ISBN 88-7395-155-4 © 2006 ICMPC 953

Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, August 22-26 2006

Differences in adolescents’ use of music in mood regula-tion

Suvi Saarikallio Department of Music, University

of Jyväskylä, Finland. suvila@campus.jyu.fi

ABSTRACT Mood regulation has been considered as one of the most

important reasons for engaging in music. There is, how-

ever, a lack of theory-based investigations of the regulatory

processes. The current study was based on the author’s

previous theoretical model on adolescents’ mood regula-

tion by music. The aim was to explore how adolescents use

different mood-regulatory strategies through their every-

day musical activities, and how this regulation is related to

differences in age, gender, musical background, and abili-

ties of general mood regulation.

1515 Finnish adolescents completed a questionnaire. The

results showed that girls used music for mood regulation

more than boys and older adolescents more than younger

adolescents. Greater use of music in mood regulation was

related to a more active musical background, preferences

for rock music and heavy metal music, greater attention to

one’s feelings and greater ability to reappraise one’s emo-

tional experiences. The study demonstrated how differences

in adolescents’ use of music in mood regulation were re-

lated to a variety of personal factors.

Keywords

Music, Mood Regulation, Adolescence

BACKGROUND Mood regulation refers to processes directed to modifying

or maintaining the occurrence, duration, and intensity of

both negative and positive moods (Cole, Martin, & Dennis,

2004; Eisenberg & Spinrad, 2004; Gross, 1998; Parkinson,

Toterdell, Briner, & Reynolds, 1996). Research on mood

regulation has identified music as a regulatory strategy

(Gallup & Castelli, 1989; Parker & Brown, 1982; Rippere,

1977; Silk, 2003; Thayer, Newman & McClain, 1994), and

research on music has identified mood regulation as one of

the most important reasons for music consumption (Chris-

tenson & Roberts, 1998, p. 47-49; DeNora, 1999; Laiho,

2004; North, Hargreaves, & O`Neill, 2000; Roe, 1985;

Sloboda & O’Neill (2001); Wells & Hakanen, 1991).

Some group differences in the use of music for mood

regulation have been found. In general, women are shown

to use music for mood regulation more than men (Wells &

Hakanen, 1991). Girls seem to be more likely to engage

with music to cope with personal problems and interper-

sonal conflicts, whereas for boys, music is more a way of

increasing energy levels and positive moods, and creating

an expression of being “cool” (Behne, 1997; Christenson &

Roberts, 1998, p. 51; Larson, 1995; Larson Kubey, & Col-

letti, 1989; North et al., 2000; Sloboda & O’Neill, 2001;

Wells & Hakanen, 1991).

Out of all age groups, music seems to have its strong-

est importance especially in youth (Christenson, De-

Benedittis & Lindlof, 1985; Christenson & Roberts, 1998;

Gabrielsson & Lindstöm Wik, 2003; North et al., 2000;

Roe, 1985, Zillmann & Gan, 1997). It has been shown that

already very young adolescents know how to use music for

mood regulation (Behne, 1997), but age differences in ado-

lescents’ mood-regulatory uses of music have not been

thoroughly investigated. However, research on adolescents’

coping abilities in general has demonstrated that the use of

different coping strategies increases with age, and age 15 is

In: M. Baroni, A. R. Addessi, R. Caterina, M. Costa (2006) Proceedings

of the 9th International Conference on Music Perception & Cognition

(ICMPC9), Bologna/Italy, August 22-26 2006.©2006 The Society for

Music Perception & Cognition (SMPC) and European Society for the

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ICMPC9 Proceedings

ISBN 88-7395-155-4 © 2006 ICMPC 954

considered as a turning point in the use of more efficacious

coping strategies (Seiffge-Krenke, 1995, 220-222; Mullis

& Chapman, 2000).

The use of music for mood regulation seems to be re-

lated to musical background. Music majors respond emo-

tionally more strongly to their preferred music than non-

music majors (Lehmann, 1997), and experimental studies

have shown that music effectively decreases arousal due to

stress especially in adolescents, females, and musicians

(Pelletier, 2004). However, some studies have reported that

music-related emotional experiences of non-musicians and

musicians are quite alike (Schubert, 2001). In addition, it

seems that the emotional use of music may not differ ac-

cording to the type of musical activity, since adolescents’

reasons for listening and playing are shown to be quite

similar to each other (North et al., 2000, Saarikallio & Erk-

kilä, in press).

Mood-regulatory use of music may also be related to

musical preferences. Diversity in musical preference has

been shown to correlate with emotionality in listening (Be-

hne, 1997; Wells & Hakanen, 1991), and eclectic musical

preference has been considered to reflect flexibility in us-

ing music for mood-related needs (Schwartz & Fouts,

2003). In Roe’s (1985) exploratory study atmosphere crea-

tion/mood control factor correlated with preferences for

rock and new wave but not with preferences for jazz, coun-

try, classical music, and mainstream pop. Preference for

“harder” forms of music has been found to be positively

correlated with emotional difficulties like psychological

turmoil and behavioral problems (Took & Weiss, 1994),

emotional problems and expression of anger (Epstein,

Pratto, & Skipper, 1990), feelings of loneliness (Davis &

Kraus, 1989), moodiness, pessimism, and impulsiveness

(Schwartz & Fouts, 2003). In contrast, preference for up-

beat and conventional pop music has been found to be

negatively correlated with depression (Rentfrow & Gos-

ling, 2003).

AIM The underlying motivation of the current study was to in-

crease understanding of the emotional and psychological

meaningfulness of music in the context of everyday life.

The study focused on exploring the use of music in regulat-

ing mood, and how this regulatory activity was related to

various individual differences. The perspective is compara-

ble to the uses and gratifications approach, which studies

individuals’ use of media for their personal needs.

The use of music in emotional management is well ac-

knowledged, but there has been little theory development

on the different regulatory goals and strategies. The current

study aimed to patch this deficiency, and was firmly

grounded on a theoretical model. The conceptualization of

mood regulation by music in the current study was based

on the author’s previous qualitative work, in which a theo-

retical model of the mood-regulatory processes related to

musical activities was inductively constructed (Saarikallio,

2006; Saarikallio & Erkkilä, in press).

The purpose of the current study was to investigate

how differences in mood regulation by music were related

to differences in age, gender, musical background, musical

preferences, and abilities of general mood regulation.

Based on earlier research, it was hypothesized that girls

would use music for mood regulation more than boys. It

was also expected that the amount of mood regulation by

music would slightly increase with age. Greater use of mu-

sic in mood regulation was expected to correlate with more

active musical background, greater versatility of musical

preference as well as with preference for rock music. In

addition, greater use of music in mood regulation was ex-

pected to be related to better abilities of mood regulation in

general.

METHOD A large survey study was conducted to measure differences

in adolescents’ use of music in mood regulation. The sur-

vey was based on the author’s previous theoretical model

of mood regulation by music. The model consists of seven

regulatory strategies: Entertainment, Revival, Strong Sen-

sation, Diversion, Discharge, Mental Work, and Solace.

Based on those strategies, a new scale was developed. The

scale was labeled “Music in Mood Regulation” (MMR),

and it was employed to measure the differences in music-

related mood regulation.

Subjects The survey sample consisted of 1515 adolescents, 652 boys

and 820 girls, whose mean age was 15.01 years. The uni-

verse for the survey was Finnish adolescents, and a strati-

fied random sampling method was used. The questionnaire

was conducted at schools. Three age groups were included,

and the questionnaire was delivered to pupils from three

different school levels: to 6th-graders of elementary school

(mean age=11.76), 2nd-graders of junior high school (mean

age=13.76), and 2nd-graders of senior high school (mean

age=16.67). Schools of each school level were randomly

chosen from each county of Finland in proportion to the

number of inhabitants of the county. Each pupil on a given

grade in the chosen school was asked to answer the ques-

tionnaire. A total of 25 schools participated.

Measures “Music in Mood Regulation” (MMR) is a 40-item scale,

which consists of seven sub-scales measuring the seven

mood-regulatory strategies identified in the previous re-

search. Each strategy is measured by 4-7 items, and to-

gether the strategies comprise a big second-order factor that

represents the use of music in mood regulation. Responses

to item statements are made on a 5-point Likert-scale rang-

ing from “Strongly disagree” to “Strongly agree”. Items are

in a random order, and include reverse scored items. The

factor structure of MMR was tested with a series of con-

ICMPC9 Proceedings

ISBN 88-7395-155-4 © 2006 ICMPC 955

firmatory factor analyses, which demonstrated that the fac-

tor structure was supported by the data. The internal con-

sistency reliabilities of MMR and its seven subscales were

also good. They ranged from .76 to .92 for the subscales,

and averaged .96 for the whole MMR.

Musical background was assessed by five different

factors. The amount of music listening was reported by

selecting one of the three options: “less than one hour a

day”, “one to three hours a day”, and “more than three

hours a day”. Having playing or singing as a hobby was

measured by the number of years of playing different in-

struments, and grouped for the analysis into four levels:

“has not played anything”, “has played, but not over one

year”, “has played one instrument over one year”, and “has

played several instruments over one year”. The subjects

were asked whether or not they had made songs by them-

selves, and whether or not somebody else in their family

played an instrument. The subjective experience of the im-

portance of music in one’s life was rated with a 9-point

scale ranging from “not at all important” to “very impor-

tant”.

The respondents were asked to choose from a list one

musical activity that they would prefer if they wanted to

influence their mood. To compare listening with playing,

one item from each regulatory strategy of MMR scale was

answered in relation to both listening and playing by those

who had reported playing as their hobby.

The preferences for different musical styles were as-

sessed by a five-point Likert-scale ranging from “I don’t

like at all” to “I like a lot”. The versatility of musical pref-

erence was assessed by the amount of styles that the re-

spondent had rated with either number 4 (I like quite a lot)

or number 5 (I like a lot).

General mood regulation abilities were assessed by

four measures: a scale for Negative Mood Regulation ex-

pectancies (NMR) (Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990), the Emo-

tion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), which consists of

two subscales of Reappraisal and Suppression (Gross &

John, 2003), a mood regulation scale by Lischetzke and Eid

(2003), and the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS), which

consists of three subscales of Attention, Clarity, and Repair

(Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995). The

reliability and validity of these measures are well docu-

mented, for example in the papers referred above. The

scales were translated into Finnish using back translation

and the help of non-professional judges and a professional

translator.

RESULTS The mostly used regulatory strategies for both boys and

girls in all age groups were the same: Entertainment, Re-

vival, and Strong Sensation. However, the results also

showed significant differences in the use of music in mood

regulation based on gender, age, musical background, and

general mood regulation abilities.

Gender and Age There was a significant interaction effect between gender

and age for MMR (F (2) = 6.09, p ≤ .01), and, therefore,

gender differences were explored separately in each age

group. In all age groups, girls used music for mood regula-

tion more than boys. In the youngest group, the difference

was significant for MMR and all other strategies (all t-

values > 5.54, all p-values ≤ .001) except for Discharge,

which was used more by boys but for which the difference

was not significant (t (345) = -1.15, p = .25). In the second

age group, girls used all strategies more than boys, and the

difference was significant for MMR and all strategies (for

Discharge, t (460) = 3.12, p ≤ .01, all other t-values > 5.96

and all other p-values ≤ .001). In the oldest age group, girls

also used all strategies more than boys. The difference was

not significant for Discharge (t (654) = 1.07, p= .283), but

was significant for all other strategies and for the whole

MMR (For MMR, Entertainment, Diversion, Mental Work

and Solace all t-values > 3.77 and p-values ≤ .001, for Re-

vival and Strong Sensation t-values > 2.70 and p-values ≤

.01).

The use of music in mood regulation increased by age

for both boys and girls, but the change occurred later for

boys. Indicated by ANOVAs, there was a significant dif-

ference in MMR between the three age groups for girls (F

(2) = 10.85, p ≤ .001). The post hoc tests (Tukey, Bon-

ferroni, LSD) showed that the difference was almost sig-

nificant for girls both between the two younger age groups

(p ≤ .05 by LSD) and the two older age groups (p ≤ .05 by

all post hoc tests). The increase occurred for girls in all

strategies, but it was statistically significant only for Enter-

tainment (F (2) = 20.64, p ≤ .001), Strong Sensation (F (2)

= 33.39, p ≤ .001), Discharge (F (2) = 5.87, p ≤ .01), and

Mental Work (F (2) = 7.70, p ≤ .001). For boys, there was

also a significant difference in MMR between the three age

groups indicated by ANOVAs (F (2) = 25.37, p ≤ .001).

However, the post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD)

showed that the difference was not significant between the

two younger groups, but highly significant between the two

older age groups (p ≤ .001 by all post hoc tests). The dif-

ference between age groups for boys, indicated by

ANOVAs, was significant for all other strategies (all F-

values > 7.93, all p-values ≤ .001) except for Discharge, for

which the difference was not statistically significant.

Musical Background As predicted, musical background of the adolescents was

related to their use of music in mood regulation. The daily

amount of listening had a very strong connection to MMR.

Indicated by ANOVAs, the use of MMR and all its strate-

gies was greater for those adolescents who listened more.

The post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD) showed that

the difference was significant for MMR and all its strate-

gies between all three categories of the daily amount of

listening (all p-values ≤ .001 by all post hoc tests). The

ICMPC9 Proceedings

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estimated means of MMR in the three listening groups are

shown in Figure 1.

Having playing or singing as a hobby was also related

to MMR. Indicated by ANOVAs, MMR and all its strate-

gies were used more by those adolescents who played or

sang. The post hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni, LSD) showed

that there was no significant difference for MMR between

those who hadn’t played at all and those who had played

less than one year. Instead, there was a significant or al-

most significant difference (all p-values ≤ .05 by all post

hoc tests) for MMR between those who had played less

than one year and those who had played one instrument

over one year. Furthermore, there was a highly significant

difference (all p-values ≤ .001 by all post hoc tests) be-

tween those who had played one instrument over a year

and those who had played several instruments over a year.

Thus, the results indicated that the use of music in mood

regulation is related to both commitment to and versatility

in playing.

Songwriting was also related to MMR. Those who

made songs used MMR and all its strategies significantly

more (p ≤ .01 for Discharge, p-values ≤ .001 for other

strategies and whole MMR). Having someone else in the

family singing or playing was not related to Entertainment

and Discharge, but it was significantly related to other

strategies and the whole MMR (all p-values ≤ .001). The

subjective experience of the importance of music was also

related to MMR. Those who experienced music as being

more important part of their life used MMR and all its

strategies significantly more (correlations ranging from .30

to .66).

Figure 1. Estimated means of MMR in the three listening

groups

Musical Activities The most important musical activity for regulating mood

was listening. “Listening alone” was chosen among differ-

ent musical activities to be the number one choice to influ-

ence one’s mood by over half of the respondents in all age

groups by both boys and girls. Furthermore, more than half

of also those subjects who had reported playing as their

hobby, still chose “listening alone” as their first choice for

regulating mood.

Listening was slightly preferred over playing in rela-

tion to items picked from MMR. Adolescents who had

playing as a hobby, still used listening significantly more

than playing for items representing Entertainment (t (731)

= 6.98, p ≤ .001), Revival (t (731) = 7.15, p ≤ .001), Diver-

sion (t (735) = 5.19, p ≤ .001), and Mental Work (t (732) =

8.19, p ≤ .001). However, the difference was not significant

for items representing Strong Sensation (t (734) = -.54, p =

.13), Discharge (t (735) = 1.53, p = .13), or Solace (t (733)

= -1.47, p=.14).

Musical Preferences The most liked musical styles for both boys and girls and in

all age groups were rock, pop, heavy, and rap. Boys pre-

ferred heavy and techno more than girls, whereas girls pre-

ferred classical music, pop and gospel more than boys. In-

dicated by ANOVAs, the preference for classical music,

rock, jazz, folk, and gospel increased with age. Instead, the

preference for pop gradually decreased with age. As ex-

pected, the versatility of musical preference was signifi-

cantly related to MMR and all its subscales. The correla-

tions ranged from .16 to .31. Separate musical preferences

were also related to MMR and its subscales. Preferences

for classical music (r = .21), rock (r = .29), heavy metal (r =

.18), jazz (r = .22), folk (r = .12), and gospel (r = .19) cor-

related significantly with MMR. When the effects of gen-

der and age were controlled, MMR still correlated with the

same musical preferences, but the strongest correlations

appeared with rock (r=.25) and heavy (r=.30). Preferences

for pop, rap, techno, or evergreens did not significantly

correlate with MMR. However, preference for pop was

positively correlated to two subscales, Entertainment

(r=.10) and Revival (r=.08). Preferences for rap (r=.15) and

techno (r=.16) also correlated with Entertainment. Correla-

tions between MMR, its subscales and preferences for dif-

ferent musical styles are presented in table 1.

Table 1. Correlations between MMR and musical pref-

erences when gender and age were controlled

MMR e r ss div dis mw s

Classi-

cal

.12

**

-.06

*

.08

**

.26

**

.10

**

-.07

*

.20

**

.16

**

Rock .25

**

.24

**

.19

**

.21

**

.15

**

.28

**

.16

**

.14

**

Pop .03 .10 .08 .03 -.03 -.03 .02 .02

Error Bars show 95,0% Cl of Mean

Listening to music

1,00

2,00

3,00

4,00

less than 1 hour a day

1-3 hours a day

more than 3 hours a day

Mean

MMR

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** **

Heavy .30

**

.20

**

.17

**

.20

**

.19

**

.46

**

.19

**

.15

**

Rap/

HipHop

.04 .15

**

.06

*

.02 02 -.03 .03 .01

Jazz/

Blues

.17

**

.09

**

.14

**

.25

**

.14

**

.01

.19

**

.16

**

Techno .06* .16

**

.07

*

.03

.01 .05 .02 .01

Ever-

greens

-.02

-.02

-.03 .04 -.04 -.10

**

.05 .01

Folk .09

**

-.03 .06

*

.16

**

.08

**

-.05

*

.16

**

.13

**

Gospel .13

**

.01 .08

*

.19

**

.10

**

-.02 .20

**

.19

**

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

MMR-subscales: (e)=Entertainment, (r)=Revival, (ss)=Strong

Sensation, (div)=Diversion, (dis)=Discharge, (mw)=Mental Work,

and (s)=Solace

General Mood Regulation Abilities As expected, MMR correlated with measures of general

mood regulation abilities. However, overall, the correla-

tions were relatively low, which suggests that MMR as-

sesses a distinct regulatory dimension. MMR correlated

positively with NMR, Reappraisal, Mood Regulation, At-

tention, and Repair, indicating relatedness with adaptive

mood regulation strategies. The strongest correlations were

with Reappraisal and Attention. No correlation existed be-

tween MMR and Clarity or Suppression. The correlations

are presented in table 2.

Table 2. The correlations between MMR and measures

of general mood regulation abilities when controlling

for gender and age

Measures for general

mood regulation abilities

MMR

NMR .11**

Reappraisal .30**

Suppression -.00

Mood Regulation scale .10**

Attention .28**

Clarity .02

Repair .15**

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

DISCUSSION Results of the current study demonstrated how several per-

sonal factors are related to differences in adolescents’ use

of music in mood regulation. The results supported most of

the hypothesized differences related to age, gender, musical

background, musical preferences, and abilities of general

mood regulation. In interpreting the results of the current

study, however, it must be remembered that the large sam-

ple size could make also very small group differences and

correlations statistically significant.

As expected, music was used in mood regulation more

by girls than by boys. The difference was significant in all

age groups. Even though music presumably is just as im-

portant to boys as it is to girls in general, it seems to have

more significance to girls in relation to mood regulation.

The result may also imply that girls are more willing to

report about their mood-regulatory behaviors.

The use of music in mood regulation increased with

age for both girls and boys. The result is in accordance

with previous research, which has demonstrated that differ-

ent coping strategies are acquired with age (Seiffge-

Krenke, 1995, 220-222; Mullis & Chapman, 2000). The

strategies of MMR include elements that the adolescents

are often not conscious about in their daily engagement

with music (Saarikallio, 2006; Saarikallio & Erkkilä, in

press). The cognitive development and increased ability of

abstract comprehension may also help older adolescents to

be more conscious about their regulatory uses of music.

Greater use of music in mood regulation was related to

a more active musical background, and all variables of mu-

sical background were significantly related to the use of

music in mood regulation. However, listening seemed to be

particularly important for mood regulation. The daily

amount of listening was significantly related to the use of

music in mood regulation and “listening alone” was clearly

the most often chosen musical activity for regulating mood.

The results imply that music may serve as an important

means for mood regulation also for those adolescents who

just listen to music. In addition, it seems that listening is the

most important means for mood regulation even for those

adolescents who do play an instrument.

The use of music in mood regulation was related to the

versatility of musical preference, which supports the notion

that mood regulation by music is about an ability to employ

different musical styles for different emotional needs

(Schwartz & Fouts, 2003). The use of music in mood regu-

lation correlated most strongly with preferences for rock

music and heavy metal music. These musical genres may

provide a useful resource for adolescents’ mood regulation

because their strong intensity, volume, and “roughness”

seem to reflect the erratic and intense emotional experience

characteristic to youth. The connection between a prefer-

ence for “harder” forms of music and the use of music in

mood regulation also has an interesting link to previous

studies reporting that “harder” forms of music are related to

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different emotional disturbances (Davis & Kraus, 1989;

Epstein et al., 1990; Schwartz & Fouts, 2003; Took &

Weiss, 1994). When faced with hard times, adolescents

may find help from hard music.

Preferences for pop, rap and techno did not correlate

with the MMR scale, but they did correlate with the sub-

scale of Entertainment. These styles seem to have their role

as a provider of nice feel and positive experiences. In rela-

tion to that, it is important to remember that mood regula-

tion by music is not only about coping with problems, but

also about getting positive experiences and emotional re-

sources from music. Strategies that were most closely re-

lated to positive emotional experiences, Entertainment,

Revival, and Strong Sensation, were actually the mostly

used ones.

As expected, the abilities of general mood regulation

correlated with mood regulation by music. However, the

correlations were relatively low, and established music-

related mood regulation as a distinct construct. MMR’s

positive correlations with scales that reflect favorable regu-

latory strategies suggest that music might be an adaptive

means for mood regulation. The strongest correlations were

with Attention and Reappraisal. This is well in line with

notions made by several music researchers that music is

able to give form to emotional experiences and that it fa-

cilitates psychic processing and restructuring of thoughts

and feelings (Behne, 1997; DeNora, 1999; Larson, 1995;

Lehtonen, 1986; Ruud, 1997b; Sloboda, 1992; Sloboda and

O’Neill, 2001). In essence, music is one form of attending

to and reappraising emotional experiences.

The current study demonstrated how several personal

factors are connected to differences in the mood-regulatory

uses of music. The strength of the current study was its

foundation on substantial qualitative work about the regula-

tory processes, which enabled theory-based exploration.

Strong dialogue between empirical findings and theoretical

concepts is essential also for further inquiries of music-

related mood regulation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to express my gratitude to the Pythagoras Graduate

School, Ministry of Education Finland, and Academy of

Finland for funding this research. Special thanks to profes-

sor Esko Leskinen and docent Kaisa Aunola for their con-

structive advice in statistics.

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