Different or alike? Female rainbow kribs choose males of...
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Different or alike? Female rainbow kribs choose males of similar consistency and dissimilar level of boldness
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Scherer, Ulrike, Kuhnhardt, Mira and Schuett, Wiebke (2017) Different or alike? Female rainbow kribs choose males of similar consistency and dissimilar level of boldness. Animal Behaviour, 128. pp. 117-124. ISSN 0003-3472
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Differentoralike?Femalerainbowkribschoosemalesofsimilarconsistency1
anddis‐similarlevelofboldness23
U.Scherer1,M.Kuhnhardt1andW.Schuett14561ZoologicalInstitute,BiocentreGrindel,UniversityofHamburg,Martin‐Luther‐KingPlatz3,720146Hamburg,Germany8910Correspondence:11UlrikeScherer,ZoologicalInstitute,BiocentreGrindel,UniversityofHamburg,Martin‐12Luther‐KingPlatz3,20146Hamburg,Germany.13E‐Mail:[email protected]:+494042838–789415 16
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17Althoughtheexistenceofconsistentbetween‐individualdifferencesinbehaviour18("personalitydifferences")hasbeenwelldocumentedduringthelastdecade,theadaptive19valueofsuchbehaviourallimitationsstillremainsanopenfieldforresearchersofanimal20behaviour.Personalitiesclearlyrestrictindividualsintheirabilitytoadjusttheirbehaviour21todifferentconditions.However,sheercostsofflexibilitycannotexplainthepolymorphism22createdbypersonalityvariation.Inacorrelativeapproach,weheretestedwhethermate23choicemightactasamajordrivingforcemaintainingpersonalityvariationinthe24monogamous,biparentalrainbowkrib,Pelvicachromispulcher.Wepersonality‐typedall25malesandfemalesfortheirboldness(activityundersimulatedpredationrisk)andallowed26femalestochoosebetweentwomalesthatdifferedintheirboldness(behaviouralleveland27consistency).Priortothechoice,femaleswereallowedtoobservebothmales,expressing28theirnaturalboldnesstowardsavideoanimatednaturalpredator.Bothsexesshowed29personalitydifferencesinboldnessovertheshort‐andlong‐term.Furthermore,when30removingside‐biasedfemales,wefoundadis‐assortativematingpreferenceforthe31behaviourallevelandanassortativepreferenceforbehaviouralconsistencyinboldness.32Suchpreferencepatternsmightfacilitateeffectiveparentalroleallocationduringoffspring33careand/orprovidegeneticbenefits.Ourresultssuggestthatsexualselectionplaysan34importantroleintheevolutionofpersonalitydifferences.3536Keywords:anti‐predatorbehaviour,assortative,behaviouralcompatibility,cichlid,mate37choice,Pelvicachromispulcher,personality,risk‐taking,sexualselection,sidebias38 39
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Individualshavetocopewithawidearrayofenvironmentalchallenges.Therefore,40flexibilityintheexpressionofbehaviouralresponsestowardsdifferentandchanging41conditionsshouldbefavouredbyselection(Sihetal.,2004).Yet,individualsoftenshow42considerableconsistentbetween‐individualdifferencesinbehaviourovertimeand/or43contexts(Boissy,1995).Suchpersonalitydifferencesarecommonthroughouttheanimal44kingdom(reviewedinGosling,2001;Kralj‐Fišeretal.,2014)andhavebeenshownfor45variousbehaviouraltraits,suchasactivitypattern,aggressiveness,exploratorytendencies,46boldnessandfearfulness(reviewedinDalletal.,2004;Gosling,2001;Sihetal.,2004).47Personalitytraitsaremoderatelyheritable(Ariyomo,Carter,etal.,2013;Patricketal.,482013;Reifetal.,2003;vanOersetal.,2005)andhavefitnessconsequences(e.g.Ariyomoet49al.,2012;Dingemanseetal.,2005;Smithetal.,2008),suggestingtheyarenotmerelynon‐50adaptivenoisethatsurroundsanadaptiveoptimum(Wilson,1998).Nevertheless,51underlyingmechanismsthatgenerateandmaintainbehaviouralpolymorphismarelargely52unclearandmanyaspectsofthegrowingbodyoftheoreticalframeworksstillremaintobe53empiricallytested(reviewedine.g.Schuettetal.,2010;Wolfetal.,2010).5455Recently,Schuettetal.(2010)pointedoutthatsexualselectionmaybeimportantin56generatingandmaintainingpersonalityvariationthoughthispossibilityhasrarelybeen57tested(butseee.g.Montiglioetal.,2016;Schuettetal.,2011).Accordingtotheproposed58framework(Schuettetal.,2010),personalitiesareexpectedtoplayanimportantrolein59matechoicewhenapotentialmate'sbehaviouralphenotypeiseitherassociatedwith60good/compatiblegenesthatincreaseoffspringfitness(Dingemanseetal.,2004;Ihleetal.,612015;Maysetal.,2004)orprovidesnon‐geneticbenefitsincreasingthereproductive62
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successthroughparentalabilityand/orbehaviouralcompatibilitybetweenmates.While63matechoiceforgeneticqualityandparentalabilityshouldfavourinter‐individual64agreementinthepreferenceforabehaviouraltrait,matechoiceforgeneticorbehavioural65compatibilityshoulddependonaninteractionbetweenmaleandfemale(geno‐or)66phenotype(Schuettetal.,2010).Thus,matechoiceforcompatibilitywouldleadtointer‐67individualdifferencesinmatingpreferences,creatingeitheranassortativeordis‐68assortativematingpattern(Schuettetal.,2010).6970Notmanystudiestodatehaveinvestigatedtheeffectofpersonalitytraitsonmatechoice71(reviewedinSchuettetal.,2010)andsomehaveonlyassessedthebehaviourofthechosen72butnotthechoosingsex(Godinetal.,1996;Ophiretal.,2003).Thefewstudiesconsidering73apotentialinterplaybetweenmaleandfemalepersonalityduringmatechoicehaveoften74foundassortativematechoiceforvariousbehaviouraltraits,incorrelative(Gonzagaetal.,752010;Kralj‐Fišeretal.,2013;Mascie‐Tayloretal.,1988;Montiglioetal.,2016)or76experimentalsettings(Schuettetal.,2011)andanincreasedreproductivesuccessof77assortativepairs(e.g.Ariyomo&Watt,2013;Schuettetal.,2011).However,instudiesthat78foundincreasedsuccessofassortativepairs,personalitydataareoftenobtainedpost79pairing(Bothetal.,2005;Harrisetal.,2014;Laubuetal.,2016)notallowingtoteaseapart80whethermatechoicewasaffectedbyindividualpersonalitiesorwhetherbehavioural81similaritywasachievedpost‐pairinginhighlysuccessfulpairs(Laubuetal.,2016).Indirect82evidencethatdis‐assortmentforpersonalitycansometimesbebeneficialisprovidedby83vanOersetal.(2008),whofoundassortativepairsofgreattits,Parusmajor,toshowhigher84ratesofextra‐pairpaternity.Generally,positiveassortmentforgenotypicorphenotypic85
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traitsisbyfarmoreprominentintheanimalkingdomthanevidencefordis‐assortment86(reviewedinJiangetal.,2013).8788Personalitytraitsconsistoftwomeasures:thebehaviourallevelandthedegreeof89behaviouralconsistency.Althoughthereisconsiderablevariationinwithin‐individual90behaviouralconsistency(Dingemanseetal.,2009)theeffectofsuchindividualdifferences91inconsistencyonmatechoicehasrarelybeenconsidered(butseeSchuettetal.,2011).92Behaviouralconsistencymightbesexuallyselectedforifitreflectsindividualquality(i.e.93consistencyiscostlyunderchangingconditions)orifchoosingapredictable(i.e.consistent)94mateprovidesreliableinformationaboutfutureparentalcarebehaviourpriortomating95(Dalletal.,2004;Royleetal.,2010;Schuettetal.,2010).Forexample,afemalemightbe96abletopredictamale'sabilitytoprotectprospectiveoffspringfromtheconsistencyin97boldnessexpressedpriortomatechoice.9899Inthepresentstudy,weinvestigatedtheinfluenceofmaleandfemaleboldness(propensity100toengageinriskybehaviour;Wilsonetal.,1994)onfemalematepreferenceinasocially101monogamous,biparentalcichlidfromWestAfrica,therainbowkrib,Pelvicachromispulcher.102Inthisspecies,pairsarehighlyterritorial:theydefendterritoriesandoffspringaggressively103againstcon‐andheterospecifics.Therefore,weassumedindividualboldnesstobeatrait104thatislikelyconsideredduringmatechoice.Furthermore,boldnesshasbeenshownto105affectforagingsuccess(Dyeretal.,2008),eggfertilizationrates(Ariyomoetal.,2012),106dominance(Dahlbometal.,2011),survivorship(Smithetal.,2010),andparentalcareeffort107(Budaevetal.,1999)inotherfishspecies.Wemeasuredmaleandfemaleboldness(activity108
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undersimulatedpredationrisk)repeatedlytotestforpersonalitydifferences.Duringmate109choiceexperiments,femaleswerefirstallowedtoobserveabolderandashyermale110expressingtheirnaturalboldnesstowardsapredatoranimation.Subsequentfemalemating111preferenceforthetwomaleswasassessedinastandardmatechoicescenario.We112consideredbothaspectsofmaleandfemalepersonality:thebehaviouralleveland113behaviouralconsistencyofeachindividual. 114115Weexpectedfemalepreferencestodependonboth,thebehaviourallevelandbehavioural116consistency,withourpredictionsbeingguidedbySchuettetal.(2010).Forthebehavioural117level,weexpected,thatifmatechoiceisbasedonmale(parentalorgenetic)quality,118femalesshouldshowageneralpreferenceforeitherboldorshymales(e.g.Godinetal.,1191996;Kortetetal.,2012).Alternatively,ifmatecompatibilityismoreimportantduring120matechoice,femalesshouldnotshowanoverallagreementbutalsoconsidertheirown121personalityduringtheirchoice.Becausebothrainbowkribparentsprovideoffspringcare122weconsideredthesecondpossibility,i.e.matecompatibility,tobemoreimportantformate123choicebasedonboldness.Inspecieswithbiparentalcare,anassortativematingpreference124forcertainbehaviouraltraitscouldreducesexualconflictoverparentalinvestment(Royle125etal.,2010)andfacilitateoffspringcarecoordinationthroughabettersynchronisationof126parentalactivities(Schuettetal.,2011).Dependingontheenvironmentalconditionsorthe127biologyofthespecies,alsodis‐assortativematingmightsometimeshaveadvantages128(Schuettetal.,2010).Forinstance,speciesthatperformseveralparentalactivitiesmight129alsobenefitfromexpressingadis‐assortativematingpreference,facilitatingroleallocation130andspecialisationduringoffspringcare.Often,asexualdimorphisminrolespecialisation131
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canbeobservedwiththefemaleprovidingmoredirectoffspringcareandthemale132defendingtheterritory(e.g.Guerraetal.,1995;Itzkowitz,1984;Neil,1984;Richteretal.,1332010;Solomon,1993).Nevertheless,inmanyspeciesbothpartnerscanordoperformthe134samebehaviours(seeRoyleetal.,2014forareviewontheflexibilityofparentalcare135behaviour),andatleastpartlycompensatefortheirmates’tasksifneeded(Itzkowitz,1984;136Laveryetal.,2010;Sasvari,1986;Storeyetal.,1994)indicatingthatsexrolesmightbeless137fixed.Forthebehaviouralconsistency,wefolloweduptwopossiblematechoicescenarios:138ageneralpreferenceforconsistentoverinconsistentmales,whichmightindicate139predictabilityoflaterparentalperformance,and/orindividualquality(Royleetal.,2010;140Schuettetal.,2010)ormatechoiceforcompatibilityleadingtoapositiveassortative141preference(Schuettetal.,2011;Schuettetal.,2010).142143144METHODS145146EthicalNote147Inconsiderationofanimalwelfare,wefollowedthe"3R"framework(Russelletal.,1959).148Todecreasethenumberofstudyanimalsneededweusedpredatoranimationsinsteadof149livepredatorsandtestmalesformatechoicetrialswereusedtwice.Duringexperiments,150noanimalswereharmedorexposedtoactualpredationrisk.Preyfishandpredatorswere151keptseparatelyanddidnothavevisualcontactduringfishmaintenance.Thestudywas152permittedbytheGerman"BehördefürGesundheitundVerbraucherschutzHamburg".153154
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StudyAnimalsandHoldingConditions155StudyindividualswereobtainedfromacaptivebreedingstockattheUniversityof156Hamburgandlocalsuppliers.Malesandfemalesusedinthisstudywere1‐2yearsoldand157sexuallyinexperienced.Individualsweremaintainedinsame‐sexsiblinggroupsunder158standardisedholdingconditions(100x50x25cmand200x50x25cmtanks,26±1°C159watertemperature,aeratedandfilteredwater,weeklywaterchanges,12:12hours160light:dark)andwerefedonceadayon5daysaweekwithArtemiaspec.On161experimentationdays,fishwerefedafterobservations.Onedaybeforethefirstpersonality162test,individualsweremeasuredfortheirstandardlength(males:3.8‐6.2cm,females:3.5‐1635.1cm)usingImageJ(Schneideretal.,2012)andtransferredintoindividualtanks(25cmx16425cmx50cm)forthedurationofexperimentaltrials(5daysperindividual).Tankswere165endowedwithsand,halfaclaypotasshelterandaninternalfilter.Foridentification,all166individualsweremarkedwithVIEs(visibleimplantelastomers;VIE‐NorthwestMarine167Technology,ShawIsland,Washington,USA).Suchartificialcolourmarkshavenoinfluence168onmatechoiceinourpopulation(Schuettetal.,2017).169170ExperimentalOutline171Duringpersonalitytestingandmatechoicetrialsboldnesswasmeasuredasactivityunder172simulatedpredationriskusingcomputeranimationsofanaturallysympatricoccurring173predator,theAfricanobscuresnakehead,Parachannaobscura.Allmales(N=48)and174females(N=45)usedduringmatechoiceexperimentsweretestedfortheirboldnessthree175times(day0,day4,day33)inordertoassessthebehaviourallevelandconsistencyforall176individuals,andshort‐andlong‐termrepeatabilityinthepopulation.Thefirstandsecond177
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testseriesofmaleboldnesstestswereintegratedintomatechoicetrials(N=45),allowing178femalestoobservetwomalesexpressingtheirnaturalboldness.Aftertheobservation,179femaleswereallowedtochoosebetweenthetwomalestheyhadjustobservedina180standardmatechoicetest(seeMateChoiceTrials).Fortheremainingboldnesstrials(third181seriesofmaleboldnesstestsandallfemaleboldnesstests)thetestprocedurewasidentical182tothoseintegratedintomatechoicetrialstoensureequaltestconditionsthroughout.183184BoldnessTest185Boldnesstestswereconductedinatesttank(waterlevel10cm,watertemperature26±1861°C;Figure1),whichwasdividedintothreecompartments:twoparalleltestcompartments187inwhichtwoindividualscouldbetestedfortheirboldnessatthesametimeandanadjacent188observercompartment.Aone‐waymirrorbetweentheobserverandthetestcompartments189allowedtheobservertoseethetestindividualsbutinhibitedtestindividualstoseethe190observer.Ontheothershortside,testcompartmentsfacedacomputermonitor(Dell,191UltraSharpU2412M61cm,24”)forthepresentationofpredatoranimations.Removable192opaquedividersbetweenthetestandtheobservercompartmentsaswellasbetweenthe193testcompartmentsandthemonitorallowedvisualseparationduringacclimationbefore194trials.195196Priortoaboldnesstest,weintroducedtwosame‐sexindividuals(fordetailsseealsoMate197ChoiceTrials)intoaclearcylinder(diameter=11cm)each,onepertestcompartment(test198compartmentswerepermanentlyvisuallyseparatedfromeachother).Anobserverofthe199oppositesexwasintroducedintotheobservercompartmentbeingallowedtofreelyswim200
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around.Anobserverwasalwaysintroduced(eveninmaleandfemalepersonalityteststhat201werenotintegratedintomatechoicetrials)becauseitmaybepossiblethatchemicalcues202weretransmittedfromtheobservertothetestcompartmentsdespitephysicalseparation.203Aftera15minacclimation,theopaquedividerswereremovedallowingfreeviewofthe204animation(testindividualsandobserver)andtestindividuals(observer).Afteranother1205minthecylinderswereremovedandthetestperiodof11minstarted.Trialswerevideo‐206recordedfromabovewithnohumanbeingpresentduringtrialsandthetesttankwas207surroundedwithwhitePlexiglastoavoiddisturbances.Individualswerealwaysboldness‐208typedatthesametimeofday±30mintoaccountforpotentialeffectsoftimeofdayand209hungerlevelonindividualactivitypattern(Ariyomoetal.,2015;MacPhailetal.,2009).In210eachboldnesstest,individualswereexposedtoarandomlychosenanimationshowinga211predatorspecimentheyhadnotseenbefore.212213Predatoranimations(N=4,eachusinganotherspecimen)werepreparedusing214PowerPoint©followingFischeretal.(2014).Animationsdisplayedastillphotographofthe215predatorswimmingbackandforthinfrontofawhitebackground.Wehavevalidatedthis216method:P.pulcherdecreasedtheiractivityinresponsetopredatoranimationscomparedto217acontrolwhilenodifferenceinresponsetowardsalivepredatorandtheanimationwas218found(Schereretal.,2017).219220Boldnesswasmeasuredasindividualactivity(totaldistancemoved;cm)fromthevideo221recordingsusingthetrackingsoftwareEthovisionXT11(Noldus,Wageningen,The222Netherlands).Theactivitywasassessedforatestperiodof10min,beginning1minafter223
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thestartofthevideo.Forallindividualsthebehaviourallevelwasdefinedasthemean224activityofthefirstandsecondtestseries.Behaviouralconsistencywascalculatedfollowing225Ioannouetal.(2016)astheabsolutevalueofthedifferenceinactivitybetweenthefirstand226secondboldnesstest.WefurtherdividedthemeasureofIoannouetal.(2016)bythetotal227variationinthepopulation(rangeofactivitywithinfirstandsecondboldnesstest).As228suggestedbyDingemanseetal.(2009),suchanindexwouldprovideameasurethatis229standardisedinrelationtothepopulation.Wecalculatedbehaviouralconsistencyformales230andfemalesseparately.Valuesforconsistencycanrangefrom0(highconsistency)to1231(lowconsistency).232233MateChoiceTrials234Matechoicetrialsconsistedoftwoparts:theabovedescribedobservationanda235subsequentchoice.Duringobservation,thefemalecouldobservetwomalesshowingtheir236naturalboldness(seeBoldnessTest).Subsequentmatechoicewasconductedimmediately237aftertheobservationinastandarddichotomouschoicetest,suitabletopredictmate238preferencefromtheamountoftimespentwithamaleincichlids(Dechaume‐Moncharmont239etal.,2011;Thünkenetal.,2007).Thechoicechamber(35x100x25cm,waterlevel=10240cm)wasseparatedintothreecompartmentswiththefemalecompartmentbeinginthe241middle(60x35x25cm)andamalecompartmentateachside(20x35x25cm).242243Tobeginthechoicetest,wetransferredthefemaleandthetwomalesshehadjustobserved244fromtheboldnesstesttanktothechoicechamber.Maleswererandomlyassignedtothe245twomalecompartments.Allindividualswereallowedtoacclimatefor10minwhilebeing246
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visuallyseparatedfromeachother.Then,opaquedividerswereremovedandthefirsttest247periodof12minbegan.Thereafter,theprocedurewasrepeatedwiththemalesswitching248sidestotakeaccountforapotentialsidebias(again10minacclimationfollowing12min249testperiod).Toavoiddisturbancesthechoicechamberwassurroundedwithwhite250Plexiglasandnohumanwaspresentduringtrials.Trialswerevideo‐recordedfromabove.251252Eachfemalewasusedonceduringmatechoicetrials.Thetwomalesusedinamatechoice253trialwerematchedforsize(standardlengthdifference≤5%,i.e.≤3mm)andfamilybut254otherwiserandomlychosen.Thefemaleobserveroriginatedfromadifferentfamilythan255themales.256257Theassociationtimeforthetwomaleswasdeterminedfrombothtestperiods(i.e.20min)258usingEthovisionXT11.Testperiodswereanalysedfor10min,starting2minafterthestart259ofthevideo.Theassociationtimewasdefinedasthetimethefemalespentwithin5cm260distancetoeachmalecompartment(whichcorrespondstoca.onefishlength;hereafter261“preferencezone”).Femalestrengthofpreferencewasthenquantifiedastherelative262amountoftimeshespentinthepreferencezoneoftheboldmale(associationtimeforthe263boldmalewasdividedbytheassociationtimeforbothmales;e.g.Dugatkin,1996;264Makowiczetal.,2010).Foreachmatechoicetest,theboldmalewasdefinedasthemale265beingmoreactiveduringtheboldnesstestandtheshymalewasdefinedasbeingtheless266activemale(mean±SEforabsolutesimilaritybetweenshyandboldmales:behavioural267level=975.95±147.81;behaviouralconsistency=0.11±0.02;pleaseseeStatistical268Analysesforcalculationofsimilarityindices).Also,wecalculatedthesidebiasforall269
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femalesandconsideredafemalebeingside‐biasedwhenshespentmorethan80%ofthe270totaltimespentinpreferencezones(bothtestperiods)injustonezone,regardlesswhich271malewasthere(Poschadeletal.,2009;Schlüteretal.,1998).272273StatisticalAnalyses274AlldataanalyseswereconductedinR3.2.3(RCoreTeam,2015).Totestforpersonality275differencesrepeatabilityofourmeasureforboldness(activityundersimulatedpredation276risk)wasassessedwithlinearmixedeffectmodels(LMMs)usingtherptR‐package277(Schielzethetal.,2013).Weassessedshort‐termrepeatability(boldnesstest:day0,day4)278aswellaslong‐termrepeatability(boldnesstest:day4,day33)forsexesseparatelywith2791000bootstrappingrunsand1000permutations.Significancewasinferredwhenthe95%280CIdidnotincludezero.Activitywassquareroot‐transformedfornormalityandmodels281werefitforGaussianerrorstructure.282283Totestforageneralpreferenceforboldorshymales,weranaLMMwithfemalestrengthof284preferenceforboldmalesastheresponseandmaleIDasrandomeffect.Wedidnotinclude285anyfixedeffects.Tocheckforadeviationfromrandomchoice(i.e.strengthofpreference=28650%)weobtainedthe95%CIoftheestimatedmean.Apreferenceforeitherboldorshy287maleswouldbeindicatediftheCIdoesnotinclude0.50.Similarly,wetestedforageneral288preferenceforbehaviouralconsistencybyrunninganullmodelwithfemalestrengthof289preferenceforthemaleshowingthehigherconsistencyduringtheobservationasthe290responseandmaleIDasrandomeffect.Apreferenceforeitherconsistencyorinconsistency291wouldberevealedifthe95%CIofthemeandoesnotinclude0.50.292
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293Totestfor(dis)‐assortativefemalematechoicewefittedaLMMwithfemalestrengthof294preferenceforboldmalesastheresponsevariableandmaleIDasrandomterm.Asfixed295effectsweincludedrelativesimilarityforthebehaviourallevelandrelativesimilarityfor296thebehaviouralconsistencybetweenthefemaleandthemalesshesawduringthe297observationphaseandmatechoicetest.Tocalculaterelativesimilarity(forleveland298consistency,respectively),wefirstcomputeddifference‐scorebasedsimilaritybetweenthe299femaleandeachofthetwomales(boldandshy)astheabsolutevalueofthedifferencein300therespectivebehaviour(e.g.Gaunt,2006;Luoetal.,2005;Montiglioetal.,2016)between301thefemaleandtheboldmale,andthefemaleandtheshymale.Thus,similarity(inleveland302consistency,respectively)ishighestatzeroanddis‐similarityincreaseswithincreasing303values.RelativesimilaritywasthencalculatedfollowingGasparinietal.(2015):the304similaritybetweenthefemaleandtheboldmalewassubtractedfromthesimilarity305betweenthefemaleandtheshymale.Positivevaluesforrelativesimilarity(inleveland306consistency,respectively)indicatehighersimilaritybetweenthefemaleandtheboldmale307whilenegativevaluesindicatetheshymaleismoresimilartothefemalethanthebold308male.Priortotheanalysis,wez‐transformedbothrelativesimilarityforthebehavioural309levelandforthebehaviouralconsistencyforstandardisation.310311Weusedthelme4‐package(Batesetal.,2015)forLMMs.Weusedstepwisebackward312modelsimplificationtofittheminimumadequatemodel.PartialR2withCL(confidence313level)werecalculatedforexplanatoryvariablesusingtheapproachsuggestedbyNakagawa314etal.(2013),implementedinther2glmm‐package(Jaeger,2016).Fornon‐significant315
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explanatoryvariableswereportedregressionestimatesandpartialR2ofthemodelbefore316thetermwasdropped.Modelassumptionswerevisuallyensuredthroughmodeldiagnosis317plots.Forallanalyses,femalestrengthofpreferencewasarcsine‐squareroot‐transformed318fornormality.Wehadaprioridecidedtoexcludeside‐biasedfemales(N=6)from319preferenceanalyses(Dosenetal.,2004;Hoysaketal.,2007;Knieletal.,2015;Schluppetal.,3201999;Schlüteretal.,1998;Williamsetal.,2010).Bydefinition,aside‐biasedfemaleshows321contradictorypreferencesduringthetwotestperiodsofachoicetest.Theremovalofsuch322inconsistentbehaviourthatappearsrandominregardtothepresentedmalesiscrucialas323toremovefemalesthatwouldnotexpressamatingpreferenceforthepresentedmalesbut324ratherapreferencefor(oragainst)aspecificsideofthechoicechamber(e.g.becauseofa325lackofmotivation).Leavingsuchbiasedpreferencedatainthedatasetwouldartificially326increasethesamplesizeanddistorttheactualpreferencepattern.Ontheotherhand,327removingside‐biasedfemalesfromthedatasetcanlowerthebehaviouralrange328representedinthisstudy.Astherearedifferentapproachesbutnocommonagreementin329howtohandlesidebiasesinmatechoicetrials,weperformedallpreferenceanalysestwice,330oncewithandoncewithoutremovingside‐biasedfemales(N=45).Thoughwehere331considerbothapproaches,weadvocatetheremovalofclearlybiasedpreferencedatafrom332analysesandwillthereforemainlyfocusonthepresentationofpreferenceanalyses333performedwithoutobvioussidebiasesinthedata.334335RESULTS336337
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Malesandfemalesweresignificantlyrepeatableintheirboldnessovertheshort‐term338(LMMmales:R=0.507,SE=0.110,CI=[0.246,0.686],N=48;LMMfemales:R=0.604,SE339=0.097,CI=[0.380,0.763],N=45)andlong‐term(LMMmales:R=0.463,SE=0.113,CI=340[0.233,0.657],N=48;LMMfemales:R=0.557,SE=0.111,CI=[0.311,0.732],N=42).341342Wefoundnogeneralpreferenceforeitherboldorshymales(meanpreferenceforbold343males:46.5%;95%CI=[40.8,52.1%]).Also,wedidnotdetectageneralpreferencefor344maleconsistency(meanpreferenceforconsistentmales:53.5%,95%CI=[47.8,58.9%]).345346Femalestrengthofpreferencefortheboldmalesignificantlydecreasedwithincreasing347relativesimilarityinthebehaviourallevel(LMM:χ21=10.572,N=39,P=0.001,coefficient348±SE(standardised)=‐0.091±0.026;R2=0.242,CL=[0.056,0.475];Figure2a).Further,349femalestrengthofpreferenceincreasedwithincreasingrelativesimilarityinbehavioural350consistency(LMM:χ21=4.528,N=39,P=0.033,coefficient±SE(standardised)=0.058±3510.026;R2=0.114,CL=[0.003,0.341];Figure2b).352353Whenperformingpreferenceanalysiswithouttheremovalofside‐biasedfemales,we354receivedsimilarresultswithregardtofemalestrengthofpreferenceforboldmales(mean355preference:46.5%;95%CI=[41.5,51.6%])andforconsistentmales(meanpreference:35653.9%;95%CI=[49.1,59.1%])notshowingadeviationfromrandomchoice.However,357differenttotheanalysiswithremovedsidebiases,relativesimilarityinthebehavioural358leveltendedtonegativelyinfluencefemalepreferenceforboldmales(LMM:χ21=2.885,N=35945,P=0.089,coefficient±SE(standardised)=‐0.043±0.034;R2=0.066,CL=[0.001,360
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0.258])andrelativesimilarityinbehaviouralconsistencydidnotaffectfemalepreference361(LMM:χ21=2.279,N=45,P=0.131,coefficient±SE(standardised)=0.040±0.025;R2=3620.052,CL=[0.000,0.235]).363364365DISCUSSION366367BothsexesofP.pulchershowedconsistentshort‐andlong‐termpersonalitydifferencesfor368boldness.Wedidnotdetectanoverallagreementinfemalematingpreferenceforeither369malelevelorconsistencyofboldness.However,wefounddis‐assortativefemalechoicefor370thelevelofboldness.Also,femalepreferenceincreasedwithsimilarityinbehavioural371consistency,suggestingassortativechoiceforconsistencyinboldness(whenside‐biased372femaleswereremoved).373374Thedis‐assortativepreferenceforthebehaviouralleveliscontradictorytotheresultsof375mostothermatechoicestudiestestingforbehavioural(dis‐)assortmentthatmainly376reportedassortativematingpreferences(e.g.Montiglioetal.,2016;Schuettetal.,2011).At377thispoint,wecanonlyspeculateaboutpossibleadaptivebenefitsofadis‐assortative378preference.Behaviouraldis‐similaritycouldpossiblyincreasewithin‐pairbehavioural379and/orgeneticcompatibility(Schuettetal.,2010).Behaviouralcompatibilityhasprimarily380beendiscussedforbiparentalspecieswhenbothparentsperformmoreorlessthesame381parentalactivity,forinstanceoffspringprovisioninginsomebirds(Royleetal.,2010).In382zebrafinches,Taeniopygiaguttata,forinstance,similarityinthebehaviourallevelhasbeen383
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showntoincreasepaircompatibility(e.g.Schuettetal.,2011).However,whenspecies384performvariousparentalactivitiestheymightsometimesbenefitfromexpressingadis‐385assortativematingpreference,facilitatingroleallocationduringoffspringcare.InP.pulcher,386parentstypicallydividethelabourwithoneindividualstayingmorewiththeoffspringand387theotheronedefendingtheterritory.Thoughsexualdimorphisminrolespecialisationhas388beendescribedformanycichlids(McKayeetal.,2008;Neil,1984;Richteretal.,2010),sex389rolesmightnotbeentirelystrictinthespeciesandmayratherdependontheinterplay390betweenmaleandfemalepersonality.Itzkowitzetal.(2005)haveshownthatmaleand391femaleparentconvictcichlids,Archocentrusnigrofasciatum,changedtheirdefense392behaviourinresponsetothemate'sbodysize,regardlessofthesex.Thisresultindicates393thatparentalroleallocationmayinsomespeciesratherdependonthemate'sbehaviour394andphysiologythanonthesexitself.Behaviouraldis‐similarityinboldnessmayfacilitate395labourdivisionwiththebolderindividualdefendingtheterritoryandtheshyerindividual396stayingwiththeyoung,regardlessofthesex.Hence,dis‐assortativematingforpersonality397couldsometimesleadtoinvertedparentalcarerolesthoughthishasnotbeeninvestigated398yet.Also,anincreasedgeneticcompatibilitythroughdis‐similaritycouldbepossibleifdis‐399assortativematingleadstoheterozygoteoffspringthataremoreviable(Charlesworthetal.,4001987;Dingemanseetal.,2004).Forexample,Marshalletal.(2003)showedastrong401correlationbetweenindividualgeneticdiversityandabehaviouraltrait,songcomplexity,in402sedgewarblers,Acrocephalusschoenobaenus.Femaleschosetomatewithmalesthat403increasedoffspringgeneticdiversity(Marshalletal.,2003).Seddonetal.(2004)foundmale404heterozygositytobecorrelatedwithterritorysizeandsongstructureinmale(butnot405female)subdesertmesite,Moniasbenschi.406
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407Further,wefoundassortativematechoicefortheconsistencyofboldness.Thefewstudies408thathaveassessedthelinkbetweenbehaviouralconsistencyandsexualselectionfounda409positiverelationshipbetweenconsistencyandreproductivesuccess(Boteroetal.,2009;410Byers,2006)andahigherreproductivesuccessofpairsmatchedforbehavioural411consistency(Schuettetal.,2011).Schuettetal.(2011)haveshownthatpairsmatchedfor412consistencyraisedfosterfledglingsofbetterbodycondition,indicatingthepossible413mechanismdrivingassortmentforbehaviouralconsistencymightbeahigherefficiencyin414theprovisionofparentalcare.415416Clearly,ourstudyislimitedbythecorrelativedesign,notallowingtospecificallyaddress417thecausalityunderlyingthepreferencepattern.Furtherexaminationsusingbehavioural418manipulationsarenowneededtodecoupleboldnessfrompotentiallycorrelatedtraitsthat419mightinfluencematechoice,toensurethepreferencepatternwefoundisunequivocally420relatedtoindividualbehaviour.Moreover,itshouldbementionedthatourmeasurefor421behaviouralconsistencyderivedfromonlytwomeasurements.Weareherefacingacritical422trade‐off.Whilemultiplemeasurementscanleadtoachangeinbehaviourcausedbythe423numberoftimestested,e.g.throughhabituationorsensitization(Belletal.,2009;Stampset424al.,2012),themeasurementerrorishigherwhenonlytestedtwice.Inthisparticularstudy,425wetestedindividualresponsestowardsunfamiliarpredatoranimations,presentedina426novelsituation.Ourmeasurementforboldnesswouldlikelybeaffectedbypriorexperience427andfamiliaritywithtestconditions,makingitdifficulttoreceivethesamenatureof428measureforboldnesswhentestedmultipletimes.However,thestrengthofourstudyis429
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thatfemalescouldobservemaleboldnessdirectlybeforematechoicetrialswhiletheywere430hiddenbehindone‐wayglassandpartitions.Thisway,malescouldexpresstheirnatural431behaviourwithoutbeingaffectedbythefemale'spresence.Adecouplingofobservationand432choiceensuredfemalepreferencenotbeingconfoundedbythepresenceofapredator.433434Conclusions435Insummary,weprovidesuggestiveevidencethatsexualselectionmayrepresentakeyrole436intheevolutionofpersonalitydifferences.Femalesshowedadis‐assortativemating437preferenceforthelevelofboldnessandanassortativepreferenceforthedegreeof438behaviouralconsistency.Ourresultsindicatematechoiceforbehaviouraland/orgenetic439compatibilitythoughonlyassessedinacorrelativeapproach.Suchamatingpreference440mightimproveparentalcareefficiencythroughfacilitationofparentalroleallocation441and/ortoincreaseoffspringfitnessthroughgeneticbenefits.Noticeable,thehandlingof442sidebiasessignificantlyaffectedourresults.Whilewefoundaneffectofbehavioural443similarityinlevelandconsistencywhenremovingsidebiases,wecouldnotdetectsuch444effectswithoutremovingside‐biasedfemalesfromthedata.Thisdiscrepancyinresults445underlinestheimportanceoftakingtheapproachusedintoconsiderationwhencomparing446theresultsofdifferentmatechoicestudies.Thehandlingofsidebiasesinmatechoice447studiesisnottrivialandcanlargelyaffectexperimentaloutcomes.448449450ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS451452
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differences.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB,365(1560),3959‐3968.770doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0215771
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FIGURES774
Figure1:Experimentalset‐upfortheboldnesstest.Twosame‐sexfocalindividuals(visuallyseparated)wereexposedtoavideoanimationofapredator.Testindividualswereobservedbyafishoftheothersexbutcouldthemselvesnotseetheobserver:theobservercompartmentwasendowedwithaone‐waymirroralignedwithanangleof45°towardsthetestcompartmentsprovidingavisualcoverfortheobserver.Fishnottoscale.775
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Figure2:Femalestrengthofpreferencefortheboldmaleindependenceofrelativesimilarityin(a)theleveland(b)theconsistencyofboldness.Positivesimilarityvaluesindicatetheboldmalewasmoresimilartothefemalethantheshymale,negativevaluesindicatehighersimilaritybetweenthefemaleandtheshymale.Datavisualisationonoriginaldata,strengthofpreferencewasarcsine‐squareroot‐transformedforanalyses.776