Diawara Africian Cinema Today

8/3/2019 Diawara Africian Cinema Today

1/17

NIanthia Diawara

politics & culture

This item has been copied in compliance with Sections 29 and 30 of the Copyright Act. No further copying or transmission is permitted.


2/17

L 1992 by l\[.lnrhi8 DiawaraAli rights resned

parr of this bOOK rH8-;' be r e p r o d u c ~ d or urilized in ::my for.;n or byany means. elec:::ronic or mechanic3.J. including phmocopying andrecording, or by any miormation storage .lnd retrieval system, withoutpermission in wriIing trom the pub[isher. The Association of AmericanUniversity Presses' Resolution on Permissions constituees the only..'Xcepon ta this prohibition.The paper lised in this publication meets the mimmum requuemenrs of AmericaNational Standard for ln formation S C l e n c e s ~ P e r m a n e n c e of Pape.!:" ior PrinredLibrary Materials, .-\NSI ZJ9A8-1984.\ttanuractured in rhe Unired States or America

Library of Congress Cataloging-n-Publication Data



3/17

Th e eleventh Pan-African Film Fmival or Ouagadougou (FESPACO'89j demonstrares ho w diversified Alriean films are today, Next toYee!en (Souleymane Ciss, 1987j, an d Yaaba (Idrissa Ouedraogo,1989j, whieh pu t inco play th e theme of th e return ta the sources, anAfrica without th e presence of outsiders, there are Camp de Thiaro)'e(Ousmane Sembne an d Thierno Sow, 1988j an d ivIonu Nega (FioraGomes, 1988), which make the colonial question the;r main subject.Finzal1 (Cheiek Oumar Sissoko, 1989j, Bal pOi/ssire (Henri Duparc,1988j, an d BOi/ka (Roger G'lOan M'Baia, 1988) are social realisrnarratives thar deal with questions oi modernity an d tradition,.- This themarie diversification prodl1ces a tvpology or narratives rhateompere for th e spectator's attention. Each on e ot the.'narrative movements - the return ta the sources, the historieal confrontation bet\veenAfrica andEurope, and th e social realise-presents ; ~ a g e of Africathar makes ,;- daim ra befnlli 'r and more faithEu! to reali!'! than theorhers, At FESPACO '89 many people inrpreted the diversified stylesof films as a sign of maturiry in African cinema. Others, painting toYee!en an d Yaaba, argued that it marked the end of "mgouge"(filmmaking on shoestrings that ref1ect5 th e "miserable" African condition of lifej l an d the end of an era chat pnvileged polemieal an dloosely construeted contents at the e.xpense of cmemane iorms, Andothers expressed concern that sorne filmmakers have used this opportunity to rurn their backs on polities and on a serious questioning of theoppression oi women an d the marginalized, This argument also pu tforth that filmmakers, by emphasizing beautiful images over serious

1-+1(ontent arlJ.l-:'sis.l"L\.J ::.urrer.d[ed IO Eurr"")pC:'.'ln nmion::. or what African("inema ongllI to b . :

Cle:::.rly [here :ue ::my :\U"LCm unages, J.nd iI S;;:115 tri ';icd ta expec:filmmJkers of different gener3tions, diiferi!.t countnes, J.nd different~ d e o l o g i c a i tendencies to Ste the same ,-\fricd eVr-;:\vhere. le is thereforeDot m ~ : intention tO sort ou t \vhich modes of representatlon .lre rignean d \vhich Jf e \\Tong. Ir seems i:O be more t!:"uictlll co C[dee che c,,'oluronor these new A.h-lcaD c:nemJ.s [rom F E S P ~ ~ C O '8""7 ID F E S P _ ~ , C O '39 Jndco .1trempt to V3.!uare eaen narr3tive mO\-ement ln the contexc or ifS ownmodes ai productlon.

Social Realise :"IGatvesFirsr let's eX:J.mine the naE3.Ilve or the movement l call th e s ~ ) ( i : . 1 1 _ ~ 3 . l i s t cendency, vvhich debnes lrsdf by t h . . e _ m a t i z i n ~ c u r r e n t socl_ocuIDJ,.IaJiS5..\KS, Th e films in rhis eategory dra'N on eontempoorv experiences,and-rhey oppose tradition ra modernity, oral to written, agrarian an dcustomarv communities to urban an d inclU;5triaiized svsrems, and subsisrencc ~ c o n o m i e s ra highly productive e c ; ~ ( ) ' m i e S : : ' T h e filmmakersoften use a tradirional position ta criticize and lnk cerrain orms ormodernity to neocolonialism and cultural imperialism. From a modernist point or vievv, they a150 d e b u n ~ h e attempt ta rOffianticizerradiIionai values as pure and originaL.Theheroes are women, c h i l ~ dren, an d orher marginalized groups tharare pushed into the shadowsby the ehIes of rradition an d modernitv=

The social cealist tendeney, \vhich uses melodram8, sarir.::, an e comdy. communicares more with Airican specJ.Iors chan the twa succeeding movemenrs, whch, as l will show, require more fram che speClatOrbecause or :heir :nvolvement ln hlstory 2n d p h i l o s o ~ h y . T ~ e socialrealisr movement draws tram exisling pooular torms :Juch as song nddance, the oral :radirion (bath literar;; an d rumars), anci popularrh


4/17

l-L:~ 7 1 " g t ! i l [ 19--:2 i, \\"hich parodies the postcolonial bOUf:61..)isie: \bl-:J.maJohnson TrJor with j \ ~ " J d i 7 g . 7 ~ 1 1 1 197 -+'1) \dllch de:l!s \',[(h the role oiISlam ::md Koranie schools in c o n m p o L l ~ : L--\rrlcJ: DJnid f(JffiW3with POlisse POlisse 19-:5:, ~ l b o U l : the problem or dowry; Ben Diog:'lyeBeye \Yith Se)' Seye!i AL7il, Some \Vomen) 1980). about polyg3.my;:lnd L:lllcine Kr:J.TI10 Fadiga \vith Dje!i : 193 WllLCh eXJ.mines m3.f-nage b[\'v-een pople or diffrent C3stes.~ \ t FESPACO '37, the social re:1!ist mQVemDi: arnrmed Ils Jomi

I1anCe \vlth films such as ~ L ~ 7 Ule est beIfe (NgJngura ;\hveze Jnd BenoitL1nly, 1986/) "0[yamantoil ,:Cheick OUlTIJr Si:isoko\ 1930:': Visdges deF.7::C5 a/Yi:':I)::;!?,'7.1 '))sire E ( : : r ~ , 1 9 8 ~ \ . :1nd D'?S!Jczg1TO nu le

dernier saLIire (53.nou K. EmmJDUeL 1986:" ~ 1 1 1 of whicn ::lfe Jnchoredin one popular iorm or anorher. SimJiariv, FESPACO ~ 9 \\"as the me otJ. social re:J.lisr cinema chat seemed to bave wo n :::he ne:lfCS of theSpCtatOrs. Duparc's ~ B i pOUSSire, ;} social comedy 3.bour polygalnywith ::iubplots of l i r e r a c y ~ money ClS J sign nt corruption, and rradirionas a burden, was rhe masr discussed film in Ouagadougou. The spectarors olso [ushed ta see Les gelilTisseurs iSijiri Bakaba, 1988), rhemain JnracnOn of which lTIvolves performances by Salif Keira, _-"lphaBlondy, Nayanka Bell, and Georges Tai Benson, stars of popular musicand television;'S"",.abo (_-"maclou Saalum Seck, 1988), Koionl1osk (SaoGamba, 1986), and Test,/meut (John Akomirah, 1988), Jll dealing in adifferenr manner \Vith the question of returning haIne after years ofexile in Europe; BOllka, which looks like wirh a modern eye at su ehtraditional issues as inhritance or wives. polygamy, anci fetishisITI;"ZmzEoko I.,Gaston Kabor, 1988,J, about che expansion of ciries, whichforces some villagers to abandon their land and, therelore, lose theiridemit)'; and Sissoko's"Fin::ml, mueh Jwaid Jr FESPACO '89 becauseor che direcror's reputation witn Nyamanton. 3

Let's DOW examine SOrne examples of th e social realist moveme:1t as a~ v a y or showing the manner in which its films position the spectator. In1987, La vie est belle and other social realise films broke' the intellectuilise nadirion of African cinema and adopted populise chemes thatare dear ta the working class and the ;mempioved. Ih e _J1Jl1_oi thefilmmakers was ta [ransform the potemics ag:.1inst the elite into jokesmade ar r h e e . " { p n s e - _ o f t h e e i i r c a l 1 ( } ~ m a k e films chat appeai c!re.-\frican masses -because they can identify widl-rne cnaracters i; rherrU.To capture the masses' des ire on film, the filmmakers have drawn frompopular musicians, the latest fashions, and the new ways ai talking inthe capital ciries. L1 vie est belle, for insrance, tells the swry of a villagemLlsician, Kourou (Papa Wemba), wh o loses his audience ra the radio,'.:vhich p l a ~ / s popular music. He cec:ides ta go ta the big ciry, Kinshasa.

[-Ilra 5li""cg JI1,j r'L1:' Jn decuie guirar. In the ciry, Kourou \\'orb. asshoeshine bo:./. J. dishw:lsher1 and ~ 1 . mess('nger bdore reailzing hisdre,11n JS cl 1l111siciJ.n. The film ::tlso d e ~ ! l s '\yirh (he themes of pol:,gJ.m}",';Ylrchcr:l, business\vomen in Kin:-,has:l, Kourou',; love afiair with Kabibi ibi Krubwa), and rhe liiesvfle of the nouveaux riches.

The hrsr reJson why Ld est bellc anracts Afrcan spectators lS th esening of the story in KinshJ.sd, reg:uded JS che cJ.pnl of A ~ r i c < l n music \vith more (han ('XO hundred bands. Ir is ~ l l s o J city or hightashiOI1, or 3.mbiance, wheft: the lasr steps in clane: :lre creared, and orcontradicLion, where rhe rich and poor, rhe modern and trodirionallive siJe b\- sicle. Kinsh3sa, as reHected on the screen, mirrors whatmany Arrican I11aSses desre when the)- leave the villages ror the pursuitor their areams in the cines. Kourou's Experiences demonstf.Jte chat thespecrator (:..ln enUU$t: the city \Vith the power ro translorrn his/hervillage looks inco gbmour and ra provide himiher with more leisuretime. Tne ride La vie est belle (Lile is Rosy) indicates that even rhe poorare happy in the heared nighrs of Kinshasa, the modern ciry wirhmagical powers to make one forger one's prablems.

Buc this populat myrh ai Kinshasa is noc without criricism in rhefilm. Kinshasa is also the ciry where appearance (rhe way people dressand speak) CQums more rh an substance. Kourou puts on a suit andpasses for the director of a big company; Amoro (Tumba Ayila), thedwarr wh o goes around laughing and saying that '"iite IS rosYl" 1S inrealitv a londy and unhappy person. The elite, such as l'ivouandu(KanKu Kasongoj, flaum their Mercedes cars and show no sympathyfa t che pOOL Ir is also in rhe same Kinshasa where the charlaran wirchdocrors control rhe lives oi rhe rich and poor, the educad and theiilitera, the Christian and rhe Moslem. Finally, the experience ofMamou (Landu NZLlnzimbu), a clever businesswoman in the film,shows thar Kinshasas mademiry does not include rhe end of polygamytor women.

Th e other reason rhar LJ vie est belle appeals [Q African spectarorsconcerns the casng of Papa Wemba as Kourou. Popular music starssuch as Franco, Tabu Ley, Salif Keita, and Papa Wemba have anenormous inHuence on lifesryle in Africa. Papa Wemba, known as tnenumber one "Sapeur"4 in Latre, has many bn s who imitate the way hera;ks dnd dresses. In La vie est belle, it is Papa Wemba as Kourou wn oimiras rhe ordinary man. Idemificaon works borh ways: the spectaror identifying wirh the image of hislher desire, and Papa Wemba(Kourou) identifying with the working class in his raies as shoeshineboy, dishwasher, messenger, and the poor man whose girlfriend hasbeen srolen by a rien man. The leirmocif Jourou repears in his sangs is



5/17

: - \ i r i c ~ 1 n Cinc:llJ--uJ'laillez, prcnz de Ll peine, L:'csr k ronJs qui t1Llnqu les morDS"(\Xfod:. hJ.rd, whar \V neecl mosr of an is good \;,illl. Br popularizingthis verse from the; poetry of Ld FOl1Uinc. Kourou implies thar \';.-orkatone can provde the solution CO peoplt::s prob!ems.

ln faer, Lourou :dso mentions ln his sangs the bmous "Article 15,"which meJ.ns dbrouillez-vOlis (help vourseli) io r people wh o can nolonger depend on the government for j o b ~ , education, ~ l n d heahb carein Zaire. Perhaps speCWtors used :0 the social realist films oi Sembnean d Ciss are disappoinred thJI the film neither criricizes the systemthat oppresses che working class no r I11Jkes Jn y eHort ta make it re:llizeits condition as an exploited group. This t"lTIforced bv the leitmorifwhich seems ta empower the \vorking clo.sss image of itself dS heroican d whieh pre'fc:nrs ir from reJ.cring ag:.linsr the Incompetence of rheA.friean governlnentS ta make things better. But the invaluable lessonthat La vie st belle teaches us is that the social realisr movement canuse popular Eorms as a vehicle to r messages an d images. Th e resort topopular fonns is a1so a 'Nay to (reare dn African audience for the films.

Th e social realist cinema also positions the spectator by addressingthe issues of women s liberation in contemporary African society. Th efilms show that while Atrican me n have accepred progress in certainareas of modernism, they are regressive \vhen it cornes to giving upmale privileges. Th e filmmakers oten rhemmize these issues by eOIlsuucting social comedies involving a ma n with more women rhan hecan satisfy sexually (Finye, Xal J an d Bdf poussire); by watching aman make a iool of himself bv clinging tG old-iashioned parriarchalmeans of rrearing women as objects (Visages de lemmes, Finzan J an dBOlika); an d by giving the woman "the right to speak om , an d theright tO be heard-\vhether this righr was \von or granred) exercisedsponraneously or in organized ways"5 (Nyanwnton, Visages defemmes, an Finzan)."luch of the popuiarity of Bal poussire in Ouagadougou derivestrom its positioning or th e spectaror to laugh at the excesses or polygamy. The protagonist, Demi-Dieu (Bamba Bakary), IS the richest ma nin town, so he ca n buy anything he wanrs, includng a 51XIh wite, Binta(Hanny Tchelley). Bm Binta, the modern woman, inrroduces conceptsinto his househoid that not onlv compromise Demi-Dieu s raditionalimage bu t also push the other wives to ask him ior more sexualtelations. Th e consequences are terrible ror Demi-Dieu: "Each on e oihis wives made him swallow dishes with aphrodisiac ingredients inorder to have him ail tG herself, an d the pleasure of the 'happy h u s ~ band' soon turned into exhaustion. "6 Bal poussire is simultaneouslyentertaining an d didactic. It entertains by making the spectatots ide;-

145t!t: \i/!rh BinCl she mJKeS fun or d regressiye. p o l n . ~ ~ : : r . 1 T 1 0 1 1 S !l1J.n.B i n t ~ 1 '5 .l(tions 2 f t ta 'somen spectators lib: lhe re\'enge or wornen onp O l : : g ~ l m o u s men. Tb e me n bugh beGmse the:.' think ::hey ~ 1 [ supenorto Demi-Dieu an d thar the" \\"ill n';er Eail inro the sa me trap. Th einstruction the spectJJ::or unconsciously Jppropriates rror11 Bd! poussire concerns the impracclcal aspects or polygalny. The specra[or ieelschar he is \viser than Deml-Dieu ~ l n d , unlike him, prders love wirh onewoan to sex "vith sever;}!. To\\;ard [he end ot lhe film, BinI3. is reunlted\vIth the md n she loves.

Sissoko's Fin::::m 3.so tJ.kS aavlnclge or rhe spect3.rors willingnessta bugh d[ characte!"s \vho :u e mr3.11y, intellectually. or physcallylower than himseWherseli. Th e film tells the StOrv oi i ' ianpma, wh owas marned J.[ fiiteen J.gainsr he r wilL Fin:::,an begins \vich the de:1th orNanyuma's husband Jn d the tradirional custom of mheric:mce or \vivesby the brOthers ot the deceased. Baia, wh o already ha s twO wives,wants ta take :\iJ.nyuma as his third. ~ a n y u m a defies the villageCUSIoms dnd [uns away to the big ciry, But she finds chat when it cornes[Q sexism, me n in che Clr,/ are no different trom those iD th e village. Th espeCIator is first sutured into this tragicomedy by the way Ln whichBaIa is constiruted as a regressive, phallocentric characICL Fo r spectators in WTesr Arrica, Bala 5 role is recognizable from the traditionalKoteba theatet: he is a buiioorl whose trademarks embody cowardice,jealousy, an d greed. In folktales, the hyena oiten oecupies [he saffierole. Furthermore, rhe name Baia signifies srupidity, crudeness, andgreed in Bambara (the language spoken in the SIm). Th e J.cting oi BaIaiplaved bv Oumar i'iamor:r Keita, an acror irom the Koreba in .'vlall 1Sexaggerated in th e film lO underscore its link WIth :hearer. Bala cannorsleep until he gets ~ a n y u m a (Diarrah Sanogo), wh o keeps ::-eJecringhim, He dis ru pt S everyrhing in the village ta talk about her, induding Jmeeting between the village chief dn thr: district commissoner. In onescene, he is seen singing praise songs to himseif, describing ho\v luckyhe is ( inherit Nanyuilla; in another scene he is crying as he accuses[he wh o e village oi chearing him ou t or his righes.

On the Snous sicle, the iilm thematlzes che probiems of ."XciSlon dndpo!ygamy, an d ir posits \vomen s emancipation as the condirion 01progress. Sissoko models ' J ~ a n y u m a airer women characrers 5uch asSogolon in L'pope de SOllndiara (DJibril Tamsir Niane, 1965\ K3niin Salis l'orange (Seydou Badian, 195'7), an d Salimara in Les soleils ,lesindpendances (Ahmadou Kourouma, 1969). Like Sagolon an d Salimata, she IS forced to marry men against he r will an d is iorcecl [Qsurrender by men holding knives. Like Kani, she seizes her right cospeak an d De heard. Th e film follows the African feminisr discourse



6/17

Borom SLliTetresy of Fnddirecred by Ousmane Sembne. Phowgraph cour-

TOllki Bouk1 (19"73), directed by Djibril Diop .\iambery. Phorographcourtesy of Christine Delorme.

Ousmane Sembne. Photograph



7/17

W'end K1l1mi \1981), direcred DV Gaston Kabor. Photograph courtes)' orChristine Deiorme. .

La vie est belle (1986), directed by Ngangura .0i1weze and Benoir L'."\my,Phorograph courtesy of California NeLusreel,

CWlp ,1t Thi,troye (1989), direcred b ~ ' Ousmane Sembne .lTId ThiernuSO\\'. PhOrogLlph COUHeSy or Chrisrine Delorme.

Photograph courresy



8/17

Fnz.w. Phowgraph courresy ot CliiforniaNewsreeI.

Saaraba, directed by Amadou Seck. Photograph courresy ofC.:difornia Newsreef.

Z.ln Boko, direcred by Gaston KJ.bor. Phorograph courtes)' of CaiifonziaNeu/sreel.



9/17

152that links soci::d 3.nd economic progn:ss \\'lth \ \Cmen s liberarion. AsFatou SO\\" 3tJ.teS, "The marginaliz3.tion oi women has contribure [0the btlurc of. man:; de\'dopment projecrs."- F i i l : : ~ m positi'JI1s rhe S p e C ~ tator tO idennfy wich chis poinr of vie\," ::md to accept \vomen as equ:J.lparmers in the development of Africa.

Colonial ConfrontationThe second cinematic movement in Atrica concerns films of historiealconfrontation that put inta conflict Africans and their European colonizers. These films have so far generated more controversy. The majotiry ai Afrcan spectators vevif them wirh a sense oi pride andsatisfaction with a rustory finally written from an African point of view.Sorne European spectators, on the other hand, characterize them aspolemical, poody constructed, and belonging ta the 1960s rhetoric ofviolence. Between 1987 and 1989, both rhe french and the British usedthe above adjectives ta shun Sarrao1lllia (lI,led Hondo, 1987), HeritageAfrica (Kwaw Ansah, 1988), and Camp de Thiaro)'e. Yet these filmswere among the most popular at FESPACO '87 and fESPACO '89. Thefestival's international jury awarded the 1987 Grand Prix ta Sarrao/miaand the 1989 prize ta Heritage Alrica. With regard to Sarraotlili" andCamp de Thiaroye, it is remarkable that the French government hasdeviated from its commitment ta the production and promotion ofAirican cinema; neither film was selected for the Cannes Film festivaLCommenting on the popular teception of Sarraa/mia inOuagadougou, Serge Daney stares rhat this "antcolonialisr fresco,with a nice production budget, remains the falsely rebelled dinosaurthat was sulked by us in Paris."8

./ ' These films posirion the specrators to idemify with the Africanpeople's resistance against European colonialism an d imperialisricdrives. The stories are about colonial encounters, and they oftell pitA f r i ~ a n heroes and heroines against European villai,J,s. Tht.:}' are con., ) ditioned by the desire ta show Afri can heroism where European histary only mentioned the actions of the conquerars, resistance wherethe colonial version of historY silenced opposi tiona l voices, -and theroie of women mhe armed struggle.For the filmmaker, snch historicalnarratives are justified by the need to bring Ollt of.the shadows the roleplayed by the African people in shaping their own history. It is also thecase that (hey wam ta film a liberation struggle ta keep ir Eorever inpeople's minds.The hlstoricai narratives certainly remind the viewer of such war

L53tpic::; as C!non:qu2s desHamma, 19(5) an d L'opium et le baton ~ : A h m e d Rachedi, 1970),which dre baseo on J) ::,trugglt ut the A\gerldo l ~ d r 1 o n a l LiberationFronr ( F T \ ~ L ) . Bur the precursors of the genre in ) U b ~ S d h < u a n Atrica ,H Elllit.,i (Ousmone Sembne, 19:'1), which deals \Vith the Diola people'srefusaI ta surrender their rice ta the French Arm\' during \V'orld War II,an d SaJilbtzanga (Sarah ~ " f a i d o r o r , 1972\ which IS based on the struggle of the Popular Liberation ivlovemem of .Angola (:VlPLA). Furthermore, unlike the Algerian IVar tpics that deal exclusively wirh the fNL,the sub-Saharan historcal narratives, while they are cenrered on theencounter between Africans and their foreign in\'aders. are nOt limitedta contemporary wars of independence and resistance. As Ceddoi, Ousmane Sembne, 1976) and S"rraollilia show, they also include therepresenr3.tion of resistance [0 colonialism in the nineteenth century.AIl these films depcr \vomen coming ta a revolutionary consciousness;chev also creare Idealized heroes for che spectatars ta model chemselvesatrer. While chey are similar ta ail war movies wich their heroes andvillains, they are unique in thar chey push the war itself into thebackground and examine African cultures and their incorporation inthe characters' quesr for freedom. ln other words, they valocize Afrieancultures in order to emphasize the dehumanizing eHect of colonization,\vhich is intent on destroying [hem. Oral literature, religious riruals,the African systems of thoughc, and the performance of griOts areinvoked and translormed 1l l the service of liberation struggles.To illustrate ml' point, 1 will next examine rhe way in which the

historical encounters are narrativized in specifie films. Sarraounia centers on the historieal encoumer in ,he nineteenth century between theFrench colonial troops and the .-'cznas of Niger. Based on the novel byAbdoulaye 'vlamani trom Niger. the film depicts Sarraounia, a proudand skillful warrior and queen of the Aznas, in conflicr with CaptainVouler of the French colonial forces. Sarraouna s entourage inciudesadvisors, warriors, a lover, an d a griot who sings he r praise anddescribes her actions in war. She is an expert sorceress and a judiciousqueen wh o crushes her enemies and remains loyal to her friends.Sarraounia's goal is to keep her kingdom independem trom barhEuropean colonialism and the rvlos1em conquest that is threateningfrom the East. Th e narrative reveais her strategies in wa r as she ambushes rhe colonial army or retreats when the situation calls for it. Sheis also ct good orator who can use words ta rally he r men in rhe mostdifiicult momenrs and deploy slogans against slavery and shame tatease them inta nghting. Men and women from neighboring kingdomsjoin Sarraounia atrer their own armies have surrendered to the French



10/17

15-+..L1d cheir people l-u_':e been nussaCLeJ. SJ.rrJoLmia has J li[Etbat is momen(Jnly complicJd by hr dtermll1JtlOr1 to be equal LOmen.S ~ I 1 7 d U u n i . l , ~ i k ~ othr films Jbou( the hsrorc::ll c : n c ( ) u n t e . l ~ bt\yeel1

Europe Jnd .-\fric:l, themmizes Lhe role or ""vomen in precolonial _ ~ f r i c 3 . , the existence or d dynamic African culture, :tud Lt1 import:lnce orresistance Jgainst EOfeign inyaders. Filmed Ln CinemaScope, S(.n-raowlid grves JeSthtic pLasure b:" showing ln ~ - \ i r i c 3 . n WOillal1 lakingthe hro position oi \;0'eStrn nlms and becommg larger i:nan lire. ln on escene, Sdrr:J.ounia i5 shml,,':1 in confront:ltion \vith ner lover, \vho is alsoon e of the best w.1rriors in dIe army. Saroounia chdilen:es his ac1viceta lead the 3.tt3ck in one \vay an d not the ' vay she W;lrHS. She cakes Lhatas an opponuniry [0 remind him th;]t Sh lS the queen chJrge or the3.rmy. ln al10ther scene, sne 15 sho\\'n 111 the middle or her Jr!ny, wnlchhas jusr rerrcatea .from (he r3.ch or cannon ire; it seems futile ta go onfighting such J.n ul1equal battIe, and her -1rmy :s losing heart. Ir is tbenthat the queen stands up and fills the screen with her height as shespeaks co her people about the importance of resistanee, the shame ofslavery, an d the need ra fight for auranomy. It adds ra the aestherie ofthe film [Q see this scene and many others with _"'frican spectators inOuagadougou or Dakar. They al'plaud Sarraounia for speaking forthem. Th e scene re-ereares ror them oIher resistance scenes fram thepast, sueh as the on e led by Samory Tour, and in the presem. such asthe liberarion srruggles in Souchern Atrio. Toward th e end, Sarraouniais also immortalized by the song of rhe griot. As she is shown walkingahead of long hnes of he r people, [he grioI stares thar Sarraounia hastaught the Mrican people that dearh is preferable ra shame and rhat thesrruggle will continue until e'/eryone IS free.In other scenes, rhe specrarar is told abolit Saroounia's power an dprestige by- orller characters n Ihe story. Sorne Ivloslems haIe berbecause she :eruses ta submit (0 [heir taith; others admire her becauseshe defies the French. The film depiers Caprain Vouler as possessedwith the ide3. of conquering Sarraounia. He is therefore characrerizedas an evil man who regresses into irrationalty 3S So.rraounia eludes himtrom barrie CO bartie. Casting Sarraounia 1I1 a brger-than-life role isimportant because it shows that Afric:111 women were active in the waragainsr colonialism an d rhar they are capable ot leading rhe presentstruggle againsr imperialism, neocolonialism, and apanhld. In Sar-raouni, ),tien Hondo goes beyond paying 1ip service to Africanwornen's liberation [Q a radical conception of Atrican wamen as largerrhan life, Iike male heroes such as Samor; Tour, Shaka, an d SoundiaraKeita.

:1.rricm 155\X/hile ScTlT.70lfW,i. 15 concerned r'csisunc to ;..:olorzL1ol1) Flora

Gomes's l\,Ioni! Nt!gd, winner ot the prestiglOus OUD1J.rou GJ.nda Prize:dt F E S P ~ - \ C O '89, deJ.Is \\-ith che libeLltion strugglt in G u i n e ~ l - B i s s J u , Th e film i< ser be['xeen 19 7 ] an d 19 7 7 ,md depicrs Guinea-Bissaudurng an d aIrer the \var. Th e Story centers around the lives of Diminga(Bia Gomes) an d her husband, Sako (Tunu Eugenio Almada). Ir opens\vith Diminga gtting read:' to join Sako dt the \Var front. As she gOSfrom barde zone ta batde zone, the camera reveals Guinea-Bissau in asrare of ruin an d desobrion. The only hope in rhe mlddle of rhis despaircornes trom rumors that the liberation struggle will soon triumph.Diming2's JrrivClI at rhe camp where her husband is stationed eoincides\Vi rh the news or the assassinarion of Amilcar Cabral. This leavesDiminga and her husband only J few minutes tO talk ro each orherbeore he has ta resume fighting ta finish off the enemy. Th e wa r ends,bU I Sako has to remain \vith the :1rmy for a fe\\' more months. He asksDiminga co rerum home and \Vair for him there. On her \Vay home, shediscovers a new country [hat IS learning ta live in peJee. Sako corneshome, an d now chey have (0 cope with new problems such as th edrought an d development issues. Th e struggle must rherefore continue,cven though rhe war has ended. Everything seems ta be ar a standstillaround Diminga; Sako is siek, an d his sickness stems co symbolize thecounrry's morale. Ir is then [bat Diminga an d other women organize afuneral ceremony in order co question the gods and themselves abolitthe signifieance of death co the living_ The nexr moming, the magic5eems co have worked, the sky looks like it is going co rain, an d rhere isa smile on Diminga's face.

lv[ortu nega works on on e level as a love scoty. Th e title means "thenegation or dearh," life in detiance of dearh. Thus, Diminga's love forSako is paraileled in the film by the people's love for their country andtheir determination ra defv dearh co free ir from the Ponuguese coloI11zers. Th e love affair with the country is shown in the \Vay in whieh theornera tluidly lingers on every corner of the landscape through whiehDiminga traverses, as if ir were the most ptecious place. This affectionfor the landscape is also linked to the rheme of the liberation srruggle,whieh engages the soldiers in zones occupied by the enemy. Thesoldiers are happy ever! time tbey hear on the radio or [hrough rumorthar an atea has been liberated. Airer the war, people's love to r theCOUntry is also seen by the way rhey treat ir like a new baby in need ofcare. Th e film takes us to hospitals an d offices during Sako's illness, inarder [Q eriticize [he complacency of people wh o forger rhar independence means continuing the war on other fronts as weil: illiteracy,drought, and corruption. Ir is in this sense that lvlortu nega, also



11/17

156considered by che pople oi G l ~ i n e , ] ~ B l s s a u J. E.lm OI hope. br3ksv/iIh che rradltion Of filrns d l ~ l [ celebnte the iiberJr10n srruggle .lndmakes ;] movemeTIr rov/3rd s,:,li-cru:ici::.rn.

On Jnocher levd. l\ lon:u ik:gL1 is film abou( \\'011111 5 n ~ l e s li1 theliberation suuggle, Likt the main character in Sambl'.::.anga, "\xho lem-esher village in search oi her husodnd in the city and in the process gainsconsciousness ur the liberJtion suuggle; DimingJ. ;llso learns the importJnce oi solidarty "vith the rreedom nghrers rhrough her journey tojoin 5ako, She kno\vs [hat Ihere hJ.s to be complete trust berween menand \vomen if thcir hiding pbces arE ta remain ~ e c r e ( from the enerny.The l,your:d-::d) for -:x:J.illple, 1re !eft behind \Vith wnmen, and most orthe messages ::lr cransmitted br them. Th e story unfolds tramDiminga's point of vie\\". It is through ner eyes char the postindepen-dence bureaucratie stagnation dnd the complacency of the officiaIs arerevealed. She criricizes Sako's \var cornrades, wh o are no\v importantpersonalides in the government dnd proillming their own self-interesrwhile people are suffering from famine, i!lireracy, and lack of healthcare. Finally, in the most magical moment in the film, she organizes 3funeral rirual with the other women to question the gods, norablyDion Gago, who represems life and death, about the meaning ofindependence now that the enemy is gone. Normally the funeral danceis perrormed in West Africa by men, with \vomen singing and clappingtheir hands or acting as spectators. In the film, however, Flora Gomesdraws on Cabra!'s notiorl of national culture, which transTorms traditional rituals imo revolutionary praxis, ta bring women ou t of rheshadow. After performirlg the funeral dance, Diminga and rhe otherwomen come, one by one, ro demand the right ta a better life, given a!lthe lives that have been sacrificed for independence. Th e closeup shotsoi Diminga, as she asks the gods ta bring rain and prosperiry, make herlook defiant and radiam with power. The magic of the scene is suchthar it leaves no doubt that the gods will comply \Vith Diminga'srequest. At FESPACO '89, Bia Gomes won honotable mentlon for herpottroyal of Diminga.. Camp de Thiaroye is another film about [he histo[ie11 contromationberween Europe and Afriea that was popular at FESPACO '89. Set in1944 during World War Il, the film is about Atrican iniantrfmen in theFrench army who were called "les tirailleurs senegalais." These wereenlisted men from the colonies throughout Francophone Atrica who,airer fighting the IVar against the Germans and !talians in Europe andAtrica, \Vere massacred in Thiaroye, near Dakar, by orders of highofficiais in the French army. The viewer learns through Hashbacks,personal narratives, and dream sequences that the war experience has

Ln.:: Atric::m niist,.=ci E1t::::1 J different or 10 0 king at\yhite men. Aer sec:ing the German occupation or FrJl1ce. \vhich i5dS;:: co rb:ir \)\\'0 t : , : : p T i c : n c ~ .1;:, "'-:1)!onizcG subjecrs, lo d J.tter nghtingEerociu:dy to free F r ~ 1 n c e , rhey no longer see themSkes J.S second-classcitizens. -'X/hile st:u:iond :l t T h i ; . u o ~ e , the soldiers begin to aSK for suchrights as compensation for their wdrtime efions, equal salary Yl/iIhFtench soldiers, and equal (reatment for ail soldiers. These hiscoricaleveo[:- led co the bOll1oing or Thi;l[oye 3.t the end of the film.E',en though based on real EventS, C.7J"np de Thi"7roye 15 d careiul1ycrafred stor;.: that uses convenriol1al narrative devices such as suspense,allusion to other historieal e,'cms, and,l()qL sounds to creare theimpression of realirv. Th e film won ,he Jury Specl .-"ward at the VeniceFiln1 FesIv:ll ror its masterly use or (hese cinematlc "Cechniques. Thesuspense in Camp de Thiaroye concerns the fate of ,h e soldiers. Fromhistorical knowledge. ,he spectJtor alreadv knows that they 'Nill bemassacred; the question IS \vhen and how they \vi11 oic: in the stary. Ir ishere rhat Sembne's long experience as J stot;1teller pays off. He succeeds in making the audience forget temporatily that the characterswill die at the end by making them idemify \Vith the historical,cultural, an d social developmem of the characrers. The soldiers' memories of their villages, or marriage and death, and the cultural differencesbet\yeen the Bambara and the Bamu are depicted in arder to anchorthe characters as avetage human beings \Vith a specifie history andculture. The use of sound is important here because it accemuates thespectaror 5- r e t a r i o n ~ t b the --cn,tr3cters-.

On one level, the use of broken French by the soldiers provides acomic navor ta the film. This kind of French, first common amongveterans oi World War II and now in use in such capital cines asAbidjan, makes the spectators laugh \Vith a sense of recognition everytime the speakers mtleCI the Parisian symax in arder to exp fess anAfrican idea. The spectators laugh at the soldiers' speech because of itstransgressive nature. Srudems in Francophone Atriea are taught [Q usefr,mte (a rerm coined by Lopold Sdar Senghor ro mean the use oiFrench logic in expressing oneself) as the means oi address. Respect EorFrench grammar is necessary in such a dimate of assimilation. Clearlythese mies, which remforce the conditions of speaking French inDakar, Bamako, and Ouagadougou, also restnct the number of speakers. By letting the soldiers violace the grammar or fr,meite, Camp deThiaroye cakes the French language away trom the el ire and gives it [Qthe people. As he did with Le M'lIIdat (1968), where [he actors spakWolof tor the first Lime in an Afrcan film, Sembne sets [he tune inCamp de Thiaroye with the use of an Afrieanized French. The result is



12/17

15xa popubr film \1 ith actors eG on rezd EVentS, Heritage Africc1 puts in ra pb y thepsychologiedl history o encounters bt\Veen Arrica Jnd Europe. lnorher \\'ords, K\\3.\'/ An5ah 15 inrerested in the hislory of the repressedidenrty dn d (he ways in \vhich the repressed returns v,rith a vengeance.ln Loue Brewed in the Atl'i71l Pot (1980), Ansah cririczeci a par-cicular breed or Ghan;lian elites (judges, lawyers, and Jccountants) forrejecting their origins. 10 In Heritage A f ? ' i c ~ 1 he describes ho w thestructures o[ alienation led the elices ta push their _\frican idemity intothe background. The Elites' pracce of denying th e contribution ofAfrican traditions in their socioeeonomic development is pu t intoquestion in one scene thar drew tears from the spectarots in FESPACO'89. Kwesi's mother r.Aiexandra Oua) cornes tram the village ta payhim a visit. She arrives aT his home while he IS entenalning his citycolleagues. He meecs her at th e door an d pushes her behind the ho use,where he gives her a stool an d tells her ta wait untiI his friends leave.She sits down and, while waiting for him, falls asleep. This scene isempowered bv its use of irony. Th e speetator knows th m K wesi isashamed of his mother and wants ro make her pass as on e of theservants, while she sees him as the worthy son from the village wh owill carry on the family tradition. She thinks chat the ancestral casketwill be safe with him, bu t no sooner do es he receive iT than he deliversir co the colonial governor.

Th e narrative or Heritage A(rica equares Kwess betrayal of hismother ta the betrayal of "Mother Africa." As Franoise Kabor putSit, "The mother represents the symbol of love an d ptmection (inAfrica). Perhaps this is wh v Kwesi's betrayal of the mocher country [orthe colonial power turns against him. The mother country is cheincarnarion of tradition and nmonalism."ll Thus, in a series or encoumers \Vith Kwame Adroma (Tommy Ebow Ansah), the freedomfighter, Kwesi sicles with the colonizers' poinr or Vlew.

Th e Return to the SourceTo tu m now to the films dealing lVirh the theme of returning to thesource, it is first imporrant to put such a movement into perspective.Souleymane Ciss, whose fum Yeelen is considered the oest example in



13/17

the genre, argues thJ[ he: had to look for .1 different sc:,'le alcer m:l kingBam'y1 and Finye, \vhicn \vere avertly polcal 3.nd didactc. As hehin1self pu t it, "There \\"35 Jlso cension building J.round me because ofm:; prevous films) :lOC lr Isas dear that li l ',vanred to S t ~ l y ln mycountry and enjoy :1 degree or freedom or .XpreS:3loD) l had to lightenthings a bit, or [Q mab: a dierent type of cinema." 12

There are ::lt leasr three reasons why filmmJ.kers turn to this genre:(1) to be less overt with ,he poEtical message in order to avoid censorship, :2i ta search for precolonial Alrican traditions thar can contribute to the solution of conremporarv problems, an d (3) to search forJ. nE N film langu.gc. _\0 underlying desrc behiod the making of thesetypes or films is ta prave the existence of adynamie African history andculture beore the European colonization. Gaston Kabor's WendKHI/ni (1982), for (;.'{ample, shows the Mossi Empire in its splendorwiIh trading centers. Th e film aIs a shows rhar Afriean women did notwair for the arrivai or Europeans ta start fighring ior rheir rights. U InL'exile (1930), Oumarou Ganda desenbes the sanctiry of the given1 ward an d the regime of truth in precolonial Africa. H Ali or these films

\ define their sryle by reexamining ancienr African tradirions, their.I:modes of existence, an d their magic.Unlike rhe films ab ou r historieal conrromation rhat are conventional

on the level of form, these films are characrerized by the way thedirector looks at tradirion. Ir is a look thar is intent on posiring religionwhere anthropologists only see idolatry, history where they see primirivism, and humanism where They see savage acts. The films are ehanl.crerized by long takes withO naturaI sounds. Unlike convemional filmlanguage, which uses close-ups co dramatize a narrative moment, theclose-ups in these llms serve ra inscribe the beauty of the charaer"rsan d their tradition. Poiming ta rheir aestherie appeal, some filmmakersand crirics have acclaimed the remm [Q rhe source movement as the endof amiserabilism" in Arrican CInema an d che beginning or a cinemawirh perieet images, periecr sound, and perlect editing. 15 Others, onrhe contrary, have criticized the films for being nosulgie an d extic intheir representarion of Airica. They argue thar the teturn ta the sourcefilms are int1uenced bv rhe vision oi the European amhropologists,whieh they seem [Q pm inta quesrion. In her excellem review orFESPACO '39, Thrse-Marie Deifomaines deseribes Idrissa Ouedraogo's Yaaba as a "simple village star;. A posteard which is magnificendv photographed. Everv shot is an aesrheric success. Yaaba providesrhe specrator wirh an idyllic image of an Africa whien is devoid of everymaterial conringency."16Ler's now look ar some of the themes in Yeelen an d Yaaba as a way of

161iiiust["J.ting the re[Urn ro [h SOUrCe' filIn:::;. ln YeeJeH Clss themacizes'the c!assic conf1ict bel\\:een the old .Ind the l1t \V b ~ ' pitting Soma Diarn(.:\'J.manro SJ.nogo). :J. member or the fe:J.ftd Bamban secret socicrr,the homo, :J.gainst his son, ~ i n J . n k o r o (lssiaka KJ.ne), 'I\/ho must u;ethe wing of the Kore (a secret [;lblC rh


14/17

162In \\':srn films 1 sucn 3 \voman \\"ould h..l\ looked r e p u l s i l , ' ~ '.\'1chb;ue bre8.srs an d ugiy \\'\rh holes ;n 11er nose ,lnd ~ l f S . Like Yee!en, Ouedro.ogo's Y ~ h l b d is ~ l l s o be,-1Ucifull;: nlrncd. te b ~ l b o u [ the rriendshlP betwe en Blla1 ;1 t\velve-Y'ar-old bo:', '..lnd Sana, :.1n OUtCJS[

old woman. Although the whole village considers Sana a wltch an dblames her tor every accident or iIlness, Bi b cails he r '{


15/17

Ti/,li, iik;.:: 'lee/en an d CedLlo, des"::::-lOe.3 :he ITiOml r ot chdng bysiding \\'ith che: youngr genermion ~ 1 g 3 n s t tr2.diLion. . -\[ th e n d of the:film, when Kougri \va.lks :w,:ay irom the l:dlag) il is dear rn:.:U chet:radltional regime or rrurh h a ~ been candemnc:J. lt hJ::, ben aceused ofabusing cb: praGiee of polygamy an d of being tao dogmatic to\V3rd theyourh. Ouedraogo s philosophic.d \i"\,5, JS seen in Le choix Jn dYaava, 2r e apparent here, (00. Th e norion in Yc7..1ba or '0ie juger pasles J.utres, ils onE leurs raisons," a sart or French liberalism, is deployedin Tilai as a philosopnv oi rolerating orhers \Vith their desires ln d\veaknesses. Saga, for xample, knows th,lr Nagma has ha d an 3.ffairwith an Othe!" rn2n. But ht' is n0 t consumed with the dt"sire for totalloye. For Ouedroogo, sueh an essemialism, \Vith its need to completelvpossess rhe abjects oi desire, is at the root of the destruction aitradition,

ln the wav he suspends any type of strang Judgmem in his films,Ouedraogo 15 parr or a young generation or writers .1od tlmmakers inAirica wh o take a postmodem attitude toward calonialism an d nationalism. He is against the "srrong thought" and che assigning ai theblame on on e side. Tilai is like a western with an antihero in search ai autopian society. Saga is happy in his aum's village, where he an dNogma can love each other fteely. Thus th e aum's village isOuedraogo's ideal community and one that he tries tO delineate in hisfilms.

Tilai is a150 postmodern in its nostalgie gesture toward "primitivecinema" an d the Oedipus drama. At the end ai the film, the poetic wayin which Kougri picks up the rifle an d shoots Saga brings tOgelher filmhistory an d the Airican oral traditions. Because the camera is statie an dthe acting looks clumsy, the shot reminds us of carly CInema. But thedistance between the charaeters an d the spectator, the refusaI to let thespectaror into the characters' minds, is also a [rait of the oral cr;J.ditions. We know that we are being tOld a stoty by a third person ',thegriot or the filmmaker), an d every shot must be negotiared through thatnarrator. The end of Ti/ai, like the king's court in Ceddo an d the Komoscene in Yee!en, lifts Airican cinema to a new dimension of cinematlepleasure an d magic. Th e camera, in each ai these scenes, obeys themise-en-scne of the oral tradition.

In conclusion, what can one say about these typologies in Airicancinema) Taken as a whole it is dear that they teHect Airiea in its que stfot social an d economic justice (social realist), identity (retum to [hesource), and histoty (confrontation). Given the importance of eaeh oi

the:.,e c3regO[leS, ir counrerproducci' : c(; l/;ok Je [otm ~ l i o n e 2:1d L'OSEit as the CLilrion tor Jeveloped cinema. Thus it s simplistic single:)Ul" '{c2ie:: TiL::', for eXJ.mple, J.S che ne\\' dircon in Afr icHl ..::incr;u.,1nd tO jUdg (J[her f-ilm:'1 by their t e L l [ i Y C ~ Jffiniries L chis film. Tocon"'ince specr;ltors of the probabiliry of his 5torY1 Ciss finds ir necess a ~ / (0 use: beautiful images tO CO unrc [ the )[reot;.'picJ.! LtT1:lges of ._--\tn(3. consuucteu by Hollyvvood and \Vesrn hlsrory. One importanttask to r a return [Q the source hInl IS therefore to chJlleEge \''"esrernl:nema 0n the leve1 ot form. Yeelen derines irs ow n l J n g u a g ~ by deemphaslzing th e psychologicaily based shot/reverse shot an d close-uDs or i\X'esrern cinem:l, an d by v2.lorizlng long shots ln d long takes, \v:hichthrough chelt "nacur31" teel are desrined to describe ~ h e characrers'relarionships ta each other dnd L time an d space. In comparison tOfilms like Yeeien an d Ceddo, Wesrern cinema seems CO make verY little ,use oi space an d time to dehne its choracters. Th e long viev,:s that;rerurn-to-the-surce films use enable them co reveal the rituals under ithe Baobab t r e e ~ th e secret sp


16/17

16hbClUse il lS more re::llisr,: thJ.11 otb:rs or because it is c11e only dvanIgarde: film in ~ ~ l . f r c a n cinem:l. Thj,') book has tned to evaluare t-ilms bydssssing cbeir ,:oherenc lD the particulac- discours the:: choose tOdeploy. Ir is hoped rhor bv delineming difierenc cendencies rhe readerhas been re:1sed to engage in a dialogue about the dversity of move-ments in ~ - \ t r i c a n (inem;}.


This item has been copied in compliance with Sections 29 and 30 of the Copyright Act No further copying or transmission is permitted


17/17

.LTh/rd Cinema .md theUlvE Research Press, 1982'1.

."\.'0tes p ~ l g e s 132-160or Thlfcl Cmema, j'e G:lbriel Teshorne,The Aesthetic5 0/ LiberJ!ion (Ann :\rbor:

5. EI.Houdja!J!d '',:-\lgiers\ ~ l a r ( h 16, 19S5.6. Quored ln 5Idway.7, no. 217.

X, African Cinema Toda;:1. See Laurence Gavron, et sa 'grand-mre'

Liberation i2, 1989): 35: "\Vhen \':ith the problemstion and one must take nro aCCOUrIt the Experiences of othercouDrries and mher film indU5tries, Rur the tendency here i5 to proceed as if \ve\ve still in the sixties; r.:o (oorinue to magnify thmgs that no longer need to bemagmned; :md we forger that the struggle is hard and that W have manrshortcomings, 'i'f/e ghettoze ourselves in a miserable position of inierioriry. Ir Isa sign or marunry thar, this l'ear, a look at the films at FESPACO, good or bad,reveals :1 diversity or styles and J. sense or professionalism in the production"(my translatIon).

2. Unpublished interviews with :vied Hondo (l\larch 1989, in Dakar), andCheick Oumar Sissoko Civlarch 1989, in Ouagadougou) by the aurhor,

3. See ivianthia Diawara and Elizabeth Robinson, "New Perspectives inA.frican Cinema: An Interview \virh Cheick Oumar Sissoko," in Film Quarrer/y 41, no_ 2 (1987188): 43-48_

4. Sapeur reters to a new generaton or fashion c onscious yourh in Zaire,Cdmeroon, and Gabon. They take pride in wearng the ma St expensive clothesand shoes, and parading on the sidewalks of the capital cities.

5. Fatou Sow, "Senegal: The Decade and Irs Consequences," rrans, AnneC. Rennick and Catherine Boone, in Issue: A. Journal o( Opinion 1 , no. 2(Summer 1989): 32-

6. L dji Bellow, "Cinma: Le srail en folie," in Jeune A(rique, no. 1-473(lvfarch 29, 1989): 57 (ml" translation),i. FatOu 50w, "Senegal: The Decade and Irs Consequences," 35.

S. Serge Daney, " C i n ~ - b i ! a n Ouaglais," in Libration (}Vlarch 8/9) 1987):30 (my translation).

9, Kati Anyidoho, "Heritage Africa," in Uhuru (Feb. 1989): 6.10. See my essay "Film in Anglophone Arrica: A Brier Survey," in Black

(rames: Criticai Perspectives on Black 11ldependent Cinema, d. ?vibye B.Cham and Claire Andr3.de-\X1atkins (Cambrid ge: Celebr :uion of Black Cinema/MIT Press, 1988),37-49_

11. Franoise Kabor, "Heritage Africa: Rupture avec la parrie," in Sidwaya, no. 1223 (l'vIarch 1, 1989): 4 i)ny translation).

12. lvbmhia Dawara, "Souleymane Ciss's Lrght on Africa," in Black FilmReview 4, no,'; (1988): 13_13, See my essay "Oral Lirerature and A.frican Film: Narratology in \vend

Kuuni," in Prsence Africaine, no. 142 (1987): 36-49; reprinted in Questionsof Third Cinem", ed, Jim Pines and Paul Willemen (London: British FilmInstitute, 1989),

14_ See Franoise Pfaf!, "Oumarou Ganda," in her Twellty-Five Black Af ric,:m Filmn-takers 1:\'V'esrport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1988), 131,

17715. Sec Lmrtnce Gavron, e,: 5c1 'grJnd ..merc' L-I':\[nque, , 35,See aLo Serge D a n < ' : ' ~ , ' , 'Cin bdaD16, Thse ll,'brie DdiontJ.ines, lI e [estival de Ouagadougou: Toutes

tes de t'Afrique,'" in Le monde! (l\lJrch 16, 1989j: 22 lm ' ; traTIsbtioo',.GaHon, '"Ouedraogo et sa 'grand .. me' d ' A . f r i q ~ e , " 35.


Diawara Africian Cinema Today

Documents

Transcript of Diawara Africian Cinema Today