Different types of Wall Finishes and its application

Here is the list of the Wall Finishes for decorating the Interiors and Exteriors:1. Stained Glass Finish

2. Pebbles Finish

3. Flakes Finish

4. Coral Finish

5. Canfor Finish

6. Tile Cladding

7. Wood Panelling

8. Sand Textured Finish

Stained Glass Finish

It involves lot of creative work. The glass is decorated with itching, frosting, glass pasting and finally colouring with suitable colours according to the theme. The stained glass panels are used on walls and ceilings.

Stained Glass Finish

Pebbles FinishThis a very simple and attractive finish obtained by pasting small pebbles on the walls with cement mortar as an adhesive.Pebbles finish is usually preferred for exterior facade. It is also commonly used to give nice flowing effect to the waterfalls that are created especially designed for Hotel Interiors or as a part of Exterior Landscaping.

Pebbles Finish

Flakes Finish

It is a special material used to enhance the elevation treatment of the building. It is majorly used for the exterior facade. It has also been used for the interiors but to a very small extent. Application of flakes finish is avoided in the interiors because chipping off of flakes is a trouble.

The flakes are applied with a trovel on walls over a coat of adhesive.

Flakes Finish

Coral Finish

Coral finish is similar to Plaster of Paris Finish and Gypsum Plaster Finish. Coral is the name of a type of plastering material. It gives a rough edgy finish.

Coral Finish

Canfor FinishCanfor finish is also known as Faux finish. This material is used for the interiors of residences. It adds a unique aesthetic appeal to the place. It comes in 6mm thickness and in different designs.This finish is chosen when a false finish is to be given. It gives a stone wall or brick wall effect.

Canfor Finish or Faux Finish

Tile Cladding

Different tiles, for example, granite, marble, glazed tiles or vitrified tiles are used for tile cladding. Tiles are available in a variety of colours and shapes. The selection of tiles depends on the place where it is to be applied i.e. interior facade or exterior facade.

Tile Cladding

Wood Panelling

It is a decorative treatment done with wooden panels on the walls in various designs. The material used can be plywood or wood covered with veneer or laminate.

Wood Panelling

Sand Textured Finish

Sand Textured finish is used to give fine texture to the wall. This wall finish is not very commonly used because of its grains coming out.

Sand Textured Finish

What are Wall Finishes and the purpose of using them?

Here is a list of different types of Wall finishes:1. Cement plastered Finish

2. Cement Textured Finish

3. Plaster of Paris Finish

4. Gypsum Plaster Finish

5. Glass Mosaic Finish

6. Designer Mirror Finish

7. Laminate Finish

8. Marble Powder Finish

Cement plastered Finish

It is prepared in the form of mortar with cement, sand and water in proper proportions and applied on masonry manually to achieve a smooth finish or sand faced finish.

Cement Plaster Finish

Cement Textured Finish

This is a decorative finish and its mortar is prepared in cement based material. It is applied with sand faced plaster with a trowel and after that it is coloured with paint.

Cement Textured Finish

Plaster of Paris Finish

Plaster of Paris or simply plaster is a type of building material based on calcium sulphate hemihydrates. This is a smooth finish achieved by plaster of Paris generally applied on internal walls.

Plaster of Paris Finish

Gypsum Plaster Finish

This just like plaster of Paris finish but gypsum based material is used to prepare mortar. It is more durable and finer as compared to Plaster of Paris Finish.

Gypsum plaster Finish

Glass Mosaic Finish

Glass mosaic tiles are small 1”x1” on a cloth to get a workable size 12”x12” and this tile is pasted with an adhesive on wall surfaces.  It can also be pasted on curved surfaces.

Glass Mosaic Finish

It comes in different colours and generally used in swimming pools.

Designer Mirror Finish

Designer mirrors are obtained by small pieces on walls to create mural like design.

Designer Mirror Finish

Laminate Finish

Laminate comes in various colours and designs. It comes in the form of sheet and is pasted with fevicol on Plywood.

Laminate Finish

Marble Powder Finish

This is a very smooth finish. The finish looks like Marble flooring. This finish is obtained by mortar of marble powder, white cement and water. It is applied manually.

Marble Powder Finish

Common Flooring Types

1.Resilient Flooring

Vinyl Composition Tile (VCT)

Overview and General Characteristics: Vinyl composition tile is the most popular resilient flooring today for commercial applications. These 12” x 12” tiles come in a variety of colors and grades. They are easy to install and are cost effective. VCT offers good dimensional stability, durability, impact resistance, UV light stability and heat stability.

Composition: Approximately 60 - 70% limestone/clay/talc mixture, 15 - 20% binder (filler), 10% vinyl (resin), 5% fiberglass, 3 - 5% plasticizer and 1 - 5% pigment.

Maintenance Characteristics: VCT holds all types and brands of floor finishbeautifully due to its porous nature.

Vinyl Asbestos Tile (VAT)

Overview and General Characteristics: Common resilient flooring that was produced from the mid-1950’s until the mid-1980’s. Much of it was produced in the 9” x 9” size, though 12” x 12” was also available. This flooring hasn’t been produced for health and safety reasons since mid-1980. VAT was known for its durability, dimensional stability and heat resistance as evidenced by the amount still found in older buildings.

Composition: Approximately 50 - 70% limestone, 5 - 20% asbestos, 15 - 20% binder, 5% plasticizer and 0.5 - 5% pigment.

Maintenance Characteristics: This floor accepts finish nicely. Being old and porous, it usually requires a coat or two of sealer if it is stripped (follow OSHA and EPA guidelines for stripping). On very old floors, use of high alkalinestrippers is not recommended.

Sheet Vinyl

Overview and General Characteristics: This flooring is produced in sheet widths from 6’ to 15’, making it easy to install and eliminating seams which can trap dirt and moisture. Sheet vinyl is not commonly used in commercial buildings since it sacrifices durability when compared to VCT.

Composition: Similar to VCT but contains more vinyl resin and less limestone filler, giving it greater flexibility.

Maintenance Characteristics: Holds finishes nicely though generally not recommended in residential settings since finishing requires more maintenance and eventually stripping. Clean with neutral detergent.

Linoleum

Overview and General Characteristics: Invented by a British rubber manufacturer in 1860, linoleum is a tough, natural ingredient-based flooring that has enjoyed a slight resurgence with homeowners recently due to its positive environmental profile. It is still used in commercial applications because of its high durability. It is nearly impossible to tell sheet vinyl from linoleum once installed.

Composition: Linseed oil mixed with powdered wood and/or cork, ground limestone, resin binders, drying agents and pigments applied to a jute backing.

Maintenance Characteristics: Linoleum should be kept finished at all times since it is quite porous. New installations may be tough to finish for a few weeks since it off-gases linseed oil vapors. Stripping with highly alkaline strippers is not recommended since bleaching and fading can occur. Clean with neutral detergent.

 2. Man-Made Stone Flooring

Terrazzo

Overview and General Characteristics: Terrazzo flooring offers high durability and deep beauty. Its upfront cost is considerably higher than resilient flooring but when viewed long-term, it can actually be less expensive.

Composition: Marble, granite, quartz and/or glass chips mixed with portland cement, polyacrylic-modified portland cement or epoxy resin and poured into place.

Maintenance Characteristics: Portland cement and polyacrylic-modified portland cement floors hold finish nicely. Some pure epoxy-based floors can be tough to finish due to its low moisture absorbency and hydrophobic nature (non-affinity for water). Avoid using high pH cleaners and acid-based products on terrazzo.

Unglazed Ceramic (Quarry Tile)

Overview and General Characteristics: Quarry tile provides an attractive floor that is durable and easy to maintain. These tiles are usually red in color and 6” x 6” in size with a ½” thickness. Quarry tile is often installed in foodservice areas.

Composition: Made from a mixture of clays that are fired at high temperatures (approximately 2200 degrees).

Maintenance Characteristics: Quarry tile can be finished with standard floor care products although this is not generally advised in foodservice or other “production areas”. If installed in hallways, stairwells or other non-production areas, Eccothane ™  can be used with great success on these floors. Clean with neutral detergent or an all-purpose cleaner.

Glazed Ceramic

Overview and General Characteristics: Glazing ceramic tile creates a durable surface that is easy to clean, resists stains and scratches, doesn’t fade and is slip-resistant.

Composition: Identical to unglazed except a liquid glass is applied to the tile at very high temperatures. This creates a hard, non-porous surface.

Maintenance Characteristics: Glazed ceramic tile will NOT hold floor finish. The surface is too smooth for proper floor finish adhesion to occur. Clean withneutral detergent or all-purpose cleaner.

Brick Pavers (Paving Tile)

Overview and General Characteristics: Similar to quarry tile but larger in size and thickness.

Composition: Similar to quarry tile.

Maintenance Characteristics: Similar to quarry tile.

Mexican Tile (Saltillo)

Overview and General Characteristics: Saltillo tiles are natural clay tiles, hand-made in Mexico. Similar to terracotta tiles, saltillo tiles are rustic by design. The beauty and character of each tile comes from variations in size, color and texture. It is extremely popular in Mexico and throughout the Southwestern United States.

Composition: Unprocessed clay.

Maintenance Characteristics: The high alkalinity and porous nature of this tile necessitates sealing and/or finishing. Stonethane or Eccothane™ are good options. Clean with neutral detergent.

Concrete

Overview and General Characteristics: Concrete is universally used for commercial building slabs. Most are covered with another flooring material such as tile, carpeting or wood. Concrete floors that are not covered with another material are gaining popularity in retail stores and other commercial buildings since it provides a low cost yet highly durable flooring surface.

Composition: Approximately 10 - 15% portland cement, 40% stone aggregate, 25% sand aggregate, 15 - 20% water and 5 - 8% air.

Maintenance Characteristics: Concrete can be tricky to finish with acrylic-based coatings. High alkalinity, high moisture, grease and oils, and unknown curing compounds and sealants can make finishing difficult. Floors with a history of accepting acrylic floor finishes can generally be finished with any Essential coating.

 3. Natural Stone Flooring

Marble

Overview and General Characteristics: A beautiful floor surface that is not suited for large commercial areas or heavily trafficked areas due to its soft nature (scratches easily), high absorbency (stains easily) and acid sensitivity.

Composition: Combination of calcite and calcium carbonate.

Maintenance Characteristics: Penetrating sealers perform best on marble. Acrylic-based finishes can be used but success is often spotty. Marble should only be cleaned with neutral cleaner – avoid acid-based products, high alkaline products and products with high chelation.

Slate

Overview and General Characteristics: Slate is a smooth, soft, natural stone available in a wide variety of textures, colors and sizes. It offers good durability and stain resistance due to its semi-porous nature.

Composition: Shale, clay quartz.

Maintenance Characteristics: Slate is generally not finished with acrylic-based products although, if used, they will usually adhere. Penetrating sealers can be used if desired and are often recommended for areas exposed to food and liquid spills. Clean with neutral detergent.

Granite

Overview and General Characteristics: Granite is used sparingly in commercial buildings due to its high cost. It is hard, doesn’t easily scratch and is stain-resistant – making it ideally suited for residential flooring.

Composition: Quartz and feldspar mixture.

Maintenance Characteristics: Granite’s hard, smooth nature make it unsuitable for finishing with acrylic-based product

TYPES OF GRANITE FINISHES

G633G683G439

G660G602G635

G603G606G657

G617G608G664

G436G655G682

Fuding BlackBig Silver FlowerLilac

Huian Red PockTiny FlowerPink Pock

Maple LeafGaoyuan RedGuilin Red

Tiger SkinChrysanthemumPeach Bloosom

Tianshan RedWuyi RedYongding Red

Ice Flask BlueBaltic BrownMaple Red

Shanxi Black (G697)

Almond Mauve (G611)

China Green (G613)

Butterfly GreenBlue Pearl Giallo Fiorito

Multi Red

  

   

Five Types of Floors Introduced: Carpets, Hardwood Floors, Laminate Floors, Bamboo Floors and Tiles

Carpets

One of the most popular types of flooring is carpet. It comes in a variety of styles, colors and textures. When shopping for that perfect match, you need to consider its durability, care and maintenance qualities as well as the color and texture.

Cleaning your carpet can end up costing you more than you originally planned. Avoid this problem by choosing a carpet that enhances your living space without breaking your wallet. If you choose carpet for a high-traffic room, you may consider a high density product. It withstands constant walking and cleanings. Darker colors also work well in this situation. They tend to hide stains better than lighter colors.

Lighter colored carpets are ideal for formal rooms used in small gatherings or entertaining. They also make smaller rooms seem larger than they actually are. Light carpets may go well in rooms with less sunlight. The light color will increase the ambiance and feel of this type of room.

Hardwood Floors

Hardwood floors are beautiful additions to any room. They come in light, medium and dark finishes. The best hardwood floors are durable, reasonably priced and easy to clean. Installation of this product can be completed with do-it-yourself guides. However, professional installation is more desirable. A professional installer will know exactly how to seal, sand, protect and finish the wood.

In order to keep the wood's natural beauty, use only products made specifically for this type of flooring. Oil- and wax-based cleaners help protect and increase the life of your hardwood floors.

Laminate Floors

This type of flooring brings both the style and beauty of wood and tile into any room at half the cost. It is easy to install and requires minimal care. Laminate floors are made of a synthetic material. It withstands constant traffic and can last for a number of years. You can find this floor type in all colors, including black, natural wood and ceramic finishes. The glossy exterior sets off the look.

Caring for your laminate flooring requires keeping moisture to a minimum and using a cleaner designed for laminated floors. Microfiber mops also work well on this product. You should never use water- or oil-based cleansers. They may leave an oily coating on the finish or increase moisture damage underneath.

Bamboo Floors

Bamboo floors are fast becoming a great choice for many in office and home settings. It is also a good way to have the wood floor look without harming the environment.

Bamboo is just as durable as other types of floors. It accentuates all types of furnishings and provides an eye-pleasing look to any room. Choose from the Garden, Far East or Woodstock models. These are just a few you can find at major retailers.

Tiles

Tiles can be used both inside and outside the home. It adds a touch of class to patios, living rooms and bathrooms. There are numerous styles available for purchase. Granite, natural tone and mosaics are three popular styles you may consider adding to your home. However, care and maintenance is something to think about before installing the product.

If you choose porcelain, ceramic or glass make sure to use a cleaner with a neutral pH. Tiles made of natural stones, such as marble, require special deep stone cleaners, grout release cleaners and sealers. However, when in doubt about which cleaning product to use, consult your product manual. Tiles will last a lifetime if properly maintained

Carpet, hardwood, laminate, bamboo and tile are never out of style. Whether you plan on redecorating your patio, office or family room, these floor products are perfect.

Doors and Windows Series

E70STB Series

E70S Series

E705 Series

G40 Series

G50-2 Series

ZJ58 Series

ZJT80 Series

Innovation 100 series

Innovation 100 series-2

Silver100

Silver100-2

Silver100-3

Doors and Windows Series

Silver100-4

SAI001

SAI030

Thermal-Break Aluminum Ex...

Wood-grained Aluminium Ex...

Anodized aluminium window...

Electrophoretic aluminium...

Powder coated aluminium w...

Wood-grained Aluminium Wi...

  24 series sliding window

26 series sliding windows

50A series casement windo...

Doors and Windows Series

50B door with window seri...

50E outside casement wind...

50H inside casement windo...

76 series sliding windows

80B sliding window series

80P series casement windo...

87 series sliding windows

87A series sliding window...

90A series sliding window...

90ZK series sliding windo...

90T series sliding window

828 series sliding window

Doors and Windows Series

2002 series sliding windo...

2003 series sliding windo...

E45 series windows

G40 series windows

G47S series sliding windo...

Cement PaintsThese provide a coating that assures effective  medium range protection against the weather. Special additives equip them to stand up to the rigours of outside exposure. Available in a range of standard colours, adequately light-fast/fade-resistant, in matt finish. A sound application of cement  paint, after proper surface preparation, can stretch your  repainting cycle to 5 years.

Emulsions 

 

The outstanding strengths of their high acrylic content help keep their long term excellence intact in exterior use. Given careful  and correct surface preparation and priming, these create a tough, enduring coating with superb adhesion and flexibility. Special  additives make them exceptionally resistant to algae, fungus   and atmospheric erosion. And they open up colours of every hue for the outside of your home, fade resistant for years!

Textured Plasters Also emulsion based exterior finishing coats, Textured Plasters provide even stronger protection than Silk Emulsions, besides unusual visual appeal. Their thick surface can be designer-patterned by sponging, stippling or patterned rollers. Washable over and over, their attractive colours and patterns blend smartness with heavy duty protection.

 

INTERIOR WALL PAINTS 

Choosing paints for interiors depends first of all on the particular spaces to be painted verandah, kitchen, living room, lobby  each requires its own painting requirements, and a range of paints and ancillaries to choose from. There are four categories of interior paint Dry Distemper, Acrylic Distemper, Matt Emulsion and Silk Emulsion in ascending order of price and quality. Choosing is a question of economics a matter of budget, materials, labour and time relative to the finish you want.

Emulsions Known generally as "plastic" paints, these are based on a fine dispersion of resin in a solvent, which on drying, creates a

 

remarkably tough, adherent, durable coating. Special additives in emulsions give them an incompara- bly smooth finish, in beautiful shades that last for years. Resistant to water and chemicals, washing makes them smile again. Other special properties keep them free from fungus and algae. They   come in three categories:

Silk Emulsions are premium acrylic emulsions, with silky smoothness and a luxurious silk-like finish. Their very high acrylic resin content enhances durability, and creates reflectance and smoothness of such a high order that dust cannot settle on it. A ‘silk’ wall looks fresh long years later. 

Regular Emulsions produce a smooth eggshell finish, in an equally wide choice of colours, and have almost the same durability as Silk. Combining Silk and Regular judiciously could give your painting project just the right balance between great looks and a long-cycle economy.

Economy Emulsions offer the basic strengths of emulsion paint at economy prices. They are still a generation ahead of Distempers on durability, washability, fade-resistance and smoothness.

Distempers The traditional economy paints, they can produce a perfectly satisfactory finish at reasonable cost, given proper application and workmanship. Their lifecycle is shorter. Dry Distempers (which come in powder form) and Oil Bound / Synthetic Distempers are not washable. Acrylic Distempers, being partly based on acrylic resins, produce greater smoothness and washability. Properly maintained, they keep their good looks for 3 to 4 years. 

PAINTS FOR WOOD & METAL

Doors and windows, metal grills and furniture have a common type of paint for coating them : enamel paint. But unlike furniture, doors and windows are embedded in walls making them susceptible to damp. Only surface preparation requirements are different. Wooden surfaces and furniture may also be protected by synthetic clear finishes.

Synthetic Enamels are alkyd resin based formulations that work equally well on wood, metal and even walls. Besides a brilliant and smooth finish, they also provide very good protection against atmospheric corrosion, including rusting.

 

Premium Enamels are extremely tough, provide long protection and mirror-like finish. They withstand extereme climatic changes and can be used both inside and outside.

General Purpose Enamels are also tough, provide a durable and pleasing, though less glossy finish. They are not recommended for exterior surfaces. Two coats of a general purpose enamel give good long term protection for hardworking surfaces where durability and economy are chiefly wanted.

Polyurethane & Melamine Finishes are the modern alternative to old-fashioned varnishes, these are synthetic, and provide an extremely tough, transparent protective coating. They allow the beauty of the wood grains to show through. But unlike varnishes, they are to easy to maintain and stand up to rigorous wear and tear, heat and liquid and stains. Available in both matt and glossy finishes, they  can be used on a wide variety of wooden surfaces including furniture old and new and cane.

SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 

Bathrooms & KitchensCondensation of moisture, fumes, grease stains, etc. cause paint breakdown, flaking and mould infection. Better ventilation may somewhat control condensation somewhat but it does not take care of the other problems. Glossy Interior Flat Paint or 1001 FLAT OIL PAINT  is recommended over emulsion based wall paint to correct staining and flaking. Their advantage is that they can be wiped down with a damp cloth to keep them clean. All wood, including parts hidden from view, must be completely protected from damp by a coat of Enamel Paint. 

Anti-termite Protection for Wooden SurfacesIt is absolutely essential to pretreat all wooden surfaces with Glossy Wood Protector Clear to guard against termites, wood borers, etc. This is a transparent coating that has to be brushed onto bare

wood. Its greatest advantage is that it allows subsequent overpainting with paints, synthetic finishes and polishes. Applied properly Wood Keeper Wood Protector Clear continues to provide long term anti-termite protection and is strongly recommended for costly wooden furniture, almirahs, cabinets, pelmets, beams, stairs, storage systems, etc.

Water Tanks Concrete and galvanised iron water tanks are susceptible to algae and fungus attack, besides corrosion. Non-toxic Bituminous paint like 1001 Black Anti Corrosive Alkali Resisting will keep the inside of your water tank free of algae, fungus and corrosion. To protect the outside, use 1001 Aluminium Paint, a specially formulated aluminium with rich, reflective silver-like lustre that also reduces internal temperatures.1001 Aluminium Paint can also be used effectively to increase the life of gas-holders in kitchens.

Asbestos Roofing & Piping Asbestos roofing sheets and pipes tend to retain moisture for a long time and are severly affected by fungus and algae. Loose asbestos dust is also a health hazard. Always wash off dirt and loose particles with water - never dust off asbestos surfaces, they are carcinogenic. Let the surface dry thoroughly before painting.

Exterior surfaces can be painted with a wide variety of paints - cement paint, enamel paint or 1001 Aluminium Paint (which is highly reflective and helps keep interiors cool). Asbestos on interior surfaces may be painted with any emulsion or enamel paint.

Plaster

Gypsum-based plaster used in sprayfireproofing in a low-rise industrial building inVancouver, British Columbia.

Plaster is a building material similar to mortar or cement. Like those materials, plaster starts as a dry powder that is mixed with water to form a paste which liberates heat and then hardens.

Unlike mortar and cement, plaster remains quite soft after setting, and can be easily manipulated with metal tools or even sandpaper. These characteristics make plaster suitable for a finishing,

rather than a load-bearing material.

The term plaster can refer to gypsum plaster (also known as plaster of Paris), lime plaster, or cement plaster.

Types

Gypsum plaster

Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is employed by mixing water with calcium sulphate hemihydrate, nominally CaSO4·1/2H2O. This is produced by heating gypsum to about 300°F (150 °C).[1]

2 CaSO4·2H2O → 2 CaSO4·0.5H2O + 3 H2O (released as steam).

A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris is the source of the name.[2] When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum.

One of the skills used in movie and theatrical sets is that of "plasterer", gypsum plaster often being used to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal. Nowadays,

plasterers are just as likely to use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged.

TypeStart of setting inSetting timeVolume change

1.A-fastsetting2 min15 min+1%

2.B-regularsetting6min30min+1%

3.C-slowsetting20min90min+2%

Lime plaster

Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers). Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the calcium hydroxide into calcium

carbonate (limestone). Whitewash is based on the same chemistry.

To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated to produce quicklime (calcium oxide). Water is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as a

white powder. Additional water is added to form a paste prior to use. The paste may be stored in air-tight containers. Once exposed to the atmosphere, the calcium hydroxide turns back

into calcium carbonate, causing the plaster to set.

Lime plaster was a common building material for wall surfaces in a process known as lath and plaster, whereby a series of wooden strips on a studwork frame was covered with a semi-dry

plaster that hardened into a surface. The plaster used in most lath and plaster construction was mainly lime plaster, with a cure time of about a month. To stabilize the lime plaster during

curing, small amounts of Plaster of Paris were incorporated into the mix. Because Plaster of Paris sets quickly, "retardants" were used to slow setting time enough to allow workers to mix

large working quantities of lime putty plaster. A modern form of this method uses expanded metal mesh over wood or metal structures, which allows a great freedom of design as it is

adaptable to both simple and compound curves. Today this building method has been partly replaced with drywall, also composed mostly of gypsum plaster. In both these methods a

primary advantage of the material is that it is resistant to a fire within a room and so can assist in reducing or eliminating structural damage or destruction provided the fire is promptly

extinguished.

Lime plaster is used for true frescoes. Pigments, diluted in water, are applied to the still wet plaster.

Cement plaster

Cement plaster is a mixture of suitable plaster, sand, portland cement and water which is normally applied to masonry interiors and exteriors to achieve a smooth surface. Interior surfaces

sometimes receive a final layer of gypsum plaster. Walls constructed with stock bricks are normally plastered while face brick walls are not plastered. Various cement-based plasters are

also used as proprietary spray fireproofing products. These usually use vermiculite as lightweight aggregate. Heavy versions of such plasters are also in use for exterior fireproofing, to

protect LPG vessels, pipe bridges and vessel skirts.

What Are the Different Types of Block Pavers?

IntroductionBack in the 1980s, when Block Paving first really took off in the UK and Ireland, choice of blocks was relatively simple, amounting to little more than opting for clay bricks or concrete blocks and then picking from a handful of colour variations. However, as the market has grown and become more sophisticated, and as manufacturing technology has developed, so the choice of bricks and blocks has, like Alice, grown and grown and grown until we are today faced with over 1200 different pavers in Britain alone.

So, how do you choose the right paver for your project? This page is intended to guide users, designers, contractors and homeowners through the bewildering array of pavers that are available to them. Certain types of blocks are made by more than one manufacturer - for example, the typical reddy-black rectangular paver that is seen almost everywhere is a British Standard Block, or derivative thereof, and is churned out by over half a dozen of the biggest paving manufacturers in the land.

Similarly, if one manufacturer has a new design that seem to be grabbing a slice of the market, it's never very long before the other manufacturers have their own version on sale, often offering a size or colour variation that was not available in the original product.

Concrete or clay?The first choice to be made is between clay bricks or concrete blocks. The pros and cons of each are listed below...

Concrete

Relatively cheap Plenty of shapes to

choose from Textured blocks

available Highly accurate sizes Wide choice of block

depths, from 40mm to 100mm or more

Colours fade over

time Aggregate can

become exposed over time

Should last at least 20

years

Clay

Prices usually slightly higher than concrete, depending on colour

Extremely hardwearing Natural colour will not fade Patterned pavers available Prone to mosses Size tolerance is quite variable due to firing process Mostly square or rectangular Damned hard to cut More limited choice of block depths Will probably outlast all of us, and our children, and

probably their children as well!

 A word or two regarding stone block pavingThe popularity of imported stone paving has been the outstanding success in the paving industry over the past decade, and what started with stone flags has been consistently developed as stone suppliers looked to expand the advantage handed to them by the shockingly low cost of stone from Asia, Africa, South America and other "Developing Nations", as they are now called. (Has the old "Third World" been abolished in a fit of political correctness?)

One product area that is strongly expected to see real growth is the provision of Natural Stone Block Paving: dimensionally accurate blocks of selected stone that are laid in exactly the same way as the more familiar concrete and/or clay pavers.

Choosing ColourThe most immediately apparent attribute of block or brick paving is colour. There's no definitive guide to choosing the most suitable colour scheme for any given project; it's a decision made after considering the effect of environment and surroundings, the interplay of light and shade, and, most importantly, personal taste. What one person may consider to be a fantastic colour scheme may induce retching and migraine headaches in another.

Consider the immediate surroundings - if you have a buff-toned Cotswold stone cottage, will a red block look right? If it's a car-park surrounded by Accrington Red Stock bricks, would Staffordshire Blue be the best choice?

The key to choosing a successful colour scheme for paving relies on finding a complementary palette, rather than an exact match or a stark contrast.

Consider again the buff-toned Cotswold Cottage – while a pillar-box red is patently not a good choice, a near-identical buff would be a poor choice as the stone and the paving would overwhelm the eye, neither achieving the interest they deserve, the two merging into one amorphous whole. However, if a lighter brown or soft orange or marigold colour scheme was to be used, it would create a differentiation between the paving and the walling, with each component being defined as separate and

Is red the best choice?

Or would Marigold be better?

distinct, but without clashing.

Choose a colour scheme that blends with its environment; buildings, walls, gardens, landscapes, townscapes, rural vistas or urban bustle, all these factors and more combine to create a sensation of appropriateness. The paving should fit in with its environment, because there's little chance of being able to force the environment suit the paving.

Look around the local area. What other colour schemes have been used on pavements? Do they look good or are they awful? Are they sympathetic to the property they serve or do they stand out like the proverbial sore thumb? And don't just look at other block or brick pavements – look at flags or slabs, look at the roads and footpaths, look at walls, windows, look at natural features such as rock outcrops, ponds and lakes, fields and moorlands. The clues are there, in front of you – it's just a matter of training your eye to spot them.

Or should it be buff?

With dark surroundings, a lighter toned pavement may be the contrast that works, but be aware that lighter colours show up stains and tyre marks much more so than darker colours. With light coloured settings, a darker colour choice for the paving may well be

ample contrast. And for those who can't decide one way or t'other, there's always grey.

Multicoloured or Monotone?Basic definitions – a monotone block is a block consisting of a single, uniform colour. It may be red; it may be charcoal; it may have some silly arty-farty name that means nothing to nobody, such as “midnight” – the key factor is that it is one, single, pure colour.

 

A multi-colour 'brindle' block

A multicolour is, obviously, a block with more than one colour. It might be a blend of two, three or more colours. There may be varying amounts of each colour within a single block or there may be roughly constant ratios of colours. One thing is fairly certain though – it will probably have some fairly meaningless name dreamt up by a bored office wallah with delusions of grandeur.

Take, for instance, the colour referred to as 'Brindle' – what colour springs to mind when you hear 'Brindle'? My big crossword-solving dictionary defines Brindle as “having spots or streaks”. One of the witches in Macbeth tells her fellow hags that “thrice the brindled cat hath mewed” (I knew all that Shakespeare would come in useful, one day!) So: how come, in most cases, a brindle paver is a reddy-greyey mish-mash? Yet some manufacturers incorporate buff or light brown into a brindle; some 'brindles' are a dirty red while others have definite red and black splotches of colour. Could a brown and blue paver be described as Brindle?

When choosing a paver for a project, the difference between monotone and multicolours is essential. A multicoloured paver blends better with its surroundings. A monotone is pure and sharp, but shows up even the slightest stain. An all-red pavement will look marvellous until it gets a single oil stain, and then, every time you look at the paving, your eye will zoom in on that one, single, solitary oil-stain, or bird-dropping, or tyre-mark. On a multicoloured pavement, that same stain would be completely lost in the multitude of hues and tones.

A multi-brown block helps hide smaller oil and gum stains on this pavement in a busy town centre

So, why use monotones at all if they are so unforgiving? Well, they give contrast, they give definition, they emphasise patterning, they fulfil a role within a larger colour scheme that may involve the adjacent buildings, or they provide blandness. Some people actually prefer an all-charcoal driveway because, they claim, it looks like tarmac – why not have bloody tarmac then???

The ever-popular Brindle & Charcoal colour-scheme - in the wet!

One of the most popular colour schemes chosen for residential block paved driveways blends the best characteristics of both monotones and multicolours. The Brindle and Charcoal Classic – a brindle body with a charcoal soldier edging course. The brindle gives depth and interest and richness while hiding the odd stain or two, and the charcoal provides a frame, a solid definition that boldly states “This is the edge” – the best of both worlds.

Choosing StyleConsider the immediate surroundings - would a modern, chamfered block paver look right with a 17th century cottage? Would a tumbled antique-style block be the best choice a petrol station forecourt? For a pavement to fit in with its environment, some consideration must be given to the styling.

Blocks and bricks can be sorted into one of four very loose style categories. They can be….

o Standard rectangularo Olde Worlde Tumbledo Decorativeo Special Applications

Styles of Pavers:Standard - Tumbled

Decorative - Special Apps

Standard BlocksStandard rectangular blocks and bricks are by far the most popular choice. They are relatively cheap, can be laid in a reasonable range of patterns and work well in most scenarios. The most common brick has a length to width ratio of 2:1, but there are a few variations. A 3:1 ratio can add interest, while a 3:2 plan takes away some of the 'brickiness' of these pavings.

 Standard rectangular blocks

2:1 ratio in basketweave - 3:1 ratio basketweave - 4:1 stretcher bond - Random sized clays

Chamfered or not?

The vast majority of the standard blocks have chamfered edges. This detail isn't created solely to emphasise the jointing or individuality of the bricks – there's a sound engineering principle involved.

A solid 90° vertex is actually a weak point within the block as a whole. If two adjacent blocks are compressed together with the load centred on the interface between the two, then the force is borne by that upper vertex. This pressure exerted within the blocks is no longer a wholly compressive force; part of the force becomes tensile, and it is well known that bricks and blocks, fired clay, stone and concrete are superb materials in compression, but are much weaker in tension.

The result is that the upper vertex of the blocks is cracked, or, as we call it in the trade “spalled”, and the appearance of the block is ruined.

The additions of a small chamfer, however, eliminates this problem more or less completely, which is why chamfered edges are a common detail on blocks and brick pavers, on small element paving and on certain other stone/concrete/fired-clay construction materials.

However, all this clever engineering theory doesn't mean very much to the average pedestrian or motorist, unless they are battling against the crud and detritus that accumulates in the chamfered joints, or they are trying to push a fully-laden shopping trolley across a block pavement. Some of the manufacturers have identified this problem and manufacture blocks with minimal chamfers or no chamfer at all.

The use of these blocks is usually restricted to those areas that are unlikely to experience heavy loads or vehicular traffic and therefore avoid the conditions that lead to spalling of the block surface.

 

Olde Worlde TumbledStandard block and brick pavers are not suitable for all paving projects. The public perception of standard pavers is that they are 'modern', and, as such, aren't really the sort of paving that would be used on older or 'character' properties, or for paving schemes in historic towns. The designers appreciate the manifold benefits of flexible block paving, but the blocks themselves just don't suit the environment.

And so, the olde worlde looking "Tumbled Block' was developed. Most of these started off as attempts to recreate the traditional setts of yesteryear, and while some may have passed as such to a blind man on a galloping horse, many of the earliest attempts were, to be brutally frank, bloody awful.

Eventually, the manufacturers realised that rather than trying to create convincing replicas of the traditional setts, they could capture the spirit of those setts with a simple product that shared their most essential characteristics – soft, organic, muted colours, and a variety of plan sizes. And to further enhance the non-uniform appearance of these new products, they could be deliberately maltreated – have the corners bashed off, and the odd bit of spalling here and there, just as hand-tooled setts would have.

"Drivesett" by Marshalls

So, the blocks are created in the same way as standard blocks, in moulds, from a specifically designed concrete containing earthy-toned dyes. After pressing, they're allowed to cure, and once of sufficient strength, they are 'tumbled'. This usually involves putting the cured blocks into the equivalent of a huge concrete mixer and churning them round and round so that they bash against the sides, and each other, taking off all the neat, manufactured edges and corners to finally emerge battered, bruised and looking slightly worse for wear.

However, once they've been laid, and the dust and detritus from the tumbling process has been washed away by the rain, the finished effect is stunning. They actually look 'old', as though they have been there for years. They're not cheesy attempts to mimic natural stone setts, but they have a character of their own that is reminiscent of those rapidly-disappearing sett-paved streets.

 "Priory" by RMC/Cemex

 "Woburn" by Charcon

"Tegula" by Marshalls

Naturally, the extra processing and extended production time bumps up the price of these products compared to the standard pavers, but it's a premium many end users are willing to pay if it gives them all the benefits of a modern, modular, low-maintenance and easily installed paving plus the look and period charm of a bygone age that never really existed.

"Chelsea Setts" by RMC/Cemex

 Decorative PaversThis is a bit of a catch-all category for those pavers that do not fall into one of the above categories. It includes the intricate and non-standard shapes, those blocks that mimic stone setts, and the patterned and textured pavers, which are discussed below.

 Special ApplicationsThis category includes blocks that are normally used for non-residential paving projects.

o - Colour-top blocks used to create yellow lines or reflective traffic markings

o - Heavy-duty exceptional load bearing systemso - Sealed systems for industrial/chemical applicationso - Permeable paving systemso - Machine-laid paving systems

 Yellow reflector blocks to form parking lines

 Heavy duty 'Port Paving'

 Sealed Forecourt Paving

 Machine-laid blocks

Choosing ShapeFor some, the idea of a rectangular block isn't exactly inspiring. After all, rectangles have been around since Roman times, or even longer – surely human ingenuity has come up with something more up-to-date. They want something different, something a bit out of the ordinary, something you don't see on every street.

For historical reasons relating to the manufacturers of block pavers in Britain and Ireland, our nations predominantly use rectangular blocks, but in continental Europe and other more enlightened parts of the world, they use shaped or dentate (meaning "toothed" blocks that, because of their shape, have a higher degree of rotational interlock and are better able to withstand heavy traffic that standard rectangular blocks.

There are hundreds of different shaped blocks, but the most common are the W-blocks and the S-blocks.

W blockS block

These shaped blocks are used, almost exclusively, on commercial projects and rarely make it as far as patio and driveway work.

Many geometric shapes lend themselves to modular paving, but rectangles are the simplest to manufacture, to package, to palletise and ship to sites and Builders' Merchants throughout the land, and so the British and Irish paving markets have been dominated by rectangles literally since the year dot. While shaped blocks are available at this extreme edge of Europe, they are very much the exception rather than the rule.

But, as the market for block paving becomes more and more sophisticated, so the demand for new, exciting, innovative products has grown, and the leading manufacturers spend a lot of time, effort and money trying to come up with the fabled 'Next Big Thing'.

We've had hexagons for many years, and there are pentagons, octagons, parallelograms, fans, keyhole-shapes, X-shapes, W-shapes, shapes based on completely baffling mathematical oddities and quite a few shapes that defy definition. As mould technology and production techniques continue to evolve, you can be sure that ever stranger and more wonderful shapes will make their debut on the block paved stage.

However, as the market for block paving has matured, it has become evident that shaped blocks are not overly popular with the residential sector. This lack of popularity, to be frank, hasn't been helped by silly pricing by manufacturers looking for a bigger-than-normal return on what they see as a 'premium product' and then compounded by greedy contractors wanting to charge more per square metre for laying the blocks, even though they are no more difficult or time-consuming to lay than their rectangular counterparts. Consequently, many of the products illustrated below have now been withdrawn.

 Tallis by TopPave

 Tallis with squares

 Penta by TopPave

 Agora by RMC

 Fanfare by RMC

 Ionica by RMC

 Spania by Marshalls

 Figuera by Marshalls (discontinued)

 Veta by Marshalls (discontinued)

 Choose Texture or PatternThe manufacturers allow us to choose from a kaleidoscope of colour, we can choose blocks that would seem to come from a future or a previous age, and we can choose almost any shapeimaginable, so what else can be tweaked in the eternal search for something different? Texture and pattern!

The technology exists to imprint patterns into the surface of pavers, or to treat the surface to create an original or interesting alternative texture to the usual pressed-mould concrete or dragwire clay.

 Shot textured pavers

 Clay stable paversExposed aggregate paver

Care is needed in choosing a textured or patterned paver. Unless the planned pavement is going to be rigorously maintained or will be self-cleansing, much of the intricate detail can rapidly disappear beneath a crust of moss and/or detritus. What looks like a wonderful idea on the designer's drawing board can have a relatively short useful lifespan out there in the real world. Recessed patterning fills up with dust and detritus, coarse textures are more attractive to vegetation than the standard, smoother pavers, and exposed

aggregates are not always appreciated for what they are.Clay Star Pavers

There's no doubt that these decorative pavers have their uses, but their market is limited and in many cases, more attractive paving schemes can be designed using simpler, cheaper pavers.

Types of Window Glazing or Glass

When selecting windows for your home, it's important to consider what type of glazing or glass you

should use to improve your home's energy efficiency. Based on variouswindow design factors—such as

window orientation, your climate, your building design, etc.—you may even want different types of

glazing for different windows throughout your home.

There are many types of glazing available for windows, especially since many glazing technologies can

be combined. These window glazing technologies include the following:

Gas fills Window Gas Fills

To improve the thermal performance of windows with insulated glazing, some manufacturers fill the

space between the glass panes with gas.

For these gas fills, window manufacturers use inert gases—ones that do not react readily with other

substances. Because these gases have a higher resistance to heat flow than air, they (rather than air)

are sealed between the window panes to decrease a window's U-factor.

The most common types of gas used by window manufacturers include argon and krypton. Argon is

inexpensive, nontoxic, nonreactive, clear, and odorless. Krypton is more expensive but has a better

thermal performance.

Heat-absorbing tints Heat-Absorbing, Tinted Window Glazing or Glass

Heat-absorbing window glazing contains special tints that change the color of the glass. Tinted glass

absorbs a large fraction of the incoming solar radiation through a window. This reduces the solar heat

gain coefficient, visible transmittance, and glare.

Some heat, however, continues to pass through tinted windows by conduction and re-radiation.

Therefore, the tint doesn't lower a window's U-factor. However, inner layers of clear glass or spectrally

selective coatings can be applied on insulated glazing to help reduce these types of heat transfer.

Gray- and bronze-tinted windows—the most common—reduce the penetration of both light and heat

into buildings in equal amounts (i.e., not spectrally selective). Blue- and green-tinted windows offer

greater penetration of visible light and slightly reduced heat transfer compared with other colors of

tinted glass. In hot climates, black-tinted glass should be avoided because it absorbs more light than

heat.

Tinted, heat-absorbing glass reflects only a small percentage of light, so it does not have the mirror-like

appearance of reflective glass.

Note: when windows transmit less than 70% of visible light, indoor plants can die or grow more slowly.

Insulated (double-glazed, triple-glazed)

Insulated Window Glazing or Glass

Insulated window glazing refers to windows with two or more panes of glass. They are also called

double-glazed, triple-glazed, and—sometimes more generally—storm windows.

To insulate the window, the glass panes are spaced apart and hermetically sealed to form a single-

glazed unit with an air space between each pane of glass. The glass layers and the air spaces resist

heat flow. As a result, insulated window glazing primarily lowers the U-factor, but it also lowers the

solar heat gain coefficient. (Seeenergy performance ratings for windows, doors, and skylights for more

information on these terms.)

Some window manufacturers use spacers—which separate two panes of glass—that conduct heat less

readily than others. These spacers can further lower a window's U-factor.

Other technologies window manufacturers use to improve the energy performance of insulated glazing

include these:

Low-emissivity coatings.

Low-Emissivity Window Glazing or Glass

Low-emissivity (Low-E) coatings on glazing or glass control heat transfer throughwindows with insulated

glazing. Windows manufactured with Low-E coatings typically cost about 10%–15% more than regular

windows, but they reduce energy loss by as much as 30%–50%.

A Low-E coating is a microscopically thin, virtually invisible, metal or metallic oxide layer deposited

directly on the surface of one or more of the panes of glass. The Low-E coating reduces the infrared

radiation from a warm pane of glass to a cooler pane, thereby lowering the U-factor of the window.

Different types of Low-E coatings have been designed to allow for high solar gain, moderate solar gain,

or low solar gain. A Low-E coating can also reduce a window's visible transmittance unless you use one

that's spectrally selective.

To keep the sun's heat out of the house (for hot climates, east and west-facing windows, and unshaded

south-facing windows), the Low-E coating should be applied to the outside pane of glass. If the windows

are designed to provide heat energy in the winter and keep heat inside the house (typical of cold

climates), the Low-E coating should be applied to the inside pane of glass.

Window manufacturers apply Low-E coatings in either soft or hard coats. Soft Low-E coatings degrade

when exposed to air and moisture, are easily damaged, and have a limited shelf life. Therefore,

manufacturers carefully apply them in insulated multiple-pane windows. Hard Low-E coatings, on the

other hand, are more durable and can be used in add-on (retrofit) applications. The energy

performance of hard-coat, Low-E films is slightly poorer than that of soft-coat films.

Although Low-E coatings are usually applied during manufacturing, some are available for do-it-

yourselfers. These films are inexpensive compared to total window replacements, last 10–15 years

without peeling, save energy, reduce fabric fading, and increase comfort.

Reflective coatings

Reflective Window Glazing or Glass

Reflective coatings on window glazing or glass reduce the transmission of solar radiation, blocking

more light than heat. Therefore, they greatly reduce a window's visible transmittance (VT) and glare,

but they also reduce a window's solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC). (See energy performance ratings

for windows, doors, and skylightsfor more information on these terms.)

Reflective coatings usually consist of thin, metallic layers. They come in a variety of metallic colors,

including silver, gold, and bronze.

Reflective window glazing is commonly used in hot climates where solar heat gain control is critical.

However, the reduced cooling energy demands they achieve can be offset by the resulting need for

additional electrical lighting, so reflective glass is mostly used just for special applications.

Spectrally selective coatings .

Spectrally Selective Window Glazing or Glass

A special type of low-emissivity coating is spectrally selective. Spectrally selective coatings filter out

40%–70% of the heat normally transmitted through insulated window glass or glazing, while allowing

the full amount of light to be transmitted.

Spectrally selective coatings are optically designed to reflect particular wavelengths but remain

transparent to others. Such coatings are commonly used to reflect the infrared (heat) portion of the

solar spectrum while admitting a higher portion of visible light. They help create a window with a low U-

factor and solar heat gain coefficient but a high visible transmittance. (See energy performance ratings

for windows, doors, and skylights for more information on these terms.)

Spectrally selective coatings can be applied on various types of tinted glass to produce "customized"

glazing systems capable of either increasing or decreasing solar gains according to the aesthetic and

climatic effects desired.

Computer simulations have shown that advanced window glazing with spectrally selective coatings can

reduce the electric space cooling requirements of new homes in hot climates by more than 40%.