose.
10) Inferring context that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
11) Inferring links and connections between events, ideas, supporting ideas,
etc., deducing causes and effects, and detecting such relations as main
idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization,
and exemplification.
12) Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings.
13) Detecting culturally specific references and interpret them in a context of
the appropriate cultural schemata.
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14) Developing and use a battery of reading strategies such as scanning and
skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words
from context, and activating schemata for interpretation of texts.
In relation to what Brown states, here are sub skills that can also be used:
1) Recognizing the script of a language.
2) Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items.
3) Understanding explicitly stated information.
4) Understanding conceptual meaning.
5) Understanding the communicative values of sentences and utterances.
6) Understanding relations within the sentence.
7) Understanding relations between sentences through grammatical and
lexical cohesive devices.
8) Interpreting text by going outside it.
9) Identifying main points in a discourse.
10) Extracting salient points to summarize.
11) Basic reference skills (contents, index, abbreviations, ordering)
12) Skimming
13) Scanning
14) Transcoding written information to tabular or diagram form and vice versa
(file://G:/reading/Approaches%20to%20Reading.htm).
From the definition given above, reading comprehension can be
summarized as the act of one’s mind to understand or to interpret written or
printed material containing information. It involves the activity of the mind to
comprehend the meaning of the text intended by the writer, to know the
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organization of the ideas and finally reuse it in writing or future activity.
Those activities include deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items,
guessing the meaning of words from context, understanding explicitly stated
information, distinguishing between literal and implied meanings, detecting
culturally specific references, detecting such relations as main idea, and
recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to form
and purpose.
g. Classroom Approaches to Reading
William (1996: 35) says that there are some common problems that
teachers have in teaching reading. They are learners lack motivation to read;
teachers are uncertain as to how they should carry out language preparation;
teachers are unsure about selecting and devising reading – related activities.
Furthermore, he proposes three phases to teach reading: pre-reading,
while-reading, and post-reading.
1) Pre-Reading
‘Please turn to page 34. Read the passage and answer the questions.’ A teacher who starts the lesson in this way is hardly likely to motivate the learners. What the pre-reading phase tries to do is: 1. to introduce and arouse interest in the topic 2. to motivate learners by giving a reason for reading 3. to provide some language preparation for the text Of course not all of these aims will be relevant for all texts. In some cases the language might already have been introduced, or there may be no particular language problems. In any case, language preparation does not mean that the teacher should explain every possible unknown word and structure in the text, but that he should ensure that the learners will be able to tackle the text tasks without being totally frustrated by language difficulties. Furthermore, as we shall see, language preparation can often be carried out by the learners, as well as by the teacher.
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In order to know what knowledge, ideas or opinions might the learners
already have on the topic and how this knowledge can be drawn out and
used, the phase should be carried out in the classroom. The other ways of
pre-reading may be in visuals (eg diagrams, maps, photographs) drawing
up of lists, or answering questions (oral or written).
2) While-Reading
This phase draws on the text, rather than the learner’s ideas previous to reading. The aims of this phase are: 1. to help understanding of the writer’s purpose 2. to help understanding of the text structure 3. to clarify text content The traditional ‘comprehension exercise’ at the end of a text is a typical while-reading activity. In other cases the learners may be asked to find the answers to questions given at the beginning of the text (pre-text questions), or to questions inserted at various points within the text. Completing diagrams or maps, making lists, taking notes are other types of while-reading work.
In this phase, learners are supposed to know the function of this text, how
the text is organized, the content, the inference, and the reading styles.
3) Post-Reading
‘Right! We’ve read the passage on page 34, and finished the comprehension exercises. Now turn to page 42.’ Perhaps some passages deserve to be finished with and erased from the memory as soon as possible! Put certainty not all. The aims of post-reading work are: 1. to consolidate or reflect upon what has been read 2. to relate the text to the learners’ own knowledge, interests, or
views The work does not refer directly to the text, but ‘grows out’ of it. Post-reading may also include any reactions to the text and to the while-reading work, for example, learners say whether they liked it, and found it useful or not.
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The learners in the last phase are hoped to know and present a similar
situation to that presented in the text. The works that can be given to them
may be writing, interaction, drawing a diagram, etc.
William (1996: 40) also states that this three phase approach
obviously is not to be carried out mechanically on every occasion.
Sometimes the teacher may wish to cut out the pre-reading stage and get
learners to work on the text directly. Sometimes post-reading work may
not be suitable.
h. Factors Influencing Reading
a) Physical Factors
Physical deficiencies cause reading disability. Visual, auditory,
speech impairments and neurological status are some physical deficiencies,
which cause reading disability.
b) Sociological Factors
Language background depends on the extent of experience. Though
the school can do much in the matter of language background and general
experiences with speech and vocabulary, reading ability is a concomitant of
home conditions.
There is a close relation between reading and social factors. Home
background can include:
a) Economic condition.
b) Opportunities for play and for social experience
c) Nature and amount of speech and language patterns of children
particularly as they are influenced by the talk of the parents.
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d) Amount of reading done in the home and the availability of books.
e) Quality of family life in terms of inter-parental relationships.
School environment also plays a significant role in the development
of reading skill. The school library or multi media have an important role in
reading program. To progress satisfactorily in learning to read there should
be a balance between the skill and home and school environment available
for the learners.
c) The Psychological Factors
a) Interest
Interest is an emotional involvement of like or dislike which is
associated with attention to some object. Interest is the tendency to
give selection attention to something. Lack of interest is the cause of
poor reading.
b) Intelligence
Intelligence is an important determinant of reading. Reading is a
process of thinking. Intelligence is the ability to learn and to apply
what has been learned. Measures of reading comprehension tend to be
more strongly correlated with intelligence than are measures for
orthographic decoding (Sue, et al., 2009: 1)
c) Reading Readiness
Success in reading depends on the child’s overall level of
maturity. The child has to pass through different stages of mental
maturity before he can receive reading instruction.
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d) Attitude towards Reading
The child should develop a favorable attitude towards school,
classmates, and reading. Positive attitudes progress in learning to read
and negative attitudes result in reading difficulties. Personal and social
adjustment, home conditions, peer relationship, teacher-students
relations and the instructional program all influence attitudes towards
reading.
e) Cognitive Style
Cognition and reading are related in two important ways. First,
specific cognitive abilities are essential for the acquisition of reading
skills. Second, reading is a powerful; means for knowledge acquisition,
structuring and application.
d) Teacher Related Factors
Success in teaching children to read depends much on the teacher.
The teachers’ language teaching competence influences the reading skill of
the students. Teachers themselves sometimes are not good readers. They
seldom give illustrations from other books. In school teachers never
encourage the students to read anything other than the text.
Sometimes the teachers’ professionalism and the teaching method
used by them influence the reading skill of the students.
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2. Teaching Method
a. Grammar Translation Method
1) The Characteristics of Grammar Translation Method
Grammar Translation Method is a method that was dominated
European language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, it is widely used in
some parts of the world today.
Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the twentieth
century. The whole foundation of contemporary language teaching was
developed during the early of the twentieth century, as applied linguists and
others sought to developed principles and procedures for the design of
teaching method and material. Grammar Translation Method based on the
study of Latin had become the standard way of studying foreign languages in
school. In the process of teaching learning to master L2 the activities that the
learner have to do are reading and writing. In this method speaking and
listening are less to be thought so it makes the students just do the task from
the teacher (teacher-centered).
In Grammar Translation Method, while teaching the text book the
teacher translates every word, phrase from English into the mother tongue of
learners. Further, students are required to translate sentences from their mother
tongue into English. These exercises in translation are based on various items
covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the
study of grammar through deduction that is through the study of the rules of
grammar. A contrastive study of the target language with the mother tongue
gives an insight into the structure not only of the foreign language but also of
the mother tongue. The Grammar Translation Method or classical method
emerged when people of the western world wanted to learn "foreign"
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languages such as Latin and Greek. Its focus was on grammatical rules, the
memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations,
translations of texts, doing written exercises.
a) Theory of Language
(1) Language is a system of rules—learned through literature—a formal
system.
(2) Literary language is superior to spoken language; culture is literature
and the fine arts.
(3) The learner’s L1 is the medium in class; translation is used to make
meanings clear in the TL.
(4) Languages can be compared and contrasted.
(5) Structures, rules of grammar, sentence formation are what is
considered.
b) Theory of Language Learning
(1) The learning process is conceived of as a process of memorizing rules
& examples. The learner would learn vocabulary & conjugations off
by heart.
(2) Language learning is primarily memorizing rules & facts to understand
& manipulate structures of language.
(3) Translation is used as a means of language learning.
(4) Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between TL and
NL.
c) Teaching Objectives
The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read
its literature (text) it also to get the benefit from mental discipline and
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intellectual development that the results from foreign language study.
Grammar translation method is a way of studying a language that the first
what we have done is by learned grammar rules and vocabulary.
d) Syllabus
The ways to teach the grammar translation method are:
(1) Structural.
(2) From simple to more complex.
(3) Systematic presentation.
e) Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
There are some types that differentiate the Grammar Translation Method
from the other method in language teaching:
(1) Literary language is superior to spoken language.
(2) Successful learners are to translate each language into the other.
(3) The primary skills are reading and writing.
(4) To find native language equivalents for target language words.
(5) To learn about the rules of traditional grammar.
(6) Learner should memorize verb conjugations and forms.
f) Teacher Roles
In Grammar Translation Method teacher is the center of the process of
teaching learning. Teacher has to explain the material like the grammar
system/rules to the learner after that teacher give the learner exercise.
g) Learner Roles
Learners only do what the teacher has given, so it is not learner-centered
but it is teacher-centered. In the teaching learning process the students
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have to learn vocabulary, the grammatical rules, translating, memorize
rules, read and write the text from source language into target language.
h) The Role of Instructional Materials
In most versions of the method, grammar was taught deductively—i.e. the
rule was announced prior to the exercises. In some cases, it was taught
inductively—i.e. learners were asked to puzzle over the exercises, and
expected to figure out the rules from the examples. However, grammar is
taught deductively not inductively (more usually associated with more
'learner-centered' approaches). Besides that it provides samples of
literature.
i) Teaching Procedure
There is a procedure or technique in which classes are taught in the mother
tongue, with little active use of the target language, much vocabulary is
taught in the form of lists of isolated words, long elaborate explanations of
the intricacies of grammar are given, the grammar provides the rule for
putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and
inflection of words, reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. Little
attention is paid to the context of texts, which are treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis (http://www.google.co.id/#hl=id&q=grammar+
translation+method+on+language+teaching.ppt&start=20&sa=N&fp=ca19
d887132bd2da).
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2) The Advantages of Grammar Translation Method
a) The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is
the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one
language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items
in the second language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if
the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and
illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some short
of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language and the
target language.
b) Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the
medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension
questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have
much difficulty in responding to questions on the mother tongue. So, the
teacher can easily assess whether the students have learned what he has
taught them. Communication between the teacher and the learner does not
cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can
teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this
method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long
(http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/ Grammar _translation).
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3) The Disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method:
a) It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is
listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way how the child
learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings, but in the Grammar
Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the
teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses
problems.
b) Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on
reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught
English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in
spoken English. Even at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of
communicating through English. It has been observed that in a class,
which is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother
tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language
learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire habit of
speaking English. Thus, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught
through this method.
c) Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and
exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A
language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of
behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from
community to community. There are several lexical items in one language,
which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For instance,
the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expression as
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the ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’
and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to
translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is
far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, He succeeded through hard work’. In
these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, ‘through’ can be translated into the
Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure,
idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another
language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s
proficiency in a language.
d) It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when
he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the
Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the
learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules
and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any
language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is quite impossible.
Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learned
through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have
learned a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult
to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and then
translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get
proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first
language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for
which there is no remedy (http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/ Grammar
_translation)
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4) The Teaching Procedure of Grammar Translation Method
The teaching procedure of grammar translation method according to
Sujoko (1990: 1-28) and supported by Diane Larsen and Freeman (2000: 11-
21) is seen as follows:
Table 1. The Teaching Procedure of GTM in Teaching Reading
Phase Component of GTM Indicator
− Opening − Pre-teaching of
reading activities − Whilst-teaching of
reading activities
− Presentation of
Pattern in Context
− Greeting − Praying − Calling the roll
− Asking the previous
lessons. − Asking students some
questions to arouse interest in the new topic/theme.
− Presenting any new
vocabulary which is crucial to an understanding of the passage in the native language by writing down in the whiteboard.
− Reading the text, while the students just listen to the teacher.
− Asking the students to translate the passage from English into Indonesian in a written form
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-Closing
− Comprehension Questions
− Identification of the
Pattern − Functional
Explication − Conducting and
Correcting Drills
− Asking some questions in the native language to make sure that the students have understood.
− Giving an example of
the pattern in the whiteboard
− Asking the students to find the other occurrences of the same pattern.
− Asking the students to
learn when to use the pattern.
− Asking the students to
answer the questions individually in their books.
− Asking the students to write down the answer on the whiteboard, if the answer is wrong the teacher corrects it.
− Asking questions from the students
− Making conclusion about the material
− Giving the homework to the students to memorize the vocabulary and the grammar rule.
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b. Contextual Teaching and Learning
1) Contextual Teaching and Learning
Although contextual teaching and learning is relatively new concept in
the field of education, its principles and practices have been around for
centuries. The concept of teaching students in a context as close to real life as
possible can be dated back to the 16th century. It assumes that children learn
better if the situation around them is created naturally. It will be more
meaningful if the children experience what they learn, not only to know what
they learn or just memorize what the teacher transfers to them.
Contextual teaching and learning is defined as a conception of teaching
and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world
situations (United States Department of Education Office of Vocational and
Adult Education, 2001). As an innovative instructional process, it helps
students connect the content they are learning to the life contexts in which that
content could be used. The students could learn more from travelling and
experiencing the world first hand than they could from studying a textbook.
The school fieldtrips that students take today could be a result of the belief
that students learn without the textbook: fieldtrips give students an opportunity
to interact with society and gain valuable experiences. Creating a setting in
which students learn as realistically as possible is a goal of teachers who use
contextual teaching and learning. Teachers who use contextual teaching and
learning practices not only place emphasis on fieldtrips, but they also
emphasize practices such as learning by doing, problem solving, and
cooperative learning.
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2) The Characteristics of Contextual Teaching and Learning
According to Nurhadi (2003: 35-36) there are twenty characteristics of
CTL. They are as follows: (1) Students are actively involved in teaching and
learning process; (2) Students learn from his friends, discuss, and correct each
other in groups; (3) Learning are connected to the real world or simulated
problems; (4) Behavior is build by self awareness; (5) Skills are developed by
understanding; (6) Reward for good behavior is self-satisfaction; (7) Because
of the awareness, someone does not do anything bad; (8) Language is taught
communicatively, that is students asked to use language in real context; (9)
The understanding of formula is developed based on the students’ prior
schemata; (10) The understanding of formula is relatively different among the
students; it depends on their schemata (ongoing process of development); (11)
Students use critical thinking, are involved and responsible in the effective
teaching and learning process, and also bring their schemata to the learning
process; (12) The existing knowledge is developed by him; (13) Knowledge is
constructed by himself. Humans always innovate, so knowledge is tentative
and incomplete; (14) The students should be responsible to monitor and
develop their own learning; (15) Reward on students’ experience is
paramount; (16) The achievement is measured by authentic assessment:
working process, students’ performance, and masterpiece, record of students,
activity, and test; (17) The teaching and learning process happens in various
places, context, and setting; (18) Regret is the consequence of bad behavior;
(19) Good behavior is based on intrinsic motivation; and (20) Someone
behaves well because he believes that it is good and beneficial. It is clearly
stated that CTL is student-centered and emphasizes students’ active learning.
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3) The Components of Contextual Teaching and Learning
CTL has seven main components. Those are constructivism, inquiry,
questioning, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic
assessment (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2003: 10-19).
a) Constructivism. Knowledge is constructed by human little by little. It is
not a set of facts, concepts, or laws waiting to be discovered. Humans
create or construct knowledge as they attempt to bring meaning to their
experience.
b) Inquiry. Inquiring is the main learning activity. Students themselves
inquiry knowledge, science, and skills, not by memorizing them.
c) Questioning. It is believed that questioning can help teacher to lead,
motivate, and guide students in the teaching and learning process.
d) Learning Community. Teacher makes the students into some groups which
consist of good and poor students. In this case the good student will help
the poor one.
e) Modeling. Students can imitate what their teacher does, such as repeating
how their teacher pronounces English words.
f) Reflection. Reflection is a respond to the events, activities, knowledge,
and science, the students newly have.
g) Authentic Assessment. Assessment is a process of collecting datum which
views the students’ development. Learning is focused on learning how to
learn. Datum collected is based on the process, not the result.
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4) The Principles of Contextual Teaching and Learning
CTL has different principles from other approaches. Johnson (2002: 26-
37) states that CTL encompasses three typical principles, namely, the principle
of interdependence, the principle of differentiation, and the principle of self-
organization.
The principle of interdependence states that all things both in and out of
the schools are interconnected that creates a learning environment. The
schools are built in societies. Students, parents, teachers, principles,
administration staffs, gardeners are from societies. The output of the schools
will be back to society too. The principle of interdependence connects
everything in the universe to everything else. It requires connecting,
collaborating, thinking actively and creatively, engaging in hands-on learning,
formulating clear objectives, identifying high standards, doing significant
tasks that benefit others, valuing each person, and using assessment methods
that link learning with the real world (Johnson, 2003: 29)
The principle of differentiation is related to the uniqueness and
differences of each student. It frees students to explore their individual talents,
cultivates their own learning style, and progress at their own pace. CTL
challenges the students to respect that uniqueness, diversity, and creativity by
collaborating in a group in search for meaning, insight, and a fresh
perspective, and to realize that diversity as a sign of robustness and strength
(Johnson, 2003: 31-32)
The principle of self-organization enables the students to develop their
potentials, achieve academic excellence, and have career skills by connecting
school work with their prior experience and knowledge. They are responsible
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on what they are doing. The decision will be made after planning and
evaluating the evidence critically. The collaboration with others is conducted
to gain new insights and to enlarge their perceptions (Johnson, 2002: 34-35)
To maintain the balance, those three principles are not separable. In other
words, those three principles are intertwined or interconnected. The world is
not dead but living and dynamic. So, everything in the world is possible to
make relationships each other. Although in fact they are unique, they can
make a new relationship in the world. Each student with his/her own
personality, awareness about his/herself, and his/her potential to preserve and
to become him/herself, finally will exist in the world.
Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 20-21) furthermore state that to fulfill the
students’ needs, in implementing CTL teacher must occupy learning principles
as follow:
1. Developmentally Appropriate
In constructing methodology and curriculum content, teacher must
consider students’ age, emotion, social condition, and the development of
students’ intelligence.
2. Independent Learning Group
Students work in small groups, take and give, and cooperate. Just like the
adult, when they are working, they cannot work alone. They need friends
and work in teams.
3. Self-regulated Learning
School, society support and guide students to reach aspiration. Diversity of
Students in teaching and learning process, teacher considers students’
background; their religion, tribe, social-economy, mother tongue, and
weakness.
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4. Multiple Intelligences
Because of the students’ multiple intelligence, teacher must be creative to
find appropriate strategy for their students.
5. Questioning
Questions are designed to stimulate critical and creative thinking.
6. Authentic Assessment
The assessment is based on the participation and performance how
students apply knowledge in the process of learning, not memorizing.
Johnson (2002: 25) argues that the CTL system is an educational process
that aims to help students see meaning in the academic material they are
studying by connecting academic subject with the context of their lives, that
is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances. To
achieve this aim, the system encompasses the following eight components:
making meaningful connections, doing significant work, self-regulated
learning, and collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the
individual, reaching high standards, using authentic assessment.
According to The Washington State Consortium for Contextual Teaching
and Learning (in Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 12) Contextual teaching is
teaching that enables students to reinforce, expand, and apply their academic
knowledge and skills in a variety, in school and out of school setting, in order
to solve simulated or real world problems. Contextual learning occurs when
students apply and experience what is being taught referencing real problems
associated with their roles and responsibilities as family members, citizens,
students, and workers. CTL emphasizes higher level thinking, knowledge
transfer across academic disciplines, and collect, analyze and synthesize
information and data from multiple sources and point of views.
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5) The Teaching Procedure of Contextual Teaching and Learning
CTL is characterized by the use of some learning strategies more than
others. In implementing CTL in this research, the researcher will apply all
components of CTL. However, the researcher will not apply all of those
components in every meeting. The design of implementing CTL in teaching
reading can be seen in Table 2 (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 31-54).
Table 2. The Teaching Procedure of CTL in Teaching Reading
Phase Component of CTL Indicator
− Opening
− Pre-teaching of
reading activities
− While-teaching of
reading activities
− Questioning
− Modeling
− Greeting
− Praying
− Calling the roll
− Asking the previous
lessons.
− Asking students
some questions to
arouse interest in the
new topic/theme.
− Reading the text and
giving an example
of how to find the
meaning of words,
the explicitly and
implicitly stated
information, the
reference, the main
idea, the generic
structure, and
purpose of the text.
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− Inquiry
− Constructivism
− Learning
community
− Questioning
− Asking students to
find the formula,
pattern, order, and
meaning of difficult
words.
− Asking students to
observe, gather data,
and draw
conclusion.
− Asking the students
to find the meaning
of words, the
explicitly and
implicitly stated
information, the
reference, the main
idea, the generic
structure, and the
purpose of the text.
− Asking students to
work and
understand the
passage in small
groups.
− Asking and
answering students’
questions about the
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− Post-Teaching of
Reading Activities
− Closing
− Reflection
topic/theme.
− Giving students’
assistance.
− Reviewing and
resuming to events,
experiences, and
activities orally in
front of the class
− Recording what
students have
learned, how they
feel during teaching
and learning
process.
− Asking the students to retell in front of the class
− Giving a homework
to the student
− Saying a few words
of farewell.
In addition, the strategies used in this research are:
1. Problem-based learning. Students are given either a real or simulated
problem and must use critical thinking skills and inquiry to solve it.
Problems which have some personal relevance to the students are the best
choices to encourage maximum participation and learning.
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2. Cooperative Learning. Students work together in small group and focus on
achieving a common goal through collaboration. Each student within the
group makes a significant contribution to the goal.
3. Authentic assessment. Students are evaluated by means of their
performance on tasks whether in an oral or written form.
In order that the preceding strategies to be used effectively, they will be
integrated with other commonly accepted good teaching practices. The use of
pictures, schedule of journey, artificial media are considered effective for
these strategies.
6) The Advantages of Contextual Teaching and Learning
a. Teaching reading through the real experience will be effective to develop
the students’ understanding towards the passage, for examples: the use of
pictures, schedule of journey, artificial media, etc. It is stated by Nurhadi
and Senduk (2003: 34):
Landasan berpikir konstruktivisme agak berbeda dengan pandangan kaum objektivis dalam hal tujuan pembelajaran. Kaum objektivis lebih menekankan pada hasil pembelajaran yang berupa pengetahuan. Dalam pandangan konstruktivis, ‘strategi memperoleh’ lebih diutamakan dibandingkan seberapa banyak siswa memperoleh dan mengingat pengetahuan. Untuk itu, tugas guru adalah memfasilitasi proses tersebut dengan cara: (1) menjadikan pengetahuan bermakna dan relevan bagi siswa (2) memberi kesempatan siswa menemukan dan menerapkan idenya
sendiri, dan (3) menyadarkan siswa agar menerapkan strategi mereka sendiri dalam
belajar
b. The students will have critical and creative thinking through searching,
observing, investigating, and analyzing. For example they will find the
type of the text by searching who are the participants, what they do, where,
when, and how they do that, the events, the complications, the resolution,
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and the coda. After that they observe, investigate and finally analyze them.
In this case, the students try to make hypothesis, gather data, and draw
conclusion. It is in line with Nurhadi and Senduk(2003: 43) who state:
Pengetahuan dan ketrampilan yang diperoleh siswa diharapkan bukan hasil mengingat seperangkat fakta-fakta, tetapi hasil dari menemukan sendiri. Guru harus selalu merancang kegiatan yang merujuk pada kegiatan menemukan, apa pun materi yang diajarkannya.
c. Questioning used by the teacher to check the students’ understanding, to
encourage students’ responses, and to know what the students had known
will make the students confident to express their answer. Moreover
Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 47) state:
Aktivitas bertanya juga ditemukan ketika siswa berdiskusi, bekerja dalam kelompok, ketika menemui kesulitan, ketika mengamati, dan sebagainya. Kegiatan-kegiatan itu akan menumbuhkan dorongan untuk ‘bertanya’.
d. The students that work in a small group to implement learning community
will give the opportunities to ask questions freely among the members.
They will ask their friends about the meaning of different words and how
to do the task. The students who are shy to ask questions to the teacher
will be motivated to study together with their friends. In this case,
Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 47) state:
Kegiatan pembelajaran dilakukan dalam kelompok-kelompok belajar: siswa yang pandai mengajari yang lemah dan yang tahu memberi tahu yang belum tahu. Masyarakat belajar bisa tercipta apabila ada proses komunikasi dua arah, anggota kelompok yang terlibat dalam komunikasi pembelajaran dapat saling belajar. Siswa yang terlibat dalam kegiatan masyarakat belajar memberi informasi yang diperlukan oleh teman bicaranya dan juga meminta informasi yang diperlukan dari teman bicaranya.
e. Modeling by the teacher or the students can improve the students’
performance. After seeing how the teacher or the students answer the
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questions of the text, the other students will imitate like what they did.
This activity makes them know how to find the purpose of the text well.
In the case Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 49) state:
Pemodelan dapat berbentuk demonstrasi, pemberian contoh tentang konsep atau aktivitas belajar. Dengan kata lain, model itu bisa berupa cara mengoperasikan sesuatu, cara melempar bola dalam olahraga, contoh karya tulis, cara melafalkan Bahasa Inggris, dan sebagainya. Atau, guru member contoh cara mengerjakan sesuatu. Dengan begitu, guru memberi model tentang “bagaimana cara belajar”.
f. The activity of asking the students to do the task whether in a written or
oral form will check the students’ understanding, to encourage the
students’ responses, and to know what the students have known. The
teacher can ask the students to present or retell what they have learned in
front of class based on the material given. Moreover, Nurhadi and
Senduk (2003: 51) state:
Refleksi merupakan respon terhadap kejadian, aktivitas, atau pengetahuan yang baru diterima. Misalnya, ketika pelajaran terakhir, siswa merenung, “Kalau begitu, cara saya menyimpan file selama ini salah, ya! Mestinya, dengan cara yang baru dipelajari ini, file komputer saya lebih tertata.”
g. The activity of giving score through the performance of the students
during the teaching and learning process will make students feel easy to
join the class. It is in line with Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 53) who state:
Karena assessment menekankan pada proses pembelajaran, maka data yang dikumpulkan harus diperoleh dari kegiatan nyata yang dikerjakan siswa pada saat melakukan proses pembelajaran. Guru yang ingin mengetahui perkembangan belajar bahasa Inggris harus mengumpulkan data dari kegiatan nyata saat siswa menggunakan bahasa Inggris.
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7) The Disadvantages of Contextual Teaching and Learning
a. The students have lack of vocabulary and grammar to understand the text.
They get difficulties to understand the meaning of some words and to
comprehend the passage. They just depend on the active students.
b. The students have lack of learning motivation, especially for the low. They
are passive and they preferred keeping silent. They just rely upon the other
members of the group.
c. It is not easy to give the students understanding of the importance of
studying using real media. Sometimes they just play with the media. They
feel funny looking at the media.
d. The process of learning takes place in different places, so the teacher
cannot control all the students well. While discussing all the materials, the
students are noisy instead of doing the task (http://www.scribd.com
/doc/7785445/CONTEXTUAL-LEARNING-STRATEGIES).
3. The Nature of Intelligence
a. The Meaning of Intelligence
Philip (in Wiley, 2005: 1) states that intelligence may be narrowly
defined as the capacity to acquire knowledge and understanding, and use it
in different novel situations. It is the ability or capacity which enables the
individual to deal with real situations and profit intellectually from sensory
experience. Meanwhile, Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to
solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more
cultural setting' (Gardner & Hatch, 1999). Moreover, Wechsler’s general
description of intelligence stated that it is the global capacity to act
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purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment (Coon, 1989: 468).
b. The Elements of Intelligence
To add the definition, Wechsler shows results from a recent survey
of 1020 experts on intelligence. At least, three-quarters of this group
agreed that the listed elements are important parts of intelligence.
Table 3. Important Elements of Intelligence
DESCRIPTION PERCENT OF
AGREEMENT
Abstract thinking or reasoning
Problem-solving ability
Capacity to acquire knowledge
Memory
Adaptation to one’s environment
99.3
97.7
96.0
80.5
77.2
(Adapted from Snyderman & Rothman, 1987)
A test that measures memory, reasoning, and verbal fluency offers a very
different definition of intelligence (Coon, 1989: 468).
Gardner initially formulated a list of seven intelligences. His listing
was provisional. The first two are ones that have been typically valued in
schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and the final
two are what Gardner called 'personal intelligences' (Gardner 1999: 41-
43). It is called the Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences. The theory
challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted
ideas of human intellectual capacity contend that an individual's
intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime and that intelligence
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can be measured through an individual's logical and language abilities.
According to Gardner's theory, intelligence encompasses the ability to
create and solve problems, create products or provide services that are
valued within a culture or society. These nine intelligences may define the
human species.
1) Verbal/Linguistic
Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to
understand and manipulate words and languages. Everyone is thought
to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading,
writing, speaking, and other forms of verbal and written
communication. Teachers can enhance their students' verbal/linguistic
intelligence by having them keep journals, play word games, and by
encouraging discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory
skills such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit strong linguistic
intelligence. Traditionally, linguistic intelligence and
Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in
education and learning environments.
2) Logical/Mathematical
Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability
to do things with data: collect, and organize, analyze and interpret,
conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see
patterns and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward
thinking: inductive and deductive logic, numeration, and abstract
patterns. They would be a contemplative problem solver; one who
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likes to play strategy games and to solve mathematical problems.
Being strong in this intelligence often implies great scientific ability.
This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget.
Teachers can strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the use of
computer programming languages, critical-thinking activities, linear
outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction
scenarios, logic puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential
presentation of subject matter.
3) Visual/Spatial
Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and
manipulate a mental model. Individuals with strength in this area
depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this
kind of intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual
presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and demonstrations
using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas
and often express their feelings and moods through art. These
individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They are good at
reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and jigsaw
puzzles. Teachers can foster this intelligence by utilizing charts,
graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities,
doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be
characterized as right-brain activity.
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4) Bodily/Kinesthetic
Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process
information through the sensations they feel in their bodies. These
people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and
act things out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they
enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They often express
themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area
of intelligence through the use of touching, feeling, movement,
improvisation, "hands-on" activities, permission to squirm and wiggle
facial expressions and physical relaxation exercises.
5) Naturalistic
Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and
classifies plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of
taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and
value the unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and
fauna around them. They notice natural and artificial taxonomies such
as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this
intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and
classification activities. Encourage the study of relationships such as
patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at
connections to real life and science issues.
6) Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create,
and interpret musical pitches, timbre, rhythm, and tones and the
capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into
their lessons that encourage students' musical intelligence by playing
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music for the class and assigning tasks that involve students creating
lyrics about the material being taught. Composers and instrumentalists
are individuals with strength in this area.
7) Interpersonal
Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligences separately, there is a lot of interplay between the two and
they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability
to interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and
actions of others. Interpersonal intelligence also requires good
communication and interaction skills, and the ability show empathy
towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the
growth of Interpersonal Intelligences by designing lessons that include
group work and by planning cooperative learning activities.
Counselors and social workers are professions that require strength in
this area.
8) Intrapersonal
Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know
oneself. It is an internalized version of Interpersonal Intelligence. To
exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be
able to understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of
their own strengths and weaknesses. Teachers can assign reflective
activities, such as journaling to awaken students' Intrapersonal
Intelligence. It’s important to note that this intelligence involves the
use of all others. An individual should tap into their other intelligences
to completely express their Intrapersonal Intelligence.
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9) Existential intelligence
There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full
acceptance by educators in the classroom. This is Existential
intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder
questions regarding the existence -- including life and death. This
would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders.
Scores from standardized intelligence tests (IQ scores) are often
used to define one’s intelligence level. It is, however, becoming
increasingly accepted that they do not reveal the complete picture and
only provide a snapshot of a person’s ability in the area under
examination so that, for example, someone who has high score on a
verbal test can only be said to have a high verbal IQ and someone who
has high score on a mathematical test can only be said to have a high
numerical IQ. Therefore, the more different types of disciplines that
are tested and examined, the more accurately the intelligence level of
the individual can be assessed (Philip in Wiley, 2005: 1).
c. The Requirements of Intelligence Test
First, the test must be reliable. It must yield the same score, or close
to the same score, each time it is given to the same individual. In other
words, the scores should be consistent and highly correlated. For instance,
a medical test for pregnancy gives positive and negative responses for the
same woman on the same day.
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Second, the test must be valid. A test has validity when it measures
what it claims to measure. The test could not be valid if the person who
wrote it is the only one who can pass it. Validity is usually demonstrated
by comparing test scores to actual performance. This is called criterion
validity. For example, a test of legal aptitude might be validated by
comparing scores on the test to grades in law school. If high scores
correlate with high grades or some other standard of success, the test may
be considered valid.
The test, at least, is objective. If the test gives the same score when
corrected by different people, it is objective.
Fourth, a psychological test must also be standardized. Test
standardization refers to two things. First, it means that standard
procedures are used in giving the test to all people. That is, the
instructions, answer forms, amount of time to work, and so forth, are the
same for all test takers. Second, it means finding the norm, or average
score, made by a large group of people like those for whom the test was
designed. Without standardization, it would be unfair to compare the
scores of people taking a test on different occasion. And without norms,
there would be no way to tell if a score is high, low, or average (Coon,
1989: 469).
d. The Types of Intelligence Test
The first practical intelligence test was assembled by Binet. A
modern version of Binet’s test is the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. It
is usually used to test children. A widely used alternative to the Stanford-
Binet is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised, or WAIS-R. This
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test also has a form for use with children, called the Wechler Intelligence
Scale for Children-Revised, or WISC-R. The Wechler tests are generally
similar to the Stanford-Binet, but differ in some important ways. The
WAIS-R is specially designed to test adult intelligence. Also, both the
WAIS-R and the WISC-R rate performance (non-verbal) intelligence in
addition to verbal intelligence. The Stanford-Binet only gives one overall
IQ, whereas the Wechler tests can be broken down to reveal strengths and
weaknesses in various areas.
The two types of intelligence measured by the WAIS-R: (1)
Performance Intelligence: Intelligence as demonstrated in solving puzzles,
assembling objects, completing pictures, and performing other nonverbal
tasks; and (2) Verbal Intelligence: Intelligence as revealed by answering
questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, and other
language- or symbol-oriented tasks.
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Table 4. Sample Items Similar to Those Used on the WAIS-R
I
Both the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler tests are individual
intelligence tests. Other tests of intelligence are designed for use with large
groups of people. Group intelligence tests are usually in paper-and-pencil
form. Typically, they require test takers to read, to follow instructions, and
to solve problems of logic, reasoning, mathematics, or spatial skills. The
Verbal Subtest Sample Items
Information How many wings does a bird have? Who wrote Paradise Lost? Digit Span Repeat from memory a series of digits, such
as 3 1 0 6 7 4 2 5, after hearing it once. General Comprehension What is the advantages of keeping money in a
bank? Why is copper often used in electrical wires? Arithmetic Three men divided 18 golf balls equally
among themselves. How many golf balls did each man receive? If 2 apples cost 15 , what will be the cost of a dozen apples?
Similarities In what way are a lion and a tiger alike? In what way are a saw and a hammer alike? Vocabulary This test consist simply of asking, “What is a
_____?” or “What does _____ mean?” The words cover a wide range of difficulty or familiarity.
Performance Subtest Description of Item
Picture arrangement Arrange a series of cartoon panels to make a meaningful story.
Picture completion What is missing from these pictures?
Block design Copy designs with blocks. (as shown at right) Object assembly Put together a jigsaw puzzle. Digit symbol
1 2 3 4 X III I 0
Fill in the symbols: 3 4 1 3 4 2 1 2
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group intelligence tests are the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the
American College Test (ACT), and the College Qualification Test (CQT).
They can be used to estimate intelligence as well as a person’s chances for
success in college (Coon, 1989: 472-473).
In conclusion, intelligence is the general capacity to think
rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with the environment.
They cover three elements. They are visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-
linguistic intelligence, and logical-mathematical intelligence.
e. The Influence of Intelligence on Reading
Reading comprehension is a complex process involving
perception, recall, reasoning, evaluating, imagining, organizing,
application, and problem solving. The goal of all reading is the
comprehension of meaning. Students with low IQ tend to meet
problem when dealing with reading comprehension if the appropriate
educational adaptations are not made. A measure of verbal intelligence
was significantly more strongly correlated with the rate of reading,
single-word reading, vocabulary or word knowledge, and under-
standing of what was read in a text (Sue, et al., 2009: 2)
B. Rationale
1. The Difference between Contextual Teaching and Learning and
Grammar Translation Method to Teach Reading
One of the important factors influencing the results of the teaching
and learning process is a teaching technique used by the teacher. Teaching
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technique occupies a very crucial role in getting a good result at the end of
the study. All the teaching techniques have strengths as well as
weaknesses. Therefore, a teacher must give a wise decision in choosing the
most appropriate teaching technique in order to teach reading
comprehension successfully.
There are many kinds of teaching technique for reading
comprehension. However, the technique chosen in reading comprehension
must be suitable with the purpose of teaching and make reading itself as
something interesting and is not difficult at all. Consequently, the
technique used must be communicative, stimulating students’ active
learning, improving their idea, knowledge and skill and of course, the
technique should be attractive and interesting for the students.
One of the techniques which is suitable with the criteria of good
technique to apply in teaching reading comprehension as stated above is
CTL. In this case the teacher is no more as the only source in the teaching
and learning process, rather he or she plays a role as a mediator, stabilizer,
and learning manager. By using this technique, the students can learn from
their prior knowledge and are expected to be communicative and active
during the teaching and learning process, so that it enables them to
improve their knowledge and understanding in learning reading
comprehension. Besides, this technique is often relaxed and enjoyable than
GTM classes. This creates a positive learning environment, with more
students attentive to assign tasks. As a result, academic achievement
increases for all students.
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On the other hand, GTM used by the teacher is focused on the
mastery of content with less emphasis on the development of skills and the
nurturing of inquiring attitude. It also more concerns with preparation for
the next grade level and in-school success than with helping a student
learn to learn throughout life. That is why it is supposed less effective to
improve students’ reading competence since the GTM less motivate the
students to involve in the teaching learning process. So, the CTL is
supposed to be more effective than the GTM to teach reading.
2. The Difference between the Students Having High Intelligence and the
Students Having Low Intelligence
Students having high intelligence tend to be active during teaching
and learning process. They practice the language and master the four
language skill. They become self-regulated learners developing knowledge
by themselves. Finally, the students are hoped to obtain and develop
knowledge, attitude, value, and also social skills which are useful for their
life in society. Those students not only learn and receive whatever teacher
teaches in the teaching and learning process, but also able to learn from the
other students and they all have a chance at once to make the other
students learn.
On the other hand, the students having low intelligence prefer
listening to the teacher’s explanation during the lesson rather than
discussing together to overcome the problem. They do so since they don’t
have desire to learn more. They are reluctant to open the dictionaries to
find out the difficult terms.
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That is why, the students having high intelligence are supposed to
have better reading comprehension than the students having low
intelligence.
3. Interaction between Teaching Methods and Intelligence to Teach
Reading
Contextual Teaching and Learning method requires the students to
be active in the learning process. The teacher serves primarily as a
facilitator, organizer, and consultant to students engaged in discussing
about a subject matter together with their friends. Many teachers choose
Contextual Teaching and Learning because it is motivating and fosters
creativity. The teachers create a setting in which students learn as
realistically as possible. The teachers will also motivate the students to
have critical and creative thinking through searching, observing,
investigating, and analyzing. Then, the teachers will check the students’
understanding to encourage their responses, and to know what they have
known through questioning, modeling, reflection, and authentic
assessment. The students having high intelligence tend to be active,
creative, and self-regulated learners developing knowledge by themselves.
On the other hand, Grammar Translation Method places the students
in a passive learning role. This method neglects speech, so the students
feel shy of communicating through English. It also rather attempts to teach
language through rules and not by use. In fact, researchers in linguistics
have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely
by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain
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skills, which can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing
rules. The students having low intelligence prefer listening to the teachers’
explanation, feeling shy and passive during the teaching learning process
rather than practicing the language in their daily life.
That is why it is supposed that there is an interaction between
teaching methods and students’ intelligence in teaching reading.
Contextual Teaching and Learning is suitable for students having high
intelligence and Grammar Translation Method is suitable for students
having low intelligence.
D. Hypothesis
Based on the rationale above, the hypotheses proposed in this research
are as follows:
1. Contextual teaching and learning is more effective than grammar
translation method for teaching reading.
2. The students having high intelligence have better reading comprehension
than the students having low intelligence.
3. There is an interaction between teaching methods and students’
intelligence in teaching reading.
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III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Place and Time of the Research
The research was carried out at SMP N 14 Surakarta which is located at
Jl. Prof. WZ. Johannes No. 54, Surakarta. The research was held from
December ‘09 to June, 2010. The following is the time schedule for the
research.
Table 5. The Time Schedule for the Research
Activities Dec ‘09
Jan ‘10
Feb ‘10
Mar ‘10
Apr ‘10
May ‘10
Jun ‘10
Proposal
Reviewing literatures
Developing instruments
Doing treatment
Collecting and analyzing the data
Writing the report
Submitting the document
B. Research Method
According to Ary (2007: 39) there are four different categories
developed in classifying educational research: experimental, experimental ex-
post facto, descriptive, and historical studies. The framework used in this
research is quantitative research. It means the hypotheses of the research will
be concluded through various techniques such as: collecting, describing, and
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analyzing data collected which are mostly on the form of numerical data. The
research is also categorized as an experimental study since it attempts to give
treatment to experimental group and maintain control over all factors that may
affect the result of an experiment. In other words, the experimental research
attempts to investigate the influence of one or more variables to other
variables (Nana Syaodih, 2006: 57).
Experimental research has some characteristics as follows: (1)
manipulation or treatment of an independent variable; (2) other extraneous
variables are controlled; and (3) effect is observed of the manipulation of the
independent variable on the dependent variable (Donald Ary, 2007: 338).
This experimental research is aimed at observing whether there is an
interaction between teaching methods and intelligence for teaching reading.
The technique used in conducting the experiment is by comparing the
experimental group which is taught by contextual teaching and learning
method and the control group taught by grammar translation method. Each
group is classified into two different levels of intelligence quotient: the high
and the low.
C. Research Design
The research design used in the research is a 2 by 2 factorial design.
The research design is as follows:
Intelligence Quotient (B)
Teaching Method (A)
Contextual Teaching and Learning
Grammar Translation Method
High (B1) (A1B1) (A2B1)
Low (B2) (A1B2) (A2B2)
Figure 1. Research Design
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The research design, consisting of 4 different cells, can be defined as
column A for the teaching methods and column B for intelligence quotient.
The table shows that column A1 is Contextual Teaching and Learning method
and column A2 is Grammar Translation Method. Column B consists of B1 for
students with high intelligence quotient and B2 for students with low
intelligence quotient. The intelligence ranked scores are categorized into 50%
of upper group (the students having high intelligence scores) and 50% of
lower group (the students having low intelligence scores) from both classes. In
this research, there are 36 students for each class, either experiment or control
class. That is why, there are eighteen students of the upper group and eighteen
students of the lower group, for both the experiment and control class.
The variables in the research are: (1) Independent variables (X),
consisting of (X1) for Contextual Teaching and Learning and Grammar
Translation Methods, and (X2) for the students' intelligence quotient (IQ);
(2) Dependent variable (Y), namely, reading comprehension.
D. Subject of the Research
1. Population
Population is a large group to which a researcher wants to generalize
his or her sample result (Cristensen, 2000: 158). The population of the
research is the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the
academic year of 2009/2010. It consists of six classes.
2. Sample
A sample is a set of elements taken from a larger population
(Cristensen, 2000: 158). Hadi (2000: 182) defines sample as part of the
population. The sample used in the research is the students of class 8F and
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8A of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the 2009/2010 academic year. The first one
is treated as the experimental class and the other as the control class.
3. Sampling Technique
Sampling is the way to get sample. The writer uses cluster random
sampling to get the sample. It is a type of sampling in which clusters are
randomly selected (Cristensen, 2000: 172). In other words, cluster random
sampling is the selection of groups or clusters of subjects rather than
individuals. The writer uses cluster random sampling because it has some
advantages, such as: it can be used when it is difficult or impossible to
select a random sample of individuals, it is often far easier to implement in
schools, and it is frequently less time consuming (Cristensen, 2000: 173).
E. Technique of Collecting the Data
The way to get the data in a research activity is usually known as a
technique of collecting data. The techniques used to get the data are
documentary and test methods. The first is used to collect the data of the
students’ intelligence scores. The latter will be used to know the students'
ability in reading comprehension. The reading comprehension test is in the
form of multiple choice tests with four options.
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1. Intelligence Quotient Test
The IQ test used in this research has been conducted by Yayasan
Psikologi ANAVA which is located at Jl. Satrio Wibowo Selatan No. 39A
Purwotomo, Solo. Telp. (0271)725454. The scores used in this research
deals with the aspect of GI (General Intelligence). Intelligence is the
general capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal
effectively with the environment. The test covers three elements. They are
visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-linguistic intelligence, and logical-
mathematical intelligence. There are a hundred test items. It has been
tested before treatment.
The intelligence quotient test has been valid and reliable because it
has been tested by a psychological institution which has been standardized
The result of intelligence quotient test is used to classify students
into two groups, the students who have high intelligence quotient and
those who have low intelligence quotient. The scores of students’
intelligence for experiment class are 125, 125, 124, 124, 119, 119, 119,
119, 119,119, 118, 118, 118, 117, 116, 116, 116, 116, 114, 114, 113, 113,
113, 112, 112, 112, 111, 109, 109, 108, 107, 107, 107, 105, 105, and 104.
Whereas, the scores of the students’ intelligence quotient for control class
are 131, 130, 130, 130, 130, 130, 130, 128, 126, 126, 124,124, 124, 124,
123, 122, 122, 122, 118, 118, 118, 118, 118, 118, 115, 115, 114, 113, 113,
113, 112, 112, 107, 105, 105, and 103
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2. Reading Comprehension Test
The test of reading is to know the students’ ability in reading. The
reading test is administered after treatment. The treatment is done twelve
times. The reading test items consist of 60 multiple choice items with four
options. The students must choose one of a correct answer. The items are
based on the reading skills including deducing the meaning of unfamiliar
lexical items, guessing the meaning of words from context, understanding
explicitly stated information, distinguishing between literal and implied
meanings, detecting culturally specific references, detecting such relations
as main idea, and recognizing the communicative functions of written
text, according to form and purpose.
The reading test must be valid and reliable. Therefore, firstly the
reading test is tried out to know the validity and the reliability. The tryout
is done to the class 8E, which are not the experiment and the control one.
To find out the validity of the reading test, the following formula is used:
st = nx∑ 2
ro = t
ti
sXX −
1
1
qp
The item is valid if ro is higher than rt.
The reliability of the reading test is known by using the formula below:
rkk = ⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−
−∑
211 ts
pqk
k
The item is reliable if ro is higher than rt.
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Then, the valid and reliable items are used to get the data. The result of
reading test is forty-one items are valid and reliable. The valid items are
items number: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28,
29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 56, 59, 60.
F. Technique of Analyzing the Data
The technique used in analyzing the data is descriptive analysis and
inferential analysis. Descriptive analysis is used to know the mean, median,
mode, and standard deviation of the scores of the reading test. The normality
and homogeneity test are done before testing the hypothesis. Inferential
analysis used is multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2. H0 is rejected if F0 is
higher than Ft. If H0 is rejected the analysis is continued to know which group
is better using Tukey test. The design of multifactor analysis of variance is
shown in the following table.
Method of
Teaching (A)
Intelligence
Quotient (B)
Contextual Teaching
and Learning
(A1)
Grammar
Translation
(A2)
High (B1) A1B1 A2B1 B1
Low (B2) A1B2 A2B2 B2
A1 A2
Figure 2. The Design of Multifactor Analysis of Variance
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Note:
A1 : The mean score of reading test of experimental class which is taught
by Contextual Teaching and Learning Method.
A2 : The mean score of reading test of control class which is taught by
Grammar Translation Method.
B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence
quotient.
B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence
quotient.
A1B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence
quotient who are taught by Contextual Teaching and Learning Method.
A1B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence
quotient who are taught by Contextual Teaching and Learning Method.
A2B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence
quotient who are taught by Grammar Translation Method.
A2B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence
quotient who are taught by Grammar Translation Method.
The data are analyzed using the following ways
1. The total sum of squares
∑ ∑∑ −=n
)X(Xx
2t2
t2
t
2. The sum of squares between groups
N
)X(n
)X(n
)X(n
)X(n
)X(x
2t
4
24
3
23
2
22
1
212
b∑∑∑∑∑ ∑ −+++=
3. The sum of squares within groups
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Σxw2 = Σxt
2 – Σxb2
4. The between – columns sum of squares
Σxbc2 =
( ) ( ) ( )N
X
n
X
n
X 2t
c
2c
c
2c
2
2
1
1 ∑∑∑−+
5. The between – columns sum of squares
Σxbr2 =
( ) ( ) ( )N
X
n
X
n
X 2t
r
2r
r
2r
2
2
1
1 ∑∑∑−+
6. The sum of squares interaction
Σxint = Σxb
2 – (Σxbc2 +Σxbr
2 )
7. df for between - columns sum of squares = C – 1
df for between - rows sum of squares = R – 1
df for interaction = (C-1) (R-1)
df for between - groups sum of squares = G – 1
df for within - columns sum of squares = Σ(n-1)
df for total sum of squares = N – 1
C = the number of columns
R = the number of rows
G = the number of groups
n = the number of subjects in one group
N = the number of subjects in all groups
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8. The finding of q is found by dividing the difference between the means by
the square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the sample
size (http://people.richland.edu/james/lecture/m170/ch13-dif.html).
q = ns
xx
w
ji
/2
−
a. Between column (qA) = ance/nError varicXcX 21 −
b. Between rows (qB) = nianceError
XrXr/var
21 −
c. Between column(HI) q = ance/nError vari
rcXrcX 1211 −
d. Between column(LI) q = ance/nError vari
rcXrcX 2221 − or q =
ance/nError varircXrcX 2122 −
9. The statistic test is found by dividing the difference between means by the
square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the sample size.
Tukey test is used to know which teaching method is more effective or
better to teach reading comprehension.
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CHAPTER IV
THE RESULT OF THE STUDY
This chapter presents the result of the study. It is divided into four parts,
the description of data, normality and homogeneity test, hypothesis test, and the
discussion of the result of the study.
A. The Description of the Data
The data described here are the result of the reading test. The description
includes the mean, the mode, the median, the standard deviation and
frequency distribution followed by histogram and polygon. Based on the
group analyzed, the descriptions of the data are divided into eight groups as
follows:
1. The data of the reading test of the students or the group that are taught
using Contextual Teaching and Learning (A1)
2. The data of the reading test of the students or the group that are taught
using Grammar Translation Method (A2)
3. The data of the reading test of the students having high intelligence (B1)
4. The data of the reading test of the students having low intelligence (B2)
5. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high
intelligence quotient that are taught using Contextual Teaching and
Learning Method (A1B1)
6. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low
intelligence quotient that are taught using Contextual Teaching and
Learning Method (A1B2)
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7. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high
intelligence quotient that are taught using Grammar Translation Method
(A2B1)
8. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low
intelligence quotient that are taught using Grammar Translation Method
(A2B2).
The data of each group are presented as below:
1. The data of the reading test of the students or the groups that are taught
using Contextual Teaching and Learning Method (A1)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1 shows that the score is 40 up to
83. The mean is 63.1 the standard deviation is 12.0, the mode is 59.1, the
median is 63.5. The frequency distribution of the data of B1 is in table 6,
histogram and polygon are presented in figure 3.
Table 6. Frequency Distribution of A1
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
40 - 46 5 43 215 47 - 53 3 50 150 54 - 60 7 57 399 61 - 67 6 64 384 68 - 74 8 71 568 75 - 83 7 79 553
Sum 36 364 2269
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s
Figure 3. Histogram and Polygon Data A1
2. The data of the reading test of the students or the groups that are taught
using Grammar Translation Method (A2)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A2 shows that the score is 43 up to
73. The mean is 60.1 the standard deviation is 7.2, the mode is 60.4, the
median is 60.4. The frequency distribution of the data of A2 is in table 7,
histogram and polygon are presented in figure 4.
Table 7. Frequency Distribution of A2
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
43 - 47 2 45 90 48 - 52 4 50 200 53 - 57 5 55 275 58 - 62 12 60 720 63 - 67 7 65 455 68 - 73 6 71 423
Sum 36 346 2163
5
3
7 7
8
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
39.5 46.5 53.5 60.5 67.5 74.5 82.5
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s
Figure 4. Histogram and Polygon Data A2
3. The data of the reading test of the students having high intelligence (B1)
Descriptive analysis of the data of B1 shows that the score is 43 up to
83. The mean is 63.1 the standard deviation is 12.6, the mode is 74.7, and
the median is 67.9. The frequency distribution of the data of B1 is in table
8, histogram and polygon are presented in figure 5.
Table 8. Frequency Distribution of B1
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
40 - 47 5 44 218 48 - 55 7 52 361 56 - 63 6 60 357 64 - 71 5 68 338 72 - 79 11 76 831 80 - 87 2 84 167
Sum 36 381 2270
2
45
6
7
12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Interval
Frek
uens
i
42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5
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s
Figure 5. Histogram and Polygon Data B1
4. The data of the reading test of the students having low intelligence (B2)
Descriptive analysis of the data of B2 shows that the score is 40 up to
73. The mean is 56.3 the standard deviation is 8.3, the mode is 59.5, the
median is 57.5. The frequency distribution of the data of B2 is in table 9,
histogram and polygon are presented in figure 6.
Table 9. Frequency Distribution of B2
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
40 - 45 5 43 213 46 - 51 5 49 243 52 - 57 8 55 436 58 - 63 12 61 726 64 - 69 4 67 266 70 - 75 2 73 145
Sum 36 345 2028
5
7
6
2
11
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
39.5 47.5 55.5 63.5 71.5 79.5 86.5
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s
Figure 6. Histogram and Polygon Data B2
5. The data of reading test of the students or the group having high
intelligence quotient that are taught using Contextual Teaching and
Learning Method (A1B1)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B1 shows that the score is 68
up to 83. The mean is 74.9 the standard deviation is 4.01, the mode is 73.5,
the median is 75.5. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B1 is in
table 10, histogram and polygon are presented in figure 7.
5 5
8
2
4
12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
39.5 45.5 51.5 57.5 63.5 69.5 74.5
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Table 10. Frequency Distribution of A1B1
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
68 - 70 3 69.00 207.0 71 - 73 4 72.00 288.0 74 - 76 4 75.00 300.0 77 - 79 5 78.00 390.0 80 - 83 2 81.50 163.0
Sum 18 375.50 1348.0
Figure 7. Histogram and Polygon Data A1B1
6. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low
intelligence quotient that are taught using Contextual Teaching and
Learning Method (A1B2)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B2 shows that the score is 40 up
to 63. The mean is 51.7 the standard deviation is 6.5, the mode is 52.8, the
median is 50.8. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B2 is in table
11, histogram and polygon are presented in figure 8.
3
4 4
2
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
67.5 70.5 73.5 76.5 79.5 83.5
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Table 11. Frequency Distribution of A1B2
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
40 - 44 2 42 84 45 - 49 6 47 282 50 - 54 4 52 208 55 - 59 3 57 171 60 - 64 3 62 186
Sum 18 260 931
Figure 8. Histogram and Polygon Data A1B2
7. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high
intelligence quotient who are taught using Grammar Translation Method
(A2B1)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A2B1 shows that the score is 43 up
to 70. The mean is 56.5 the standard deviation is 7.2, the mode is 57.2, the
median is 56.8. The frequency distribution of the data of A2B1 is in table
12, histogram and polygon are presented in figure 9.
2
6
4
33
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
39.5 44.5 49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5
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Table 12. Frequency Distribution of A2B1
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
43 - 48 3 45.50 136.5 49 - 54 3 51.50 154.5 55 - 60 8 57.50 460.0 61 - 66 2 63.50 127.0 67 - 72 2 69.50 139.0
Sum 18 287.50 1017.0
Figure 9. Histogram and Polygon Data A2B1
8. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low
intelligence quotient that are taught using Grammar Translation Method
(A2B2)
Descriptive analysis of the data of A2B2 shows that the score is 50 up
to 73. The mean is 62 the standard deviation is 5.9, the mode is 62, the
median is 62. The frequency distribution of the data of A2B2 is in table 13,
histogram and polygon are presented in figure 10.
3 3
8
22
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
42.5 48.5 54.5 60.5 66.5 72.5
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Table 13. Frequency Distribution of A2B2
Class Limit fi Xi fiXi
50 - 54 2 52 104 55 - 59 4 57 228 60 - 64 6 62 372 65 - 69 4 67 268 70 - 74 2 72 144
Sum 18 310 1116
Figure 10. Histogram and Polygon Data A2B2
B. Normality and Homogeneity Test
Before analyzing the data using inferential analysis, normality and
homogeneity test must be done. The normality test is to know that the sample
is in normal distribution and the homogeneity test is to know that the data are
homogenous. Each test is presented in the following section.
1. Normality Test
The sample is in normal distribution if L0 (L obtained) is lower than
Lt (L table), α = 0.05. L stands for Lilliefors.
2
4
6
2
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Interval
Freq
uenc
y
49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5 69.5 74.5
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Table 14. The Summary of Normality Test using Lilliefors
No. Data
The Number
of Sample
L Obtained (Lo)
L Table (Lt)
Alfa (α)
Distribution of
Population
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A1 A2 B1 B2
A1B1 A1B2 A2B1 A2B2
36 36 36 36 18 18 18 18
0.146 0.095 0.091 0.071 0.147 0.129 0.097 0.114
0.148 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal
2. Homogeneity Test
Homogeneity test is done to know that the data are homogeneous. If
χo2 is lower than χt
2(0.05)
, it can be concluded that the data are
homogeneous.
Table 15. The Homogeneity Test
Sample df 1/df s12 log s1
2 (df) log s12
1 2 3 4
17 17 17 17
0.059 0.059 0.059 0.059
18.30 55.91 40.41 39.32
1.262 1.748 1.606 1.595
21.462 29.708 27.080 27.109
68 0.235 105.589
χ2 = 2,303{B – (ΣlogSi x n-1)}
= 2,303(107.801 – 105.589)
= 5.09
Based on the result of calculation above, it can be seen that the χ2 (5.09) is
lower than χt at the level of significance (α) 5% = 7.81. So χ2 < χt (5.09 <
7.81) and the data are homogeneous.
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C. Hypothesis Test
Hypothesis test can be done after the result of normality and
homogeneity test are fulfilled. The test is done by using multifactor analysis of
variance 2 x 2. Ho is rejected if Fo > Ft meaning that there are a difference and
an interaction. If Ho is rejected the analysis is continued to know which group
is better using Tukey test. The multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2 and
Tukey test are described as below.
1. Summary of a 2 x 2 Multifactor Analysis of Variance
Table 16. Multifactor Analysis of Variance
Source of Variance SS df MS Fo Ft 0,05
Between columns 284.014 1 284.014 7.38 4.00
Between rows 1596.125 1 1596.125 41.47 4.00
Columns by rows (interaction)
3916.125 1 3916.125 101.75 4.00
Between groups 5796.264 3 1932.088 - -
Within group 2617.056 68 38.486 - -
Total 8413.319 71 - - -
The table above shows that:
a. Because Fo between columns (7.38) is higher than Ft at the level of
significance (α) = 0.05 (4.00) and (α) = 0.01 (7.08), the difference
between columns is significant. It can be concluded that the methods
of teaching differ significantly from one another in their effect on the
reading comprehension of the subject in the experiment.
b. Because Fo between rows (41.47) is higher than Ft at the level of
significance (α) = 0.05 (4.00) and (α) = 0.01 (7.08), the difference
between rows is significant. It can be concluded that the students
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having high intelligence and those having low intelligence are
significantly different in their reading comprehension.
c. Because Fo interaction between group (101.75) is higher than Ft at the
level of significance (α) = 0.05 (4.00) and (α) = 0.01 (7.08), there is
interaction between the two variables, teaching methods and
intelligence. It means the effect of teaching methods depends on the
degree of intelligence to teach reading.
2. Tukey Test
The finding of q is found by dividing the difference between the
means by the square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the
sample size.
q = nsw /
)x-x(2
ji
Data
TeachingMethod
Intelligence
Contextual Teaching and Learning (A1)
Grammar Translation Method (A2)
Sum
Group 1 Group 2 High (B1) Data = 18 Data = 18 Data = 36
ΣX = 1354 X = 75.2 ΣX = 1017 X = 56.5 ΣX = 2371 X = 65.9 Group 3 Group 4
Low (B2) Data = 18 Data = 18 Data = 36 ΣX = 919 X = 51.1 ΣX = 1113 X = 61.8 ΣX = 2031 X = 56.4
Total Data = 36 Data = 36 Data = 72 ΣX = 2273 X = 63.1 ΣX = 2130 X = 59.2 ΣX = 4403 X = 61.2
a. Between columns
qA = n / anceerror vari
)X-X(21 AA =
36 / 38.4862.591.63 −
= 03.19.3 = 3.84
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Because between columns (qA) =3.84 is higher than qt at the level of
significance (α) = 0.05 (2.86), contextual teaching and learning
method differs significantly from grammar translation method for
teaching reading. The mean score of the students who are taught using
CTL (A1) (63.1) is higher than A2 (59.2), so it can be concluded that
contextual teaching and learning method is more effective to teach
reading than grammar translation method.
b. Between rows
qB = n / anceerror vari
)X-X(21 BB =
36 / 38.4864.569.65 −
= 03.14.9 = 9.11
Because between rows (qB) = 9.11 is higher than qt at the level of
significance (α) = 0.05 (2.86), the students having high intelligence
differs significantly from the students having low intelligence. The
mean score of the students having high intelligence (B1) (65.9) is
higher than (B2) (56.4), so it can be concluded that the students having
high intelligence have better reading comprehension than those having
low intelligence.
c. Between cells A1B1 and A2B1
qHI = n / anceerror vari
)X-X(1211 BABA =
18 / 38.4865.562.75 −
= 46.17.18 = 12.8
Because between cells A1B1 and A2B1 = 12.8 is higher than qt at the
level of significance (α) = 0.05 (2.97), contextual teaching and
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learning method differs significantly from grammar translation method
for students having high intelligence. The mean score of the students
having high intelligence who are taught using CTL (A1B1) (75.2) is
higher than A2B1 (56.5), so it can be concluded that contextual
teaching and learning method is more effective than grammar
translation method to teach reading for students having high
intelligence
d. Between cells A1B2 and A2B2
qLI = n / anceerror vari
)X-X(2221 BABA =
18 / 38.4868.611.51 −
= 46.13.5 = 3.65
Because between cells (qLI) = 3.65 is higher than qt at the level of
significance (α) = 0.05 (2.97), grammar translation method differs
significantly from contextual teaching and learning method for
students having low intelligence. The mean score of the students
having low intelligence who are taught using GTM (A2B2) (61.8) is
higher than A1B2 (51.1), so it can be concluded that grammar
translation method is more effective than contextual teaching and
learning for students having low intelligence.
e. Based on the result of analysis on the above points (c) and (d), that is
contextual teaching and learning method is more effective than
grammar translation method for the students having high intelligence
and grammar translation method is more effective than contextual
teaching and learning method for the students having low intelligence,
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so it can be summarized that there is an interaction between teaching
methods and students’ intelligence in teaching reading comprehension.
D. Discussion of the Result of the Study
Based on the computation result of data analysis, it can be explained as
follows:
1. Contextual Teaching and Learning Method is more effective than
Grammar Translation Method to teach reading comprehension.
The method of Contextual Teaching and Learning in learning
reading gives opportunities for students to understand the passage through
the real experience. The students learn better if the situation around them
is created naturally. It will be more meaningful if the children experience
what they learn, not only to know what they learn or just memorize what
the teacher transfers to them. Creating a setting in which students learn as
realistically as possible is a goal of Contextual Teaching and Learning
method (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 34). It is also supported by Gholam,
et al., (2008: 2) who state that in constructivism, transferring knowledge is
done by involvement in authentic tasks in meaningful situations. The main
feature in transferring knowledge is that learning always takes place in a
context; therefore, transferring knowledge should also take place in an
authentic contextualized situation. Nobody learns to use a tool by
following a set of rules. They must use those tools in real world situations
for the learning to be appropriate and effective.
Moreover, students who are taught using Contextual Teaching and
Learning method will have critical and creative thinking through
searching, observing, investigating, and analyzing (Nurhadi and Senduk,
2003: 43). The use of inquiry in the reading activity needs the students’
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involvement to find answers themselves and ask the questions along the
way. The students view themselves as learners in the process of learning
and they look forward to learning. They exhibit curiosity and ponder
observation. They ask questions and use the questions to lead them to
activities generating further questions or ideas (http;//www.youthlearn
.org/learning/approach/inquiry.asp). By presenting variety of different
types of texts, they search who are the participants, what they do, where,
when, and how they do that, the events, the complication, the resolution,
and the code. After that they observe, investigate and finally analyze them.
Questioning used by the teacher to check the students’
understanding, to encourage students’ responses, and to know what the
students have known make the students confident to express their answers.
In addition, the students that work in a small group have the opportunities
to ask questions freely among the members. Even the students who are shy
to ask questions to the teacher are motivated to study together with their
friends (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 47). The implementation of learning
community really provides students more time to share their ideas or
knowledge to each other. Wehrli in AABB Conference (2003: 4) says the
advantages of implementing learning community are the students are
actively involved and stimulate peer group learning and it helps
participants explore pre-existing knowledge and build on what they know.
It also facilitates exchange of ideas and awareness of mutual concerns and
develops leadership, teamwork, communication, and collaboration skills.
Then, modeling by the teacher or the students improves the students’
performance. After seeing how the teacher or their friends answer the
questions of text, the other students imitate like what they did. A long with
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this, the students have self-confidence to present or retell what they have
learned in front of the class (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 49). As it is stated
by Wehrli in AABB Conference (2003: 4) that role modeling is intentional
teaching strategy in which learners listen and observe role model
performing regular duties of the profession and/or “thinking out loud”. The
advantages of role modeling can be subtle but powerful learning. It tends
to generate high learner interest.
Reflection is one of the components of CTL which has also given
great contribution to the improvement of students’ reading comprehension.
Kemmis (in Zakia Ahmad, 2006: 2) states that reflection is not just an
individual, psychological process. It is an action oriented, historically
embedded, social and political frame, to locate oneself in the history of a
situation, to participate in a social activity, and to take sides on issues.
Therefore, a reading development program according to Nuttal (in Zakia
Ahmad, 2006: 2) should be to enable students to enjoy (or at least feel
comfortable with) reading in the foreign language, and to read without
help unfamiliar authentic texts, at appropriate speed, silently and with
adequate understanding.
After that, the teaching learning process needs feedback. According
to Stiggins as cited by Amin, et al., (2007: 3) there are two types of
assessment: formative assessment, that is, assessment for learning, and
summative assessment, or assessment of learning. In fact, authentic
assessment requires both. Boston (in Amin, et al., 2007: 3) say that
summative assessment is a test that is usually given at the end of a term,
semester or year, the purpose of which is to measure proficiency.
O’Malley & Pierce (in Amin, et al., 2007: 3) states that formative
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assessment takes place during a course of teaching and is used essentially
as feedback to the teaching learning process. According to Amin, et al.,
(2007: 3) it is an ongoing process of collecting information about the
students’ performance through various techniques of classroom
assessment. The purpose of this is not only to measure proficiency, but
also to improve it as well. In this case, the teacher gives the score through
the performance of the students during the teaching and learning process
easily. Finally the students feel comfortable to join the class.
On the other hand, Grammar Translation Method is unnatural
method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking,
reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his language in
natural surroundings, but in Grammar Translation Method the teaching of
language starts with the teaching of reading. So, speech is neglected,
consequently the students feel shy of communicating through English
(http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Grammartranslation).
Grammar Translation Method also rather attempts to teach language
through rules and not by use. In fact, researchers in linguistics have proved
that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is
quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which
can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The
students who have learned a foreign or second language through this
method find it difficult to get proficiency in the second language
approximating that in the first language (http://en.wikipedia
.org/wiki/Grammartranslation)
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2. The students having high intelligence have better reading comprehension
than those having low intelligence.
Intelligence is one key to be successful in learning. Students who
have high intelligence will solve the problem of learning without
difficulty. High intelligence toward the method of learning strongly affects
the success of learning reading and surely can affect the student’s reading
comprehension.
Students who have high intelligence have high curiosity. They also
learn by full of self confidence, responsible to the learning assignment,
autonomous, and hard effort to attain a higher competence, and always
enjoy in learning process. By high intelligence, students have hard effort
optimally to achieve the success. As it is stated by Gardner that
intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems, create
products or provide services that are valued within a culture or society
(Gardner, 1999: 41-43).
On contrary, students who have low intelligence are passive recipient
of knowledge; they only receive what teacher has said. They always
depend on someone else, don’t try hard, give up easily in the face of
challenge, and do not have desire to improve their competencies. Students
who have low intelligence are discouraged to involve in doing learning
activities, lazy to learn, get bored easily, and they do not feel pleasure in
classroom. It happens because they have less capacity to learn and carry on
abstract thinking. They often meet problem when dealing with reading
comprehension. Low intelligence is the cause of reading disability when
appropriate educational adaptations are not made.
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3. There is an interaction between teaching methods and students’
intelligence.
Success of learning includes not only the teaching methods but also
the students’ intelligence. Students’ participation and involvement in
learning activities is strongly affected by the teaching method. Grammar
translation method cannot motivate the students because it is teacher-
centered; the teacher is regarded as the source of knowledge. Whereas
contextual teaching and learning method is student-centered; the students
should actively participate in learning activities.
In contextual teaching and learning method teaching reading gives
opportunities for the students to understand the passage through the real
experience. The students find the type of the text by searching who are the
participants, what they do, where, and how they do that, and the like. Then
if they find difficulties they can express their questions to the teacher or
their friends in a small group. They can also make model from the teacher
or their friends in answering the questions of the text (Nurhadi and
Senduk, 2003: 34-51).
The students having high intelligence have high curiosity, self
confidence are responsible for the learning assignment, autonomous and
effort to attain a higher competence. It is stated by Gardner (1999: 41-43)
that intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems,
create products or provide services that are valued within a culture or
society. Therefore, when they are taught using contextual teaching and
learning they understand the passage easily; they have creative thinking
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and do the assignment better. The students do not depend on the teacher’s
translation and explanation. They try to find the meaning and the message
from the text by themselves or they will ask friends that work in a small
group. Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 47-51) said that questioning and
modeling used by their friends or their teacher can improve the students’
performance. Then, the teacher gives the score through the performance
during the teaching and learning process. Finally the students are free to
join the class. The students who have high intelligence have high ability in
comprehending the various text types. It is revealed by Fathi, et al., (2009:
12) that the multiple intelligence program was effective in improving the
reading comprehension skills of the students in experimental group,
compared to the control group whose individuals were left to be taught
conventionally. That is why contextual teaching and learning method is
more effective for the students having high intelligence in teaching reading
comprehension.
On the other hand, in grammar translation method the teaching of the
second language starts with the teaching of reading. It is unnatural order.
The natural one is listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Then
translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases
from one language into another. Since the passages are also taught through
the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension
questions on the text taught in the mother tongue (http://en. wikipedia.
org/wiki/Grammar translation).
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In learning the second language the students having low intelligence
prefer reading to listening. In fact, according to Nurhayati, a Malay
psychologist membiasakannya mendengarkan … sejak dalam kandungan,
membantunya untuk tumbuh dengan intelegensi tinggi, kemampuan
berbahasa yang baik, dan kepribadian yang baik pula
(http://10091fda.blogspot.com/2011/03/benarkah-al-quran-dapat-merang
sang.html). They are also passive recipient of knowledge. They depend on
the teacher’s explanation to read the text. They do not have initiative. They
just wait for the teacher’s translation to know the meaning and the
message of the text. That is why when they are taught using grammar
translation method they become active, listen carefully to the teacher’s
explanation to read the text and enjoy the teacher’s translation to know the
meaning and the message of the text. They become enthusiastically in
learning process because they can respond the questions in the mother
tongue. Even, they can communicate with the teachers without linguistic
problems (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar translation). Finally, they
do not get difficulty in doing the assignment. So, grammar translation
method is more effective for the students having low intelligence for
teaching reading comprehension. This is supported by Sue, et al., (2009: 2)
who state that therefore the correlation between reading and intelligence is
strongest when the child is a proficient reader.
Therefore, there is an interaction between teaching methods and
students’ intelligence in teaching reading comprehension. Contextual
teaching and learning method is suitable for students having high
intelligence and grammar translation method is suitable for students
having low intelligence.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
Based on the data analysis, research findings are concluded as follows:
1. Contextual Teaching and Learning method is more effective than
Grammar Translation Method to teach reading comprehension for the
eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of
2009/2010.
2. Students having high intelligence have better reading comprehension than
those having low intelligence for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14
Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.
3. There is an interaction between teaching methods and students’
intelligence in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth grade
students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.
From the research findings, it can be concluded that Contextual
Teaching and Learning method is an effective method in teaching reading for
the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of
2009/2010. The effectiveness of the method is influence by the students’ level
of intelligence.
B. Implication
The research findings imply that Contextual Teaching and Learning
method can affect the students’ reading comprehension. It is proved from the
research findings that Contextual Teaching and Learning method is more
effective than Grammar Translation Method in teaching reading. Contextual
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Teaching and Learning is recommended by applying the seven components in
the reading class. The students having high intelligence who are taught using
Contextual Teaching and Learning method have highest score among them
meaning that Contextual Teaching and Learning is well and suitably used for
high intelligence students. For low intelligence students, Grammar Translation
Method is more effective than Contextual Teaching and Learning. Because
each class has students having high and low intelligence, so Contextual
Teaching and Learning method can be used with Grammar Translation
Method to complement each other.
Contextual Teaching and Learning method is focused on processing
approach whereas in class activity students are involved to actively participate,
do cooperation, share experiences, work together, analyze, summarize and
evaluate the activity. The teaching learning process is more student-oriented,
while the role of the teacher is to be a facilitator. The students are directed to
be able to do and think. The aim of the learning activity emphasizes not only
to the substances and knowledge but also its values so that it feels more
meaningful.
C. Suggestion
1. For teachers
a) The teachers should implement the contextual teaching and learning
method to improve students’ reading comprehension.
b) The teachers should determine the contextual materials which relate to
students’ real life, so what she gives to her students will be meaningful
for their life.
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c) The teachers should consider deeply the students’ intelligence, so it
will enable the teachers to set an appropriate action in implementing
the teaching method.
2. For students
a) The students should be active and involved thoroughly in the teaching
and learning process in order to improve their reading comprehension.
b) The students should be interested in studying English since the
materials given are related to students’ real life, not abstract.
c) The students who have low intelligence should increase their English
reading activities through various resources such as: textbook,
magazine, newspaper, internet, natural surroundings, etc.
3. For other researcher
a) The coming researchers can conduct any further research in the field
by extending it to other levels and subjects.
b) The research can give additional contribution to develop instructional
model and strengthen the similar theory.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aebersold, Jo Ann & Field, Marry Lee. 1997. From Reader to Reading Teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ary, Donald, Lucy Cheser Jacobs and Asghar Razavieh. 2007. Pengantar Penelitian Dalam Pendidikan (Edisi terjemahan oleh Arief Furchan). Surabaya: Usaha Nasional.
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Christensen, Larry B. 1977. Experimental Methodology. London: Allyn and Bacon Inc.
Coon, Dennis, 1989. Introduction to Psychology Exploration and Application. San Francisco. West Publishing Company
Dechant V. Emerald and Henry P. Smith, 1983, Psychology in Teaching Reading, 2nd ed. United States of America, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs.
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. 2003. Pendekatan Kontekstual, Jakarta
Grellet, Francoise. 1998. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Husein, Torsten and Postlehwaite T. Neville. 1994. The International Encyclopedia of Education vol. 8. London: BPC Wheaton Ltd.
Johnson, E, B. 2002. Contextual Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, INC.
Kennedy, Eddie C. 1981. Methods in Teaching Developmental Reading (second edition). Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publisher, Inc.
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