Diagnostic study of the lakes Laborde (or Lake Cocoyer ......hanging valleys often lack a distinct...

Diagnostic study of three lakes in southern Haiti 1

Diagnostic study of the lakes Laborde (or Lake Cocoyer), Lachaux, and

Douat to identify zones of protection.

Dr. Donald Huggins and Debra Baker

Kansas Biological Survey Report #181

Submitted 29 May 2015

to

Comité Interministériel d’Aménagement du Territoire

Kansas Biological Survey

University of Kansas

2101 Constant Ave.

Lawrence, Kansas 66047 USA


Contents

Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... 4

Introduction and Background ......................................................................................................... 5

Weather and Climate ...................................................................................................................... 8

Geology and Geomorphology ......................................................................................................... 8

Lakes and Lake Watersheds .......................................................................................................... 10

Study Objective ............................................................................................................................. 16

Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 16

Land use and land cover (LULC) of watersheds ........................................................................ 17

Water level, Secchi depth, in situ water chemistry .................................................................. 17

Nutrients and bacteria .............................................................................................................. 17

Macroinvertebrates .................................................................................................................. 18

Plankton .................................................................................................................................... 18

Fish ............................................................................................................................................ 19

Macrophytes ............................................................................................................................. 19

Results ........................................................................................................................................... 19

Bacteria ..................................................................................................................................... 19

Nutrients ................................................................................................................................... 23

In situ water chemistry ............................................................................................................. 23

Macroinvertebrates .................................................................................................................. 24

Plankton .................................................................................................................................... 24

Fish ............................................................................................................................................ 25

Macrophytes ............................................................................................................................. 28

Landuse/landcover ................................................................................................................... 30

Slope .......................................................................................................................................... 34

Population ................................................................................................................................. 38

Community meetings ................................................................................................................ 38

Springs and wells....................................................................................................................... 42

Watershed findings and conclusions ............................................................................................ 43

Soil erosion and land use .......................................................................................................... 43


Precipitation and runoff ............................................................................................................ 44

Lake quality and uses ................................................................................................................ 44

Identification of protection and restoration zones and areas...................................................... 45

Protection area summary ......................................................................................................... 53

Institutional management options and actions ............................................................................ 57

Structural erosion and protection options and actions ............................................................ 58

Non-structural erosion and protection options and actions .................................................... 59

Some future considerations ...................................................................................................... 59

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... 60

References .................................................................................................................................... 61

Appendix A. Files and methods used by the Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program to create

Haiti watersheds and calculate slope. Written by Jerry Whistler. .............................................. 64

Appendix B. Study locations with approximate altitude. ............................................................ 66

Appendix C. Photographs of fish collected during this study at Etang Lachaux and Laborde. ... 67

Appendix D. Fishes of Haiti with occurrence classes. .................................................................. 69

Appendix E. Photographs of macrophytes collected during this study at Etang Lachaux and

Laborde. ........................................................................................................................................ 71

Appendix F. 2011 landuse/landcover maps of each lake watershed. ......................................... 74


Executive Summary

Haiti’s Comité Interministériel d’Aménagement du Territoire (CIAT), an inter-departmental

government agency, has been tasked with identifying and delineating zones within watersheds

to protect against environmental degradation. As such, CIAT contracted the Kansas Biological

Survey (KBS) to perform a study of three watersheds located northwest of Les Cayes in Haiti’s

Southern Peninsula: the watersheds of Etang Lachaux, Etang Douat, and Etang Laborde. The

goal of the study was to perform a bioassessment of the lakes and evaluation of landuse within

the watersheds in order to make informed decisions about the best places and methods to

protect or begin recovery activities.

Deforestation and erosion of Haiti’s land has been well documented. Less is known about

Haiti’s aquatic systems and how landuse activities impact the ecological services provided by

these ecosystems. Valuable ecological services include fish and bird habitat, biodiversity,

hunting and fishing, and drinking water for humans and livestock. This study examines the

physical (depth), chemical (in situ and nutrient parameters), and biological (zooplankton,

macroinvertebrates, fish, phytoplankton, macrophytes) components of the lakes as well as the

springs and wells located in the watersheds. Current and historical watershed landuse and

landcover was examined through geographic information system (GIS), observation, and

discussions with community members. The resulting information was used to delineate priority

zones for protection or restoration, as well to make recommendations for protection and

restoration activities. Specifically, in order of priority, the zones that should be protected or

restored within each of the three watersheds are:

1. All areas within a 50-meter buffer or 5 hectare area (whichever is larger) around the

most prevalent lake shoreline AND all areas within 50 m of stream banks AND all areas

within 100 m of springs.

2. High slope (>30%) areas outside of the upper watersheds.

3. High slope (>30%) areas within the upper watersheds.


Introduction and Background

In May 2013, upon request of the Ministry of the Environment of the South Department of

Haiti, the Central Plains Center for BioAssessment (CPCB) performed a preliminary baseline

study of Etang Lachaux, a 54 hectare shallow lake located between Les Cayes and Camp Perrin.

The goal was to evaluate if the lake could sustain a harvestable fish population. Etang Lachaux

is one of a series of shallow lakes that stretches east to west in this area of the southern

peninsula (Figure 1). In January 2014 in conjunction with returning to the area to report our

Etang Lachaux findings, we did a walking assessment of Etang Laborde, a 36 hectare lake

located 5 km the southeast. The Haitian organization Comité Interministériel d’Aménagement

du Territoire (CIAT), and inter-departmental government agency whose mission includes

watershed management and protection, then funded us to perform a full-bioassessment in

March 2015 on the largest three lakes in the region, Etang Lachaux, Etang Douat, and Etang

Laborde (Fig. 2 and 3). The Organization for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (ORE), a

non-profit group Camp Perrin, coordinated field logistics, including providing drivers and a

translator and meeting space.

Figure 1. Location of the study watersheds (blue) in the western half of Haiti’s southern Peninsula.


Figure 2. Topographic map showing the location of the study lakes near Camp Perrin Haiti in the South Department. The new National

Route 7 highway is not on this map. Topographic lines are 20 m intervals. Watersheds are delineated in light blue.


Figure 3. Aerial photo map showing the location of the study lakes near Camp Perrin Haiti in the South Department. The new National

Route 7 highway is not on this map. Watersheds are delineated in light blue.


Weather and Climate

Haiti has a hot and humid tropical climate and is semiarid where the mountains in east cut off

the trade winds. Haiti is characterized by diurnal temperature variations that are greater than

the annual variations and are modified by elevation. The southern region has two rainy

seasons, lasting from April to June and from August to October, whereas other regions

experience rainfall from May to November. Average annual rainfall at Camp Perrin was 87.3

inches (221.7 cm) for the 20-year period beginning in 1993 and ending in 2012

(http://www.oreworld.org/rainfall.htm, accessed April 2015). Annual variations of precipitation

can cause droughts, widespread crop failures, and famine. The southern peninsula is more

vulnerable to hurricanes (tropical cyclones) than other parts of Haiti. The average annual

rainfall is 140 to 200 centimeters, but it is unevenly distributed. Heavier rainfall occurs in the

southern peninsula and in the northern plains and mountains. Rainfall decreases from east to

west across the northern peninsula. The eastern central region receives a moderate amount of

precipitation, while the western coast from the northern peninsula to Port-au-Prince, the

capital, is relatively dry.

Geology and Geomorphology

The dominant topography of the central and western portions of the island of Hispaniola is

reflected in Haiti’s name that is derived from the indigenous Arawak place-name Ayti or

“mountainous land” and is also the local name for cone karst. Madden and Minson (2010)

state that the mountain chains of Haiti are often composed of cone karst with many sinkholes,

springs, caves and caverns and disappearing and losing streams with few continuous stream or

river systems (Figure 4).

Cone karst topography, which is common in the tropics, is typically characterized by closed

depressions (e.g. sinks, sinkholes) located at the base of many steep-sided, cone-shaped hills

that often create narrow, steeply-walled valleys. The following figure from the literature

illustrates typically karst features, many of which can be seen throughout the southern

peninsula of Haiti and in our study areas.

These sinks and sinkholes can be cylindrical, conical, bowl- or dish-shaped and range from a few

meters in diameter to hundreds of meters. The study lakes appear to be part of a series of

ancient depressions that have become sealed and fill with water during wet periods. This

interpretation is, in part, supported by McFadden’s study of the geography setting of nearby

Macaya and La Visite National Parks (MacFadden 1982). He note that within and on the

http://www.oreworld.org/rainfall.htm


Figure 4. Karst topography landscape cross section from http://www.slideshare.net/valentic/planet-earth-groundwaterpowerpointpresentation

limestone substrate an extreme karst topography has developed with numerous solution

features such as sinks, sinkholes and vertical-walled pipes (openings to the surface from caves

and caverns). There are two different mechanisms for the formation of sinks and sinkholes:

solution and collapse. Caves tend to migrate to the surface through repeated ceiling collapses

that systematically raise the roof (collapse) and floor (deposition) of the cave until the ceiling

collapse breaks to the surface of the landscape. The other cause of sinkholes and sinks is

related to the corrosive solution of limestone by rainwater in areas where cracks in the

limestone promotes water movement into the subsurface limestone formations. This normally

process typically forms the bowl-shaped type of sinks. All of our study lakes as well as three

other lakes in this region tend to be shallow, bowl-shaped waterbodies with large surface areas

when completely full. That these lakes are likely to be water-filled sinks is further suggested by

the fact that the karst solution process often produces large amounts of clay that can be

deposited in these bowls which then act to seal the bottom of the sink leading to the creation

of little lakes of rain water. These sinkhole lakes are a rare aquatic feature in karst areas where

most precipitation rapidly infiltrates into the caves, underground rivers and other subterranean

karst features.

In addition, a complex system of underground caves and caverns has developed throughout this

region and there are many examples of dry valley collapses that are also called hanging valleys.

These hanging valleys can be observed throughout the region where these lakes occur. The

hanging valleys often lack a distinct surface water connection to the lower main valley or valleys

because surface flows into these valleys drain to the underground karst drainage systems. As is

http://www.slideshare.net/valentic/planet-earth-groundwaterpowerpointpresentation


characteristic of karst regions, much of the precipitation in this region enters the hydrologic

cycle by vertical movement into the subsurface through joints and solution features.

Lakes and Lake Watersheds

The oldest reference to Etang Lachaux that we found was from a 1934 expedition by P.J.

Darlington Jr. to collect ground insects. He said “On October 26th and again on the 27th I

collected along the shores of Etang Lachaux, a fine, small lake an hour's walk over a ridge east

of Camp Perrin. This was perhaps the best single locality I found below 1,000 ft. for ground

collecting.” This paints a picture of a vegetated landscape surrounding the lake at the time of

Darlington’s expedition. Now all that remains are few large trees, shrubby plants, and crops

such as corn planted up to the receding lake edge and on the hillsides overlooking the lake. As

with much of Haiti, deforestation has led to bare hillsides prone to erosion during heavy rains.

To our knowledge there are no published accounts describing the historic or even more current

(1940s to 1990s) landscape characteristics and land use within the watersheds draining Etang

Douat or Laborde.

While the land use and land cover of these watersheds is only vaguely documented, it seems

safe to assume that they were historically forested but have suffered from continuous

deforestation and intensive agricultural grazing and cultivation. As of the date of this report

these watersheds continue to suffer from massive, basin-wide erosion with little or no

organized or programmatic efforts to contain or reduce soil erosion and instill land

management practices.

These karst watersheds are typical of the karst landscape of the southern peninsula and as such

share similar topographic, geological and soil characteristics. Soils are predominately Udepts –

new, shallow soils associated with forests. In many areas of these watersheds, these thin,

exposed forest soils have quickly eroded from the high-slope terrain that characterizes all the

watersheds in this mountainous region. It should be noted that karst environments such as

these watersheds have been recognized as important landscape worthy of protection (Day

2011). Karst landscapes play a critical part in water conservation and the maintenance of

biodiversity and much of the world’s karst areas lay within developing countries like Haiti. Day

(2011) lists a number of reasons for the protection and preservation of karst landscapes. They

include: 1) important areas for scientific study across a variety of disciplines; 2) religious and

spiritual areas; 3) areas of specialized agriculture and industry; 4) critical areas to the

understanding of regional hydrology; 5) recreation and tourism areas with important economic

and aesthetic value; 6) habitats for endangered species of flora and fauna; 7) areas possessing

rare minerals and/or unique landscape features; and 8) important historic and prehistoric areas

with cultural importance. Only about one percent of the karst regions in Haiti is offered some

level of protection from human impacts and land use changes (Kueny and Day 1998).


Recognizing the importance of karst landscapes, and their protection in Haiti, adds incentive to

the protection of these study lakes thus assuring the simultaneous protection of these karst

watersheds.

Much of what we know about these watersheds comes from two primary published sources – a

2007 thesis by Jean-Louis Enold and a 2012 land use and land cover baseline report produced

by The Earth Institute, Columbia University in partnership with Catholic Relief Services and the

Organization for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (ORE), Haiti. Enold’s thesis

concentrated on landownership, erosion, agriculture uses and management practices within

the Laborde watershed. Both of these publications proved of value and are cited on a number

of occasions in reference to general observations in some or all of our study watersheds and

lakes. However, we have used our own estimates of a number of lake characteristics and

watershed features since our methods and techniques provide more pertinent accuracy and

precision than that of Enold’s and the Earth Institute reports.

During the last 60 years (± 10 years) water level of all of these lakes has been reported to

fluctuate from local flood to near dry conditions (personal communications, Lachaux, Douat and

Laborde community meetings, March 2015). The current study and the past study of Lachaux

were both conducted during low water level and rainfall conditions as noted by local authorities

and the historic rainfall records of ORE (Table 1). The average rainfall in 2013 and 2014 was 136

and 167 cm, about 32% less than the previous 20 year average with 2013 having the lowest

rainfall on record for Camp Perrin. Thus it should be noted that study results may not represent

typical lake conditions due to the drought-like conditions that preceded lake sampling events.

Table 1. Watershed and lake size (square meters) at and before the time of this study. Watershed area was determined from boundaries created in GIS from ASTER GDEM source data (see Appendix A for details). 2011 lake area was determined from Earth Institute (2012) landuse/landcover calculations. 2013 – 2014 lake area was determined by authors by recording lake perimeters while walking with handheld GPS unit.

Lake Etang Lachaux Etang Douat Etang Laborde

2011 lake area m2 585,874 119,246 470,504

2013 May lake area m2 539,361 -- --

2014 January lake area m2 -- -- 389,346

2015 March lake area m2 676,252 0 363,744

Watershed area m2 3,684,745 2,710,137 7,128,851

Low-water and no water lake conditions as experienced in our studies also impacts land use

and land management practices that more directly affect the lake ecosystem and water quality.


While general land use within each watershed is thought to be fairly similar from year to year,

the area immediately surrounding the lakes dramatically changes during low and no water

conditions. Farmers nearest the lake and with access to the lake bottom lands exposed by

decreasing water levels immediately put the exposed lake bottom into production. The

increase in agriculture cultivation around and in the lake basin is also accompanied by great

livestock use of the lake for both forage and drinking water. Both the increased livestock access

and increased cultivation in and near the lake bottom decrease biological and water quality.

The use of the lake basin and bottom areas (during drought conditions) in each lake are very

similar as is the general land use and practices noted in each watershed (Table 2). The actual

land uses within each watershed are very similar when the highly fluctuating water category

(i.e. lake surface area) is removed with the biggest differences in watershed land use occurring

in the “other” category and agricultural cultivation (i.e. Cultures Agricoles). The Lachaux

watershed has about 25 % less cultivation in it than the Laborde watershed which might affect

water quality except that portions of each watershed drain to and through large alluvial fans

(e.g. alluvial plains) which are functioning to reduce sediment delivery and associated

containments directly to each lake. This suspected phenomenon is discussed in the

recommendations section of the report. In summary, it appears that watershed-wide (i.e.

basin-wide) land use and land cover are extremely similar, thus impacts from land uses should

be similar except for affects related to near lake land slope, farming and buffer conditions.

Table 2. Percent land use and land cover as determined from 2011 data provided by Earth

Institute, calculated after removing the water category from the total percentage. Total

watershed area estimates do include the water land cover category. See Earth Institute report

(2012) for land use definitions.

Land use category Etang Lachaux Etang Douat Etang Laborde

Agroforestry (Systèmes Agroforestiers) 26.0% 28.2% 24.3%

Grassland (Savanes) 3.1% 2.9% 2.9%

Forest (Fôrets) 0.2% 0.2% 0.1%

Agriculture (Cultures Agricoles) 17.0% 21.1% 22.8%

Pasture (Pâturages) 29.6% 31.0% 29.1%

Urban (Urbain) 0.4% 0.3% 0.5%

Other (Autres) 23.8% 16.2% 20.3%

Total watershed (Bassin versant) (m2) 3,684,745 2,710,137 7,128,851


Figure 5. Etang Lachaux showing sampling sites in white, and depths (cm) of two sites in yellow.

Watershed boundary is represented by a blue line.


Figure 6. Etang Douat showing locations of a residual pool of water (D_hole), cave opening, and

the hibiscus bramble pictured in Figure 6. Watershed boundary is represented by a blue line.

Aerial photo shows water but basin did not contain water during the month of the study.


Figure 7. Etang Laborde showing sampling sites in white and depths (cm) of three sites in

yellow. #1 is hand dug well #1, #2 is hand dug well #2, NGO well is a pump well. Watershed

boundary is represented by a blue line.


Study Objective

Our objective was to perform a baseline ecological assessment of Etang Laborde, Etang Douat,

and Etang Lachaux in the South Department of Haiti (Fig. 5 - 7) and offer suggestions for zones

of protection. Water quality measurements included in situ measurements and bacteria and

nutrients from samples returned to the laboratory. We performed a complete biological

assessment (bioassessment) including using quantitative methods to collect representative

samples of the macroinvertebrates, zooplankton, and phytoplankton populations.

Phytoplankton enumeration will be used to estimate productivity within the lakes. We

collected representative taxa from the aquatic macrophyte communities. We examined the

fish population using catch and release methods, and collected representative taxa for

identification. Samples were collected both from the lake shore and from throughout the lake

accessed via an inflatable boat. We walked (Douat and Laborde) or drove (Lachaux) to the top

of the largest gullies of each lake to evaluate watershed land use and land cover, and collected

macroinvertebrates, fish, and water samples from wells, springs, and stream pools we

encountered. To reconstruct a 50-year history of watershed land use, we concluded work at

each lake with a community meeting of residents who live near the lakes. A workshop was held

at ORE with a group of stakeholders chosen by CIAT and ORE to learn more about their

understanding and goals for this watershed and share initial results of the study.

Methods

This study spanned 9 – 19 March 2015. On the first day of the study at each lake, we evaluated

land use practices and vegetative cover, and familiarized ourselves with lake conditions by

walking around the lake to collect macroinvertebrates and water chemistry from 3 shore

locations and plant specimens to characterize the macrophyte communities. On the second

day we took an inflatable boat on the lake to collect 3 water chemistry samples in conjunction

with 3 phytoplankton and zooplankton samples. We also measured lake depth, Secchi depth,

and in situ water chemistry from these 3 sites and an additional 8 to 12 sites distributed

throughout the lake. On the third day we meet with residents to inquire of the history of lake

and surrounding land use. See Appendix B for sample locations.

Etang Douat had no water, affording us an extra day to explore and document conditions in the

larger watershed of Etang Laborde. We also spent a morning examining the location, number

and condition of culverts along National Highway 7 where it drains to the watershed of Etang

Lachaux on the west and north. Qualitative collections of macroinvertebrates and fish were

collected from a stream in the Douat watershed, while in situ water measurements and water

samples were collected from springs and wells in each watershed. The geographic coordinates

of all sampling localities were recorded with a handheld GPS. Import permits for biological

samples were obtained from APHIS and USFWS. Export permits for these same samples were

obtained from the Haitian government with the help of CIAT after a quarantine period.


Land use and land cover (LULC) of watersheds

We delineated the watershed of each lake from ASTER GDEM source data (see Appendix A for

details). Additionally, we obtained LULC maps of the watersheds produced in 2011 by the Earth

Institute at Columbia University for UNOPS and UNEP (Appendix F). Their methods are

described in their September 2012 report (Earth Institute 2012). The maps are in jpg form thus

not compatible for analysis in ArcMap. We have made a request to UNEP for the raw shapefiles

of the LULC so that we can overlay the LULC with topography and determine areas where

agricultural or bare ground overlap steep (>50%) slopes. These areas of high erosion are the

most likely candidates for zones of protection.

LULC was verified while walking the watershed and observational notes were made. We also asked residents of the lake about the history of their use of the lake and land, and changes they would like to see, if any. Questions included flooding and drought history, fish occurrences, past tree planting efforts, and preferred use of the lake land. The population of each watershed was estimated by counting the number of houses that show in Google Earth aerial photos and photographs that we took, and multiplying this number by 5 (Cayemittes et al. 2007 report average rural household size at 4.7 people). The thesis by Enold (2007) contains extensive information about the population demographics and land ownership and practices in the Laborde watershed.

Water level, Secchi depth, in situ water chemistry

At 11 – 15 locations distributed throughout each lake we determined water depth, Secchi depth

and measured in situ water chemistry with a Horiba U-22 water quality probe that was 2-point

calibrated prior to each sampling day. In situ measurements included pH, turbidity,

conductivity, salinity, oxidation reduction potential (ORP), temperature, and dissolved oxygen.

Time of each measurement was recorded.

Nutrients and bacteria

To determine nitrogen, phosphorus, and the presence of Escherichia coli and other coliform

bacteria, grab samples were collected at 3 of the on-lake sites, 3 shoreline sites, and at all wells

and springs that we encountered. Within 9 hours of collection, samples were returned to our

Haiti residence and 1 ml of each was placed on a 3M Petrifilm plate and incubated for 12-15

hours against the body (Metcalf 2010). E. coli appear as blue colonies, while other coliform

appear as red colonies with gas bubbles.

Also with 9 hours of collection water samples were analyzed with a HACH DR700 portable

colorimeter for ammonia, total phosphorus, and nitrate. The low-range nitrate method has a

detection range of 0 to 0.5 and limit of detection of 0.024 mg/L as NO3-N. Ammonia nitrogen

test is based on the modified salicylate method (Reardon et. al. 1966) with a detection range of

0 - 1 ml/L and a detection limit of 0.029 mg/L NH3 as N. Total phosphorus concentrations were


determined using Hach’s Ascorbic Acid method (range 0 – 2.5 mg/L PO4) to determine reactive

phosphorus after acid persulfate digestion. This procedure is equivalent to USEPA method

365.2 and Standard Method 4500-P-E for wastewater with a calculated detection limit of about

0.020 mg/L PO4.

However, no nitrate samples could be analyzed using the Hach colorimeter as the nitrate

module for the colorimeter was found to be faulty. In addition, before we sampled Laborde,

the HACH colorimeter LED display failed so all samples were acid preserved (pH 2) and

returned to the US for analysis by the Johnson County Wastewater Water Quality Laboratory

(Olathe, KS) (JOCO). Samples were analyzed on April 1-2, 2015 (within the 28 day holding time)

for Kjeldahl nitrogen as N (0.5 mg/l detection limit), nitrate + nitrite as N (0.02 mg/l detection

limit), and total phosphorus as P (0.05 mg/l detection limit) by JOCO. This water quality testing

laboratory is nationally certified under the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation

Conference (NELAC). In addition, some Lachaux and Douat water samples were brought back

and analyzed by the Johnson County Laboratory as a check against onsite determinations.

Macroinvertebrates

Macroinvertebrates were collected with a 500 m mesh D net using a 2 m sweep from a variety

of habitats at each of 3 sites along the lake shore. Samples were placed in 25ml screw-top

scintillation vials, preserved with 5% formalin, and transferred to approximately 80% alcohol 2 –

3 weeks later. Macroinvertebrates were returned to the Kansas Biological Survey at the

University of Kansas for identification to the lowest taxonomic level feasible. Proportion

estimates of abundance will also be calculated.

Plankton

At the same 3 on-lake water sample sites, zooplankton samples were collected using an 8 inch

(20. 3 cm) diameter by 20 inch (50.8cm) long standard plankton net with a 153 m mesh

opening. Samples of each lake were compiled into 250ml vials and preserved with alcohol.

Zooplankton tow lengths were recorded so that community metrics can be reported as units

per volume. Zooplankton samples were preserved in 80% ethyl alcohol and returned to the

Kansas Biological Survey lab for identification and enumeration.

At these same 3 sites, 80 ml of surface water was collected and compiled into a 250ml vial for

phytoplankton. Samples were preserved with Lugol’s iodine solution. Lugol's solution was

added to achieve an approximate 1% preservative concentration. These phytoplankton

samples were also returned to the Kansas Biological Survey lab for identification and

enumeration. Again, phytoplankton measures will be reported as units per volume, and will be

used as a measure of productivity within the lakes.


Fish

Fish community composition was assessed using a variety of collecting techniques: shoreline

seining, setting baited crab nets (2) out for approximately 4 hours, and a 4-hour set using an

experimental gill net. Seining was done using a polyethylene minnow seine net (1/4-inch (0.635

cm) mesh, 4 foot (1.22m) deep by 8 foot (2.44m) long) using repeated seine hauls along a 100

to 500 meter strip of the shoreline. Crab nets were baited with oat meal and anchored in about

0.5 meter of water depth while the experimental gill net was set in > one meter of water

whenever possible. The gill net was 60 foot (18.3 m) long and consisted of five 12 foot panels of

0.5-inch, 1.0-inch, 1.5-inch, 2-inch and 3-inch mesh openings (made by Miller Net Company).

The lakes were actively used by people and livestock, so both crab nets and the gill net could

not be left un-attended which accounted for the 4-hour set period.

DNA samples were collected from about 10 fish at each site, placed in 100% ethyl alcohol, and

returned to the KU Biodiversity Institute for processing and identifications. Each fish was

photographed and retained as a voucher. We also retained 20-30 fish representing all taxa

encountered. These fish were preserved on ± 5% formalin and returned to the University of

Kansas for identification.

Macrophytes

The more dominate and commonly occurring aquatic and semiaquatic plants were collected

and general abundances noted so that some general statements could be made regarding their

importance to the lake community. Plant specimens were hand collected, dried in plant presses

and returned to Kansas University for final determination. Photos of collected plants were

taken at the collecting sites as a record of their occurrence and to provide images of live

material to aid identification. Plant identifications were made by staff at McGregor Herbarium

at the University of Kansas.

Results

Bacteria

The presence of Escherichia coli has more to do with the possible human health issues

associated with primary and secondary contact with lake water than it does with ecological

health of the lake. A simple test for recent fecal contamination of water is to determine the

level of E. coli bacteria colonies present in the water. E. coli is present in the feces of humans

and other mammals. It slowly dies without multiplying once it leaves the body, but it survives

in water as long as the bacteria that cause typhoid fever, cholera, and dysentery. Therefore,

the presence of E. coli indicates recent fecal contamination and possible presence of these

other disease causing bacteria. On the Petrifilm plates, E. coli colonies are blue, non E. coli

coliform colonies (not associated with fecal contamination) are red with gas bubbles, and non-


coliform Gram negative bacteria form red colonies without gas bubbles. (Metcalf and Stordal

2010).

We tested for E. coli using 1 ml of water on a 3M Petrifilm plate. Most of the water sources

tested contained E. coli bacteria. Only a pump well at Laborde installed by an Indian NGO

produced no bacteria colonies on the Petrifilm plate (this well was retested to confirm that

there was no bacteria).

One approach to the interpretation of our Petrifilm test results is the comparison between E.

coli counts and relative disease risks such as those offered by the World Health Organization

(WHO) (Table 3). The E. coli counts at or above 10 colonies per milliliter were confined to the

small pool that was all that remained of water in Etang Douat, and in Laborde watershed a

spring run and a hand dug well along the lake shore (Tables 4 and 5). However, the USEPA

Puerto Rico Water Quality Standards Regulation (August 2014) list 2 E. coli colonies per 1 ml as

the maximum limit. Most of the non-lake samples exceeded this limit, while only 2 of the 12

lake samples exceeded the limit. These results were not surprising in light of the amount of

free ranging livestock observed in and around these water bodies.

Table 3. Correlation of Escherichia coli levels with WHO disease risk categories (Metcalf 2010).

Level of E. coli WHO disease risk levela WHO action priority MSF actionb

1-10 in 1 ml High Urgent Must be treated

>10 in 1 lm Very High Urgent Reject or thoroughly treat aWHO/UNICEF: A Toolkit for Monitoring and Evaluating Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage Programmes

(2012), Figure A-1, p.62. bMédecins Sans Frontières (1994) Public Health Engineering in Emergency Situation. Médecins Sans Frontières:

Paris.


Table 4. Lake water chemistry, depth, and bacteria. Shore samples (S) were collected about 1 m out from shore. Remainder (L) were

collected from a boat. 2013 was collected in May with depths from 10 sites and in situ measurement from 19 near shore sites. HACH - HACH

DR700 portable colorimeter. JOCO - Johnson County Kansas Wastewater Water Quality Laboratory. EPA standards (stds) are for Puerto Rico

surface waters (EPA 2014).

*Sum of [Kjeldahl nitrogen as N mg/l] and [nitrate + nitrite as N mg/l]

**0.025 represents half of detection limit.

lake Lachaux Laborde EPA

site 2013 x6 x8 x10 x14 x18 2015 B1 B5 B6 B9 B10 B15 B19 2015 stds

sample location ave. S S L L L ave. S S S S L L L ave.

date

9-Mar 9-Mar 10-Mar 10-Mar 10-Mar

14-Mar 18-Mar 18-Mar 18-Mar 19-Mar 19-Mar 19-Mar

water temp C 29.47 29.71 30.19 26.87 27.03 27.02 28.16 33.94 26.03 25.44 26.65 25.99 25.18 27.22 27.21 32.20

pH 9.07 7.10 7.77 7.60 7.53 7.52 7.50 8.23 7.86 8.30 8.24 7.94 8.24 8.40 8.17 6 to 9

ORP mV 162 276 226 219 232 242 239 106 126 163 93 167 197 212 152

conductivity mS/cm 0.193 0.382 0.279 0.257 0.296 0.297 0.302 0.416 0.400 0.402 0.404 0.398 0.399 0.399 0.403

turbidity NTU 89.9 30.6 6.1

0.0 0.0 9.18 386.0 193.0 173.0 197.0 170.0 193.0 185.0 213.86 50.0

DO mg/l 9.78 8.64 9.92 4.90 3.09 1.67 5.64 10.48 5.35 7.90 7.04 7.96 6.31 8.03 7.58 5.00

TDS g/l 0.125 0.247 0.182 0.670 0.192 0.193 0.297 0.271 0.260 0.261 0.263 0.258 0.259 0.259 0.262 0.500

% salt 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

secchi depth cm 5.4 -- -- 60 90 96 82.00 -- -- -- -- 10 10 9 9.67

lake depth cm 18.6 -- -- -- 100 96 98.00 -- -- -- -- 90 45 39 58.00

total ammonia (NH3-N ) mg/l HACH 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.3 -- -- -- 0.16 0.16 0.26 0.22 1

Kjeldahl nitrogen as N mg/l JOCO 2 1.3 1.6 1.2 1.8 1.58 7.1 4.3 5.2 -- 4 4.3 4.5 4.90

nitrate + nitrite as N mg/l JOCO 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.21 0.22 -- 0.18 0.22 0.17 0.19 10

TN as N mg/l* calc. 2.17 1.45 1.76 1.38 1.95 1.74 7.25 4.51 5.42 -- 4.18 4.52 4.67 5.09

TP as P mg/l** JOCO 0.14 0.06 0.06 0.025 0.07 0.07 0.68 0.69 0.32 -- 0.25 0.27 0.26 0.41 1

N:P calc. 15.50 24.17 29.33 55.20 27.86 30.41 10.66 6.54 16.94 -- 16.72 16.74 17.96 14.26

total coliforms per 1 ml

7 47 18 19 13 20.8 11 10 8 11 5 9 6 8.6 100

E. coli per 1 ml

2 4 7 2 1 3.2 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0.4 2


Table 5. Spring, well, and stream chemistry, depth, and bacteria. HACH - HACH DR700 portable colorimeter. JOCO - Johnson County Kansas

Wastewater Water Quality Laboratory. EPA standards (stds) are for Puerto Rico surface waters (EPA 2014).

watershed

Douat Laborde EPA

site lab D_spring D_hole*** B pool#1 B spring (n. hill)

B handdug well#1

B handdug well#2

B NGO well

B NGO well

B8 stds

description

spring pool stream spring well by B1 well by road well well dug well

date

13-Mar 13-Mar 14-Mar 14-Mar 14-Mar 14-Mar 14-Mar 18-Mar 18-Mar

water temp C

27.00 34.53 25.51 26.42 -- -- -- -- 25.77 32.20

pH

3.51 8.62 7.00 7.06 -- -- -- -- 7.51 6 to 9

ORP mV

-38 123 -124 102 -- -- -- -- 205

conductivity mS/cm

0.520 0.202 0.540 0.521 -- -- -- -- 0.606

turbidity NTU

4.0 451.0 0.0 13.2 -- -- -- -- 0.1 50.0

DO mg/l

3.51 14.41 0.77 4.45 -- -- -- -- 0.00 5.00

TDS g/l

0.334 0.117 0.345 0.334 -- -- -- -- 0.880 0.500

% salt

0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 -- -- -- -- 0.03

secchi depth cm

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

lake depth cm

-- -- 83 -- -- -- -- -- --

total ammonia (NH3-N ) mg/l

HACH 0.03 1.60 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 -- 1

Kjeldahl nitrogen as N mg/l

JOCO <0.5 11.1 <0.5 <0.5 0.6 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.9

nitrate + nitrite as N mg/l

JOCO 0.18 0.12 0.15 0.30 3.76 2.10 2.39 2.44 1.32 10

TN as N mg/l*

0.43 11.22 0.40 0.55 4.36 2.35 2.64 2.69 2.22

TP as P mg/l** JOCO <0.05 1.44 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 1

N:P**

17.2 7.8 16.0 22.0 174.4 94.0 105.6 107.6 44.4

total coliforms per 1 ml

68 105 49 19 44 10 0 0 >105 100

E. coli per 1 ml

8 70 20 3 7 0 0 0 40 2

*Sum of [Kjeldahl nitrogen as N mg/l] and [nitrate + nitrite as N mg/l]

**If TP <0.05, half this detection limit was used in calculations.

***Not a spring or well, wet area.


Nutrients

USEPA Puerto Rico Water Quality Standards Regulation (August 2014) are provided for

comparison to the nutrients values obtained in the study (Table 4 and 5). The Puerto Rico

standards are for class SD surface waters intended as a source of public water supply,

propagation and preservation of desirable species, including threatened or endangered species,

as well as primary and secondary contact recreation. All lakes, wells, and springs sampled had

nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) levels below the Puerto Rico standards. The only site that

exceeded all nutrient standards, as well as fecal coliform standards, was the residual water pool

at Etang Douat, where livestock were being watered.

All of the water samples collected from Etang Laborde had higher TN and TP values than the

samples collected from Etang Lachaux, and the values from Etang Laborde were higher than the

wells and springs sampled in its watershed.

While the Etang Laborde north shore sample (B1) had the highest TN (7.25 mg/l) of all lake,

well, and spring samples collected, the nitrate level there (0.15 mg/L nitrate + nitrite as N) was

below the USEPA standard of 10 mg/l nitrate levels for babies less than 6 months of age. All

lakes, wells, and springs sampled had nitrate levels below the USEPA standard.

In nearly all samples the N:P ratios were > 10 suggesting that phosphorus was the limiting

nutrient in these aquatic ecosystems. University of Florida researchers tested 1500 soil samples

from 5 major watersheds in Haiti for nutrient concentrations. What they found was that

nitrogen was the limiting factor in plant production followed by phosphorus (Hylkema 2011).

Why these aquatic ecosystems are phosphorus limited instead of nitrogen limited as are

watersheds is no total understood at this time. It may be that the higher disproportionate

levels of total nitrogen are skewing the N:P ratio to where phosphorus appears to be limiting.

The low soil nitrogen levels of Hylkema’s study and our high total nitrogen concentrations for

the lakes suggest that the more soluble forms of nitrogen are being transported to the lakes via

runoff and subsurface transportation while total phosphorus levels remain low.

In situ water chemistry

Some dissolved oxygen (DO) values fell near or below the minimum 5.0 mg/L criteria

recommended for fish survivability. Etang Lachaux had the lowest average DO value at 5.64

mg/L, which was below its 2013 average value of 9.78 mg/L. Turbidity at Etang Lachuax 9.18

NTU was also much lower than its 2013 value 90 NTU or Etang Laborde 214 NTU. Both DO and

turbidity at 2015 Etang Lachaux might be explained by the vast coverage of macrophytes, which

would respire at night and lower DO levels, but which also decrease turbidity as roots hold the

sediment. The clarity of the water at Etang Lachaux was also indicated by the deeper secchi


depth (82 cm) than Etang Laborde (10 cm). Etang Lachaux (98 cm) was nearly twice as deep as

Etang Laborde (58 cm).

pH at both lakes fell within acceptable range for fish (6 to 9), while water temperatures (25 –

30C) remained below the maximum standard of 32C.

Macroinvertebrates

Macroinvertebrates are currently being identified to lowest practical taxon level. Orders found

at each lake are presented in Table 6. Macroinvertebrates respond to long-term waterbody

conditions and thus can be used to evaluate over waterbody health, while a water chemistry

samples reflects the conditions at one moment in time. At the generic level

macroinvertebrates can be correlated to pristine or impaired ecosystem condition.

Table 6. Macroinvertebrates orders collected at each lake.

Orders Lachaux Laborde

Amphipooda x x

Coleoptera x x

Diptera x x

Ephemeroptera x x

Haplotaxida

x

Hemiptera x x

Odonata x x

Trombidiforme

x

Plankton

Phytoplankton taxa found in the lakes are presented in Table 7. Two taxa are cyanobacteria

(blue-green algae), one of which, Oscillatoria, produces a toxin (see http://www.cyanodb.cz/

for cyanobacteria genera). The phytoplankton are currently being enumerated and measured.

These values will serve as measures of productivity of the lakes as high numbers can indicate

nutrient enrichment. Another method to measure productivity is to measure chlorophyll levels

in the lakes. However, this method requires immediately refrigerating water samples, filtering

within 24 hours, and freezing the filters until they are processed, which was not feasible during

this study due to lack of a freezer or refrigeration.

http://www.cyanodb.cz/


Table 7. Phytoplankton genera collected at each lake.

Taxon Cyano-

bacteria Lachaux Labord

e

Taxon Cyano-

bacteria Lachaux Laborde

Ankistrodesmus sp. x x

Pediastrum sp. x

Aphanocapsa sp. x x x

Peridinium sp. x x

Cosmarium sp.1 x x

Phacus sp. x

Cosmarium sp.2 x

Polyhedriopsis sp. x

Crucigenia sp.1 x x

Scenedesmus sp.1 x x

Crucigenia sp.2 round x

Scenedesmus sp.2 x

Cryptomonas sp. x x

Scenedesmus sp.3 x x

Cyclotella sp. x x

Selanastrum sp. x x

Elakatothrix sp. x

Staurastrum sp. x x

Euglena sp. x x

Synedra sp. x x

Golenkinia sp. x

Tetraedron sp.1 x x

Kirchneriella sp. x

Tetraedron sp.2 x x

Oscillatoria sp.1 <sm sq x x x

Trachelomonas sp. x x

Oscillatoria sp.2 >sm sq x x

Fish

Both native and non-native fish are present in Etang Lachaux and Laborde (Table 8). At both

lakes we collected tilapia (2 species, referred to as white tilapia and black tilapia), common carp

(Cyprinus carpio), and the native Limia. At Lachaux we captured equal numbers of Limia and

small tilapia. Etang Douat, which was dry during this study, has a fissure at the lower southern

extent of the lake basin. Residents say fish reside within this subterranean feature when the

lake is dry, and come out of this fissure when the lake refills with water.

Table 8. Fish collected in Etang Lachaux and Etang Laborde, with endemism to Haiti indicated.

See Appendix C for photos.

Family name Genus Species Creole English Lachaux Laborde Status

Cichlidae Tilapia Tilapia x x Introduced

Cyprinidae Cyprinus C. carpio Kap Common carp x x Introduced

Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys H. molitrix Boutlang Silver carp

x Introduced

Poeciliidae Limia mosquito fish x x Endemic

The presence of the tilapia fry in Etang Lachaux and Laborde indicates high reproduction.

Lachaux residents said that the tilapia were introduced into the lake by a Haitian in 1962.

Residents also reported that in 1975 large numbers of tilapia died when the lake dried, so many

that they fed them to the pigs. The Lachaux residents said that in 2001 a variety of carp was

introduced that ate small fish, smelled bad, and was not good to eat. It disappeared and a

second variety appeared (they do not remember when this first showed up). Older residents of

Lachaux reported seeing a large fish called the ‘boutlang’ when they were children (30-40 years

ago), but do not remember the last time they saw boutlang at this lake.


Near Etang Laborde we saw a boutlang caught by a resident; this fish is actually the silver carp

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. Residents reported that foreigners released this species into

Laborde in the 1970’s. The silver carp are a preferred species of the fishermen for the large size

and money they bring in. Residents said they like the taste. They believe that crab and shrimp

populations began to decrease due to the boutlang. Laborde residents also reported that carp

was introduced around 1995 but perhaps before 2000. They mentioned two other fish that no

longer exist at the lake, teta and mile. The mile was larger than tilapia. The teta was the size of

the common carp or boutlang, and they do not know why it disappeared. They saw it until 14

July 2000 when the boutlang was introduced. It may be that both the teta and mile are actually

introduced Tilapia species since Tilapia have been known to be introduced throughout Central

America and the Caribbean as early as the 1950s and 1960s (Popma and Lovshin 1995).

However, there is no way of knowing for sure what fish species local watershed people are

referring to when speaking about “teta” and “mile.”

Fish from the family Poeciliidae were found in both Etang Lachaux and Laborde. Identification

of fish in this family is still in progress as this requires a careful examination of the diagnostic

feature, the gonopodium of male specimens, under a microscope. The gonopodium is a

modified anal fin used in reproduction (Figure 8). This family, commonly referred to as

mosquito fish, contains the genera Gambusia and Limia that consist of many species endemic to

Haiti (Lee et al. 1993).

From both lakes we collected Limia that appear to be a single species with the males displaying

two somewhat distinct color patterns. This species appears to be most similar to Limia trident

and L. dominicensis, but among other traits these specimens possess some gonopodium

differences. These specimens probably represent a new species, but this must be verified by

other researchers at the University of Kansas and Louisiana State University. Twelve species of

Limia occur in Haiti, with ten of them endemic to the Republic of Haiti and two endemic to

Hispaniola (Appendix D). In fact, of the 45 fish species that occur in Haiti, 27% of are endemic

to Haiti, occurring nowhere else in the world. A similar high rate of endemism has been noted

in the Caribbean with over 40% of the freshwater fishes in the islands being endemic to one or

more of the larger islands. When considering both plants and animals, the Caribbean Islands

are one of the seven areas with the highest concentration of biodiversity and endemism in the

world with Haiti being exceptionally rich and diverse (Myer et al. 2000, Kier et al. 2009, Huber

et al. 2010).


Figure 8. Photograph of the gonopodium on the anal fin of a male Limia sp. caught in a stream

pool (site B_pool#1) located above Etang Laborde. The gonopodium is the diagnostic feature of

species in the Poecillidae family.

In addition to the high endemism in fish, about 24% of Haiti’s fish fauna consists of introduced

species which may endanger both the native and endemic species. Nearly all of Haiti’s endemic

fish species are known only from one or two specific localities, suggesting that these

populations have very limited distribution and therefore are at great risk of being lost through

introductions and further habitat degradation and loss. One of our fish fauna concerns at this

time is related to the introduction of the two invasive species of Gambusia, which are closely

related to Haiti’s endemic Limia species (Appendix D). By the late 1990’s Gambusia affinis and

G. holbrooki had successfully spread to 40 countries, and both have been introduced to Haiti for

mosquito-control purposes (Welcomme 1992, Lever 1996, Rehage 2003). Not only are these

species no better at mosquito control than native insectivorous fishes, but their negative

impacts on native aquatic communities (see Pyke 2008) earned them a place on the list of 100

worst invasive species (ISSG 2000).

Walshe and co-reviewers (2013) found no reliable studies that reported the effects of

introducing larvivorous fishes on malaria infection in nearby communities, on entomological

inoculation rate, or on the density of adults in the mosquito genus Anopheles. Their review

anal fin

fleshy palp

hook

gonopdium at end of anal fin

1 mm


included studies of G. affinis, G. holbrooki, Poecilia reticulata, Cyprinus carpio and Oreochromis

niloticus, all of which have been introduced to Haiti and fail to control rates of malaria infection.

Rehage (2003) examined endemism and invasiveness of Gambusia throughout the world,

noting that G. affinis and G. holbrooki have not only failed to control mosquito populations, but

they reduce and/or eliminate native fishes, amphibians, and invertebrates, primarily through

predation of the eggs, fry, and larvae of the native biota.

In general, the fish fauna of these lakes is limited and dominated by introduced fish species.

However, the native fishes are comprised mainly of endemic species that are both important to

Haiti and the world’s biodiversity.

Macrophytes

All plant specimens were deposited and identified at the McGregor Herbarium at the University

of Kansas using the Flora of Jamaica, other floras for Central American and/or the Caribbean,

and several monographs. We attempted to collect specimens of each macrophyte taxon

located at each lake. Only one macrophyte was collected at Douat, at the residual pool of

water on the south end (Table 9), while 14 taxa were collected or photographed at Lachaux and

Laborde (Table 10).

None of the taxa collected are endemic to Haiti. In the Global Invasive Species Database

(http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?st=sss&sn=&rn=Haiti&ri=18996&hci=-

1&ei=-1&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN), only two macrophyte species are listed as invasive to Haiti. They

are Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) and Ludwigia peruviana (water primrose). We did not

observe water hyacinth in any of the lakes but it has been introduced to other aquatic

environments in Haiti. Water hyacinth is one of the worst aquatic weeds in the world. Among

its many negative impacts, its shading and crowding of native aquatic plants can dramatically

reduce biological diversity in aquatic ecosystems. We did observe and collect a species of

Lugwigia but could not tell what species our specimens were since we had neither flowers nor

fruiting bodies associated with our material. Ludwigia peruviana is a very attractive wetland

species that has been introduced as an ornamental but it is very invasive in nature. Ludwigia

peruviana populations can clog waterways, damage structures and dominate native vegetation.

Table 9. Plants collected at Etang Douat. See Appendix E for photos.

Family Scientific name Creole name English name

Alismataceae Echinodorus berteroi (Spreng.) Fassett (sterile) Upright burrhead

Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Diri Rice

Malvaceae Hibiscus trilobus Aubl. Threelobe rosemallow

http://www.fishbase.org/Country/CountrySpeciesSummary.php?c_code=332&id=2


http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?st=sss&sn=&rn=Haiti&ri=18996&hci=-1&ei=-1&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN

http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?st=sss&sn=&rn=Haiti&ri=18996&hci=-1&ei=-1&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN

http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=70&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN

http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=871&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN


Table 10. Macrophytes collected during this study with Etang Lachaux or Laborde indicated.

None of these taxa are endemic to Haiti. See Appendix E for photos.

Family Scientific name Creole name English name Lachaux Laborde

Alismataceae Sagittaria lancifolia L.

Bulltongue

arrowhead x

Araceae Pistia stratiotes L. Water lettuce x

Ceratophyllaceae Ceratophyllum demersum L. Limon femèl Coontail x x

Cyperaceae Cyperus odoratus L. Fragrant flatsedge

x

Cyperaceae Cyperus sp. Sedge

x

Cyperaceae

Eleocharis interstincta (Vahl)

Roem. & Schult. Knotted spikerush x

Cyperaceae Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl Fimbry

x

Cyperaceae

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani

(C.C. Gmel.) Palla Softstem bullrush x

Menyanthaceae Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze Water snowflake x x

Najadaceae Najas marina L. Limon mal Spiny water nymph x

Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea rudgeana G. Mey. Rudge's waterlily x

Onagraceae Ludwigia sp. (sterile) Primrose-willow x x

Polygonaceae Persicaria punctata (Elliott) Small Piman dlo Dotted smartweed x x

Typhaceae Typha* Cattail x x

*Not collected, photos only.

While we did not attempt to collect non-macrophytes, we did collect two plants of interest at

Douat, a rice plant and a hibiscus. The hibiscus was of concern because of it brambly nature

and our concern that it could be invasive, or at least difficult to control (Figure 9).


Figure 9. Thicket of Hibiscus trilobus growing along the basin of Etang Douat.

Landuse/landcover

While we were not able to obtain shapefiles of the Earth Institute’s 2011 landuse/landcover

watershed maps so that we could perform more detailed GIS analyses (Appendix F), we did

examine the maps while we walked the watershed, and found that the LU/LC generally agreed

with the coverage indicated in the maps. However, the high mix of agriculture, agroforestry,

and pasture seemed to render these coverages indistinct from each other, as most agriculture

plots on the hill slopes were sparse with crops, pasture was sparse with grass, and agroforestry

had scattered shrubs at best (Fig. 10). At the lake edges agriculture was more intense, as water

from the lakes could be used to irrigate the crops (Fig. 10 – 13).

The more densely wooded areas in the watersheds corresponded with the forestry cover in the

EI maps that defined forest as >40% canopy cover. However, these areas consisted of narrow

bands of cultured trees such as kasya (Senna siamea), sèd (Cedrela odorata), trompette

(Schefflera morototoni), and castor (Ricinus communis) and were not native tropical forest trees

(Fig. 10).


Figure 10. Photograph facing east and overlooking the northwest corner Etang Lachaux. A strip

of forest cover can be seen in the lower left quadrant of this photo, while intensive agriculture

can be seen along the northwest shore of the lake at the center of the photo. The remainder of

the landscape was classified as a mix of agriculture, agroforestry, and pasture. See Appendix F

for the land use/land cover map of this lake.


Figure 11. A mix of squash, okra, and corn near the south edge of Etang Laborde.


Figure 12. Crops irrigated along the south edge of Etang Laborde. Photograph taken facing

north.


Figure 13. The dry basin of Etang Douat, facing northwest. A residual pool of water can be

seen left of center.

Slope

Using ArcMap 10.2 the KBS KARS program calculated slope of the land within each watershed

(see Appendix A for methods) and created watershed maps with slope categorized as 30-40%,

40-50%, and greater than 50% (Fig. 14 – 16). Areas of high slope (>30%) should be priority in

protection or restoration since more runoff and erosion will come from disturbed areas of

greater slope. The relatively coarse resolution (30x30m) of the elevation dataset (ASTER

GDEM) used to calculate slopes results in an apparent flattening of the terrain, and thus

underestimates slopes. However, the resulting maps still provide guidance in selecting areas of

protection and restoration.


Figure 14. Slope within the watershed (black outline) of Etang Lachaux. Yellow = 30-40% slope,

orange = 40-50% slope, and red = > 50% slope. Light gray indicates the upper watersheds that

drain to the alluvial plains located above the lake.


Figure 15. Slope within the watershed (black outline) of Etang Douat. Yellow = 30-40% slope,

orange = 40-50% slope, and red = > 50% slope. Light gray indicates the upper watershed that

drains to the alluvial plain located above the lake.


Figure 16. Slope within the watershed (black outline) of Etang Laborde. Yellow = 30-40% slope,

orange = 40-50% slope, and red = > 50% slope. Light gray indicates the upper watershed that

drains to the alluvial plain located above the lake.


Population

Only one house was observed in the Lachaux watershed, in the northwest area of the

watershed, between the lake and the new highway. Most of the houses near this lake are

south of the lake, downhill from the lake. In the Douat watershed, approximately 7 houses are

located along the gullies that drain from the west and north sides of the watershed. Many

more houses are in the Laborde watershed. Enold (2007) reports the population of the Laborde

watershed at 1,680 (280 households x 6 people), and his estimated watershed size of 7.112 km2

was slightly smaller than the 7.129 km2 we calculated in ArcMap . We adjusted this population

for consistency with the Cayemittes et al. 2007 estimate of 5 people per rural household (Table

11).

Table 11. Estimated population in the lake watersheds.

Lachaux Douat Laborde

Population 5 35 1400

Community meetings

After walking the watershed and collecting water and biological samples, we met with the

residents of each watershed, with the goal of learning more about the 50-year history of

change within the watersheds including changes in the land use, reforestation projects, land

management projects and lake changes. The number of attendees varied between watershed

communities, with a low of 9 at Etang Laborde on a day that it was raining, to a high of 89 at

Etang Douat, where school children attended the meeting. A number of people over 50 years

of age attended the meetings (Table 12). Discussion was translated by Mr. Ralph Gustave. Our

inquiries focused on a variety of topic including but not limited to extreme flood and drought

events, introduction of fish, tree planting efforts, and how residents wish the lake area to be

used. Opportunities were provided for community attendees to ask project personal questions

regarding our studies of the lakes and watersheds.

Table 12. Demographics of attendees at community meetings (excluding CIAT, ORE, and

university students who helped).


Date 11 March 16 March 20 March

# participants 26 89* 9**

Ages 19 to 80 9 to 82 28 to 65

# > 50 years old 13 15 4

# < 20 years old 1 42 0

Communities represented

Martinere 2 1 0



Lachaux 23 0 0

Levy 1 4 0

Douat 0 47 0

Sovo/Savau 0 3 0

Deglalis 0 1 0

Guichard 0 20 0

Rolin 0 8 0

Mersant 0 1 0

Kordin 0 1 0

Cliforde 0 1 0

Jouny 0 1 0

Macenot 0 1 0

Laborde 0 0 9

*About 1/2 the attendees were from a nearby school that attended the meeting.

**Raining, few people came.

All three lakes have had extreme flooding in the past 50 years, with residents describing the

floodwaters flowing into the adjacent watershed, in effect linking all the lakes. In 1986 Lachaux

flooded up to the houses closest to its south end, and flowed into the Douat watershed. Douat

residents said their lake will have water for up to 6 years at a time, claiming that 4 – 5 years ago

the lake had even more fish than Lachaux. It did have water in 2014. One man blamed erosion,

not less rain, for making the lake go dry. Laborde residents reported that in 2012 the lake

flooded up to the houses near the south end. In 2015 Laborde experience the lowest water

levels since 1975, when it was dry 4 – 5 months. It then filled after 1 night of rain and the

animals tied up in the lake bed drowned. Lachaux was also reported to be dry in 1975.

The residents of all three watersheds seem to want more trees in the watershed and desire

financial incentives to plant trees. However, they spoke of failed tree planting programs.

Douat residents said trees were cut 1985 – 1995 after which the lake went dry. Laborde

residents remember forests in the watershed until 1975- 1980, and mentioned egrets roosting

in kompesh trees. There were also many mango and abriko trees at the time. They spoke of a

program called Development Community Cretienne Haitian (DCCH) which planted both fruiting

and non-fruiting trees. In 1995/1996 people began to cut these trees. Some trees remaining

from that program (cassia, sed, mango, etc.) still exist and can be cut and sold.

All three communities seem to be aware of the impact of erosion on lake levels, and indicated

some willingness to give up land to protect against erosion. They also recognize that trees help

protect against erosion. The residents of Lachaux blame current low water levels on the new


National Route 7, saying that rocks from the recent construction are causing the lake to dry up.

During our survey of the watershed, we did note that the culverts that drain water from the

road are creating gullies in the hillside above the lake, and washing large rocks down to the

shore (Fig. 17 – 19).

Figure 17. Top of National Route 7 culvert above Etang Lachaux.


Figure 18. Bottom of culvert in Figure 9, showing erosion.


Figure 19. Two meter deep gully created by runoff from road culverts along hillside above

Etang Lachaux.

Springs and wells

We encountered two types of “springs” in the watersheds: true ground water springs and

shallow, hand-dug wells that expose shallow ground water (vadose water). All but one hand-

dug well at Laborde, along with a hand-pump well at Laborde, had coliform bacteria, including

E. coli. The primary source of contamination of these springs and wells are unrestricted

livestock use in or up-slope of springs. Secondary sources include human uses such as bathing


and washing laundry in or around these springs. Human activities, if not controlled, can

introduce soaps and detergents, as well as human transmissible diseases or infections into the

water.

Suggestions for protection are:

Limit area of activities around and up-slope of springs and wells,

Post signs with contamination advisory/safe practices for spring uses,

Avoid any construction activities in or near natural springs.

Provide work areas away from the springs for clothes washing and other activities

Watershed findings and conclusions

Soil erosion and land use

All watershed soils are basically Udepts soils which are typically nutrient poor and form a thin,

easily erodible soil profile. All lake watersheds are dominated by mountainous terrain with

extensive areas of high slope hillsides (> 40% slope), nearly all of which is under some form of

farming practices, either intercropping, cultivation or pasturing of livestock. There were very

limited areas within each watershed where structural erosion control practices such as rock

terraces and vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) hedges have been put in place and

maintained. Agroforestry practices were evident in all watersheds and represented about 24 to

28% of the land use found in these watersheds. While such agroforestry areas sometimes show

less signs of erosion they represent less than 25% of all the land use in these watersheds while

the majority of remaining land use shows high rates of erosion and continues to contribute to

lake sedimentation and water quality degradation. It should also be noted that in most areas

where agroforestry was being practiced vegetated ground cover remains limited and soil

erosion rates remain high. Both our interviews with local residents and agricultural experts as

well as our own observations within each watershed suggest that reforestation projects have

had limited success. While the actual number of tree plantings that have been done over time

in each watershed was not available, in general most interviews indicated that the number of

trees planted was very high but few trees remain from such efforts. Those that do remain are

mostly fruit trees. No official records of the survival rates of planted trees were found but it

appears that most surviving trees that reached harvestable size were cut and used in charcoal

production within each watershed. Thus tree planting efforts appear to have had limited long-

term success and this may remain so unless watershed residences and landowners support

such planting and charcoal production is reduced or eliminated. It should be noted that

exploitation and cutting of fruit trees is more limited in these and other watersheds because of

their value as a crop for consumption and sale in the market place (personal comm., Dr. M.

Pierre, ORE, March 2015).


Precipitation and runoff

Several natural and human-induced factors have collectively created a prominent wet/dry

water cycle that now characterizes these lakes. First the thin Udepts soils once associated with

the historic forest have been mostly lost from hill slopes so that most rainfall now runs directly

off, causing more soil erosion with rapid infiltration of water not contributing to runoff.

Historically, vegetative cover and accumulated organic matter would have slowed and limited

runoff while also slowing infiltration rates so that subsurface water movement to the lakes

would help extend the wet periods of the lakes. Extreme losses of permanent vegetation cover

(e.g. forest), cone karst topography and a bi-model rainfall pattern now contribute to a stronger

wet/dry cycle for the lakes as well as promote more severe floods and droughts within these

watersheds and the region in general. Little can be done regarding the natural bi-model nature

of precipitation and the extreme rainfall events associated with this climate. However,

increased runoff due to bare soil conditions and severe soil erosion associated with poor

farming practices and failure to apply meaningful soil conservation measures can be reduced

and groundwater filtration increased by implementing changes in land management practices.

Lake quality and uses

This study is the first step in describing the structure and function of these depression lakes (i.e.

sinkhole lakes) with regard to their ecological services and values. Most noteworthy is the

rarity of natural freshwater lakes in the Department of the Sud or elsewhere in Haiti. This is, in

part, due to the widespread occurrence of karst geology and topography which tends to limit

the development of surface water features such as lakes and streams. This rarity and the

habitat opportunities they afford the often unique and endemic aquatic biota make them

outstanding natural resources even in their impaired condition. It is estimated that these lakes

have suffered from massive sedimentation as a result of the extensive and poor farming

practices that have developed in their watersheds over the last century or so. The extent of the

development of the alluvial fans or plains at the primary inflow areas of the lakes attest to the

nature of the erosion and sedimentation processes which are the result of human activities.

Despite the degraded nature of these ecosystems these lakes still provide many direct human

services that include livestock and human drinking water, plant foods, building resources,

fishing and fishes and grazing and cultivation areas when water levels are low. However, even

these basic human services appear in jeopardy due to increased water level fluctuations, poor

water quality and bacterial pollution. All of these services, both ecological and human, are in

jeopardy primarily due to poverty and poor land use management within each watershed.

While our studies were all done during unusually dry years with rainfalls well below the 20-year

average annual amount, much can still be said regarding creation of protected and

management areas within these watersheds to both protect and enhance these lake

ecosystems and their long-term natural and human resource values. However, because this


study was limited to one comprehensive sampling event and was done under less than average

water conditions, we must cannot make definitive statements regarding overall ecological

condition of these lakes. We can offer general recommendations and comments concerning

the establishment of protected areas within the watersheds (and management areas)

necessary to enhance and protect lake and watershed quality since land uses and practices are

better known and observed even within dry years. What cannot be accounted for is high water

and runoff conditions and events that are most contributing to lake sedimentation and land

erosion. It is clear that some regions within each watershed are greater contributors to soil

erosion and soil movement to these lakes but these events are better understood during major

rainfall events which never happen during our study periods.

Identification of protection and restoration zones and areas

1. Identify lake buffer zone by land use based assessments or by using identified legislative

requirements. Buffer area would be for protection and restoration activities.

One of the most commonly used approaches to the protection of aquatic resources such as

lakes, rivers and wetlands is the identification and establishment of a “buffer zone” around the

ecosystem (Richardson et.al. 2012, Klemas 2014, Sweeney and Newbold 2012). The immediate

areas around these lakes should be considered as a buffer zone (protected area) for these lakes

in which certain human activities are either controlled or eliminated to reduce shore erosion,

pollutants and habitat destruction. The buffer should encircle the lake margin and its width

determined by assessment of its potential function width or by legislation. Lacking an

assessment to determine functional protective width of a lake buffer we recommend using the

existing federal Haitian laws and regulations to protect areas found to be of value and safety for

the general community. The following are excerpts (translated by Google Translate) for Haiti

articles and regulations pertinent to protected areas around waterbodies and other sensitive

area of importance to the community:

Decree-Law of 23 June 1937 on the regulation of forests. Monitor No. 51 Thursday, June 24, 1937 DECREES Article 1. It is forbidden to do, without prior authorization, special written a qualified agent SNPA & E. R., no clearing, damage, cut, uproot or burn any tree;

a) on land with a slope equal to or greater than 30o from the horizontal;

b) around sources within a radius of 100m; c) on the banks of rivers, rivers, streams, over a 50m width on each side; d) area around lakes, ponds and natural water reservoirs, a distance of 50m.

Article 2. It is prohibited without prior authorization, special written a qualified agent SNPA & ER undertake annual crops say:

a) on land with a slope equal to or greater than 45 degrees with the horizontal; b) around the springs on a 100m rapyon; c) on the banks of rivers, streams over a 50m width on each side.

Article 3. It is prohibited unless authorized by the SNPA & ER burning savannahs, throughout the territory of the Republic, and land designated and extended to article 1 above, to "new wood" to burn the waste to crops, sarclures or other organic debris.


AREAS UNDER PROTECTION ZONES AND BOOKED - August 1955- Paul Magloire E Article 15. It may be designated under the name "Areas under protection" tracts of land owned or to the State or to individuals whose protection is necessary and urgent for the wellbeing of the community. Article 16. The "Areas under protection" is any area of land and use will be regulated by the Department of Agriculture, in order to combat erosion, protecting the child's Public Health to ensure sound recreation or tourism promotion. Article 17. The boundaries of these areas will be determined by the Department of Agriculture, in conjunction with the Finance and Public Works. Article 18. Are declared "Areas under protection."

1e) any area of land owned by the state or individuals over an area of at least 5 hectares, around cascades, waterfalls and around the springs supplying drinking water to urban and rural areas. 2) any amount of land owned by the state or to private or around hot sulfur springs, usually around any water tanks, over an area of at least 5 hectares. 3) any amount of land owned by the state or individuals forming the watershed sources and rivers. 4) any area of and owned by the state or individuals to be designated by the Department of Agriculture in accordance with Article 16.

Article 19. Within the limits under protection areas, areas of land will be according to the law of February 3, 1926, declared "reserved areas" and withdrawn from exploitation.

Based on our interpretation of these articles we suggest that a 50-meter buffer or 5 hectare

area (whichever is larger) be established around the most prevalent lake shoreline and used as

a protection zone and management area. Establishing exactly where the lake margin should be

in interpreting the buffer area and width is somewhat problematic since lake surfaces thus

margins expand and contract both on an annual and an inter-annual basis. One approach

would be to designate the “official” lake margin as the margin most clearly defined by the long-

term water margin and vegetation pattern observed in repeated satellite and photography

imagery, such as Google Earth imagery. Within these lake buffers better land use practices

should be required and livestock access and use controlled.

2. Identify buffers to protect springs and spring runs (i.e. spring-fed streams) within these

watershed areas.

Springs and spring runs within these watersheds need to be protected for several reasons.

Springs are a source of clean water to all of the lakes at various times of the year and probably

contribute to subsurface water flows to the lakes year round. Springs are common sources of

drinking water within all watersheds and thus need to be protected from bacteria, disease and

environmental contamination. As already noted some springs have dangerous levels of E. coli

levels that indicate users have a high risk of obtaining enteric diseases and infections. In

addition, it appears that the springs and spring runs are habitats for native fish and invertebrate

fauna that repopulate the lakes after dry periods. Therefore, springs are important in

maintaining natural and human environmental services and goods provided by the lake and

other aquatic resources within these watersheds. Typically these springs and the areas around

them are used for washing clothes and bathing, and for watering livestock and grazing. These

activities increase soil erosion and disturbances upstream and in the near vicinity of springs that

may endanger spring flows and contaminate spring water. Aquatic habitat is also degraded and


destroyed by intense human and livestock uses if left unsupervised. Therefore springs and

spring areas are also identified as protected areas and minimally should have buffer zones

established upstream and around them to limit and discourage livestock grazing and certain

human activities. The same buffer approach listed above for lakes can be used for springs.

3. Identify ravines and gullies that drain directly to the lake margins for protection and

management.

Eroded soils not only originate from gullies and ravines but sediment transportation is greatest

in these channels due to open channel flows and increased stream energy associated with open

channel flows. Also these channels drain directly into the lake thus increasing their potential

delivery capacity. While sheet and rill erosion are also a large problem in these watersheds,

control of these types of erosion is more difficult due to the large areas involved and thus the

need for total community involvement to achieve meaningful reductions in soil loss and

transportation. Gullies and ravines, however, are more limited in extent thus transportation of

sediments to the lakes is more easily controlled through structural erosion control measures.

4. Identify areas of mass wasting (i.e. landslides) and contain and control downslope soil loss.

Mass wasting, which is sometimes called mass movement or slope movement, is defined as the

large movement of rock, soil and debris downward due to the force of gravity. More commonly

we refer to these events as landslides. Heavy rains, widespread deforestation and high-sloped

terrain are causes of shallow landslides and high erosion rates in the mountains, which have

steep, fault-riddled topography, weak rocks, and erosion-prone soils. The combination of

deforestation and limited or poor soil conservation practices has led to numerous small

landslides within these watersheds. Slide areas are not used by the watershed communities

but can still contribute to soil loss and sedimentation. Thus these sites should be identified and

when possible steps taken to control soil loss from these discrete and easily identified sites.

5. Severely eroded, low fertility, high slope farm plots immediately adjacent to the lake basins

should be restored and protected.

Many examples of field plots showing the cumulative results of extreme soil erosion and over

farming can be found through all watersheds. These high-slope, thin soil plots are common

everywhere within these watersheds and restoring and protecting all of these farm plots would

require a massive physical and financial effort. Therefore, lake protection efforts should

initially focus only on those severely eroded field plots that drain directly to the lake margins.

These severely eroded plots are possibly of more concern to land owners and farmers which

might promote better cooperation in adopting soil conservation practices, especially practices

that may require removing some land from production. Higher potential recruitment of these

types of field plots along with the fact that they directly drain to the lake ecosystem give these

sites high protection and restoration value.


6. Identify watershed infrastructure erosion (animal/human trails, vehicle roads, drainage

ditches) and restore and protect from further erosion.

Many basic human and farming infrastructure features and practices can and do contribute to

soil erosion and sedimentation in these watersheds and lakes. Livestock and human trails,

paths, roads and drainage ditches are all susceptible to soil loss and erosion. Their direct

contribution to lake sedimentation and contamination varies considerably due to their location

within the watershed, and hill slope positon and orientation. The likelihood of getting either

livestock or people to change their movement habitats is relatively small but some erosion

control measures could be given along paths, roads and ditches that both contribute and

directly transport eroded soils to the lake environments.

7. Small alluvial fan or plain regions formed along the lake margins need to be protected,

restored as necessary, and managed.

Over time eroded materials from these watersheds has been transported into the lake basins

through channel flows (i.e. stream flows). This sedimentation process has resulted in the

development of alluvial fans or plains in the lower portions of the drainage valleys that enter

the lake basins. These alluvial fans of fine sediment and soils are now intensively farmed both

at the upper and lower ends of the plains when lake levels allow. The small alluvial plains

should be protected by erosion control measures put in place where needed. In general, these

alluvial plains consist mostly of fine sediment and soils and are highly valued farm plots. These

plains are bisected by few gullies or drainage channels as most of the water flows entering from

upstream either spread out over this relatively flat plain or infiltrate into the highly porous

alluvial fill that underlies the surface materials.

8. Large alluvial plains regions should also be protected and managed to control soil erosion

and transport.

As with the case of small alluvial plains, these areas (Fig. 20) are highly valued farm land and

have direct contact with the lake ecosystems. Therefore, these regions as with the small

alluvial plains should be regarded as protected areas in the sense that they can be both sources

and sinks for eroded soils and contaminants. In addition, these large alluvial plains now act as

effective barriers to the transport of large amounts of sediment that originate in these

upstream sub-watersheds. Except where existing stream channels and gullies flow across these

plains to the lakes, these large flat and highly permeable alluvial fans intercept and filter most

rain-fed runoff waters. The sub-watersheds that drain into these larger alluvial plains are

shown in Fig. 21-23 and can be considered of lesser importance in lake protection efforts.


Figure 20. Large alluvial fans or plains of Etang Laborde showing field plots in upper ends of the

plains. (Taken from Google Earth, April 4 2013).

ALLUVIAL FANS


Figure 21. Etang Lachaux showing sub-watershed area (blue and yellow) where sediment and

surface flow contaminants are intercepted and reduced across the NW and NE alluvial plains

into which these watersheds drain.


Figure 22. Etang Douat showing sub-watershed (blue area) where sediment and surface flow

contaminants are intercepted and reduced across the northwestern alluvial plain into which

this watershed drains.


Figure 23. Etang Laborde showing sub-watersheds (blue and yellow areas) where sediment and

surface flow contaminants are intercepted and reduced across the two northern alluvial plains

into which these watersheds drain.

9. Control fish stocking activities and other practices that could endanger native aquatic

species.

All current fishing activities within these lakes are directed toward fish consumption or fish as a

market item for profit. The only fish of food or commercial value are the introduced species

such as tilapia, common carp and silver carp. While we did not collect any other introduced

species of fish in these lakes we are aware of several other introduce species that may find their

way into these lakes. While understanding the human value and need placed on these

introduced fish species, it is also important to understand the native Haitian fish species may be

threatened by the introduction of non-native fishes and other aquatic organisms. Introduced

species often have no predators in their new environments and can out compete native

organisms for food, habitat and other resources that sustain native populations. Many native

Haitian fish species are endemic to Haiti and found no other place on the globe. As part of the

natural Haitian environment and culture these native species need some level of protection

against introduced species. Therefore we suggest that introduction and restocking of non-

native fishes be done under the supervision and management of the Ministry of the

Environment. A fish management and stocking program should be developed by the


government to both protect native species and ensure that fish for consumption and market

are available to local fishermen.

Protection area summary

The identification of protected areas as well as areas in need of restoration is a critical part of

any environmental protection and management program. This report has identified a number

of areas in need of protection and in most cases concurrent restoration needs. We have

attempted to prioritize areas based on our knowledge of the potential magnitude of their

impacts and the likelihood of the ability to actually achieve some level of success. Our concern

for prioritization of identified areas and possible actions to incorporate our suggestions is based

on our assessment of the magnitude of the environmental and soil management problems

identified in all of these watersheds which were both wide spread and extreme in nature.

Without some sort of prioritization and focus on areas that are big contributors but still offer

affordable fixes, the amount of resources needed to address all areas would likely exceed

federal and local capabilities.

Specifically, in order of priority, the zones that should be protected or restored within each

watershed are (Fig. 25-27):

1. All areas within a 50-meter buffer or 5 hectare area (whichever is larger) around the most

prevalent lake shoreline AND all areas within 50 m of stream banks AND all areas within 100 m

of springs.

2. High slope (>30%) areas outside of the upper watersheds.

3. High slope (>30%) areas within the upper watersheds.


Figure 24. Etang Lachaux

watershed (blue

boundary) showing zones

of protection. Red

represents the highest

priority for protection

within a 50m buffer

around the lake or a 100m

buffer around each spring.

Within the watershed

boundary, dark blue

represents high (>30%)

slope areas that are of 2nd

highest priority for

protection while light blue

represents high slopes

that are of 3rd highest

priority.


Figure 25. Etang Douat watershed, showing zones of protection. See Fig. 24 for explanation.


Figure 25. Etang Laborde watershed, showing zones of protection. See Fig. 24 for explanation.


Institutional management options and actions

Along with identifying a series of options regarding areas in need of protection and restoration

that would benefit the lakes themselves, we have developed a short-list of management

suggestions that might be used to develop and maintain selected protection and management

areas. Many more management options exist than we have listed below and many have been

tried in various parts of Haiti and the world with greater or lesser successes. We view this list of

management suggestions as a “tool box” of options to choose from based on acceptance by

watershed residents, appropriateness to the local conditions, potential for success, and

affordability in terms of available resources.

Institutional approaches to establishing protection areas, and restoring and managing areas to

protect natural resources such as the study lakes often focus on using existing governmental

and educational tools to inform and direct people and activities toward an established goal.

Perhaps the most important consideration to the establishment of protected areas and

restoration projects (that can lead to more protected areas) is that of providing financial

incentives to install and maintain erosion control. All lake watersheds support a high

proportion of farms and people that are very poor and lack many basic human resources. Many

understand the need to conserve the soil and the natural environment but because of the level

of poverty are unable to voluntarily provide the time or resources (e.g. remove land from

production, build a rock terrace) necessary to make significant changes in their habits and

practices. Project incentives need not be costly considering the limited earning power of most

watershed farmers and tenants. Incentives should not be provided without obligations and

should be based on the long-term establishment and maintenance of erosion management

actions. It is critical that local people are made a part of process of creating protection areas so

that they take ownership in the successes of the projects. Some of these institutional

approaches are listed below:

1. Use existing legislated lake, stream and spring buffer directives to develop mandatory

erosion/contamination reduction measures within protected areas and areas in need of

restoration to protect a given resource.

2. Encourage/support local watershed restoration and protection organizations.

3. Arrange agricultural training/education programs using local universities and technical

schools.

4. Sponsor conservation and environment discussions.

5. Promote local lake protection and restoration activities.

6. Identify and report local watershed problems and needs to cooperating NGOs and

government agencies.

7. Provide financial incentives to install and maintain erosion control techniques and

structures. Incentives could be cash, tax reductions or other material resources to promote

personal investments in projects and project longevity.


8. Identify funding to jump start protection and restoration programs (e.g. World Bank,

Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Environment).

9. Develop demonstration projects for farming techniques and soil erosion control.

10. Consider creating demonstration lake watersheds to collectively share, investigate and

develop new and evaluate current approaches to better watershed and protected area

management. Demonstration watersheds could facilitate the sharing of many agricultural,

soil erosion and environmental techniques and programs that are in practice in various

parts of Haiti but are not collectively available because of logistical and communication

limitations.

11. Create a fish management and stocking program for introduced fish. Uncontrolled fish

stocking by citizens and NGOs represents a real danger from introduction of exotic plants

and animals that may have long-term detrimental impacts on the native biota

12. Identify sources of fish for lake stocking or develop a local fish hatchery. Governmental

oversight on the acquisition and distribution of fish for stocking would reduce potential

introduction of unwanted species and expedite

13. Employ youth and others within the watershed communities for project tasks.

Development of youth conservation corps or other conservation organizations would create

more opportunities to obtain local resident cooperation and ownership thus increasing

potential long-term success and maintenance of erosion control projects

Structural erosion and protection options and actions

Structural approaches to developing, restoring, or managing protected areas have a long

history in soil conservation and erosion control. This often involves a hard engineering

approach that is typically costly and sometimes requires a high level of maintenance to

maintain the effectiveness. However, bio-engineering techniques are also available that can

achieve similar results and levels of protection but are less costly and more self-maintaining.

We highly recommend the use of vetiver grass hedges in bio-engineering projects for a vast

number of reasons that have been documented from projects throughout the tropics. Vetiver

grasses are found throughout all three watersheds, but only one functional vetiver hedge of

only 200 meters was observed in our evaluation walks through these watersheds. More

probably exist but from our observations the use of vetiver in soil erosion control is minimal

and often not applied correctly. We saw in all watersheds that some soil erosion control

projects and structures have been put in place and tried in various locations by individuals and

organizations. For the most part, pass structural projects were limited in scope, poorly

developed, and poorly maintained or abandon. Even reforestation efforts have meet with

limited long-term successes as planted trees are often cut for fuel. Fruit tree plants are an

exception to this statement. The following are a few projects and activities that are worth

considering:

1. Restore prior erosion control structures.


2. Require or recommend use of rocks removed from field plots to be used to create rows

horizontal to the slope, not vertical and perpendicular to the slope.

3. Promote vetiver hedges and support local vetiver nurseries.

4. Install vetiver hedges or rock-wall terraces on all down-slope farm plots margins.

5. Create close set, vetiver hedges and/or rock terraces on high-slope, waste lands (farmed

out, low productivity land areas).

6. Continue fruit tree plantings and reforestation efforts. One approach to reforestation is

planting cash crop trees in a successional manner, integrating cassava and bananas into the

current crop plots, and progressing to cocoa and other valuable trees (Fig. 27).

Figure 27. Sequence of crops that mimic succession. Figure 6-9 from Kricher 2011.

Non-structural erosion and protection options and actions

A number of non-structural recommendations are offered in the following list:

1. Prohibit crop residue burning.

2. Apply micro-fertilizer.

3. Reduce or eliminate tree cuttings for charcoal

4. Trim vetiver hedges to promote new growth and produce mulch or fodder.

5. Install and use latrines where needed.

6. Protect springs and spring sources.

7. Limit livestock access to lakes (provide off site constructed water pool adjacent to lake

margins).

Some future considerations

Our work on these watersheds and lakes was somewhat limited in scope and time, thus some

areas and protection/restoration approaches were probably missed in this initial work. Various


elements of this report should and could be enhanced with the availability of additional

resources and time. Many aspects of this study need to be further explored to focus on

conditions and issues that did not surface in our original work. For example, our water quality

and biological studies are limited temporally and offer only a small window in the dynamic of all

these environmental variables. The native aquatic fauna and the springs associated with the

lakes needs to be more toughly surveyed and studied as this region of Haiti is a global

biodiversity hotspot. Species new to science and unique to Haiti await future discovery and will

require actions to protect them for new generations of Haitians and others.

Nutrient enrichment may or may not be a water quality and biological problem but our single

samples suggest that the lakes are very eutrophic. The seasonal and diurnal dynamics of

nutrients, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and other physio-chemical parameters remains

unknown yet changes in their extent, frequency and duration may be controlling factors in the

structure and function of the aquatic ecosystems and landscapes. Additionally, the extent and

rate of sedimentation within each lake is not understood or documented, so we cannot predict

what these lakes were or could be. Modifying the lakes to control water levels or dredging

them to deepen them requires more knowledge than we now possess. We encourage our

Haitian partners to continue their efforts in improving and managing these wonderful lakes and

exploring the health and condition of the many other aquatic systems that are found in and

along the southern peninsula.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Michele Oriol and Wilcken Destravil of CIAT and Mousson Pierre of ORE who

made this study possible. We also thank the Minister of the Environment for the Southern

Peninsula, Jean Dunes Gustave, and his employees; and the employees of ORE and CIAT,

including Gérald Buno, the drivers, and people who made us coffee and gave us fruit. We thank

Ralph Gustave for translating and Phanel Petro for guiding us around the lake. For helping us to

understand plants and agricultural practices, we thank the agronomy students at the American

University of the Caribbean: Jackson Coudo, Ducson Visne, Dieunau Taveus, Zachary Rochelin,

Wikenson Derival, Lampy Franckel, Viviane Celestin, Jean-Jacques Patrick, Etzer Dumont, Civil

Pierre Alix; Notre Dame University (Torbek) student Sinvil Claudimir and graduate Agr. Dimy

Orgella; and Institut Professionnel et de Formation Technique en Agronomie (IPFTA) teacher

Decossard Guemey and his students Neus Roseline, Gedeon RoseNadine, Gedeon Aliette, Rock

Renel Annosleus, Chery Jn Troius, Louis-Jean Dieunaissance, Philippe Daney, Antione Micelene,

Sanien Antoniel, Logiste Jemsien, Charles Armelle, Cetoute Bernadine. Thanks to our friend

Sonny Henry for driving and translating, and fourteen year old Farcelyn Mèns who helped row

the boat and carry equipment. We are especially appreciative of the residents of Etang

Lachaux, Douat, and Laborde who showed us springs and helped us to understand the history

of and their hopes for the lakes. Thanks to those who assisted with the 2013 Lachaux study:


Gary Welker, and Nathan and Peter Rudenberg. And finally thanks to Rhoda Beutler for helping

us navigate Port au Prince.

Contributors at the Kansas Biological Survey include macroinvertebrate taxonomist LeeAnn

Bennett, plant taxonomist Dr. Craig Freeman, and GIS specialist Jerry Whistler of the Kansas

Applied Remote Sensing Program.

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Appendix A. Files and methods used by the Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program to

create Haiti watersheds and calculate slope. Written by Jerry Whistler.

Watersheds delineation

Grids are listed in order of processing. Intermediate grids and shapefiles used to fine-tune the

western-most watershed’s western edge are not listed.

A. Grids derived from 2011 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection

Radiometer (ASTER) Global Digital Elevation Model Version 2 (GDEM V2).

1) haiti_dem – stitched tiles for Hispaniola

2) haiti_demr – data values 0 and greater than 65,000 were eliminated from haiti_dem.

Different color scheme employed.

3) haiti_demf – filled sinks in the haiti_demr. Required step in processing Haiti_dem for

watershed extraction.

4) haiti_demFD – flow direction derived from haiti_demf.

5) haiti_demFA – flow accumulation derived from haiti_demFD. Used to create stream

traces.

6) f_watersheds – the finalized watersheds.

B. Points (shapefile) used to define pour points for the three watersheds.

1) PourPoints – used haiti_demFA to place four pour points on the stream traces. Needed

two pour points to define western-most watershed’s western boundary due to

somewhat coarse vertical resolution of the dem.

C. Vectors (shapefiles) derived from grids to define watersheds.

1) watersh_hait1 – first cut at defining the three watershed boundaries using pour points

4, 2, and 3. After consultation with Don, discovered that western-most watershed

(pour point 4) was poorly defined on its west side.

2) watersh_hait2 – created new pour point (#2) to better define west side of western-most

watershed.

3) f_watersheds – the finalized watersheds.

Slope calculation

Geographic spatial data are models of the physical world. Some models are better than others,

and often that difference is related to the type of data a model uses. Spatial data can be

represented (modelled) with points, lines, and polygons (vector data), or it can be represented

as contiguous gridded cells (raster data). Surface elevation is commonly represented and

analyzed using raster data in the form of a digital elevation model (DEM).1


It important to realize that the grid cell used in raster data will generalize spatial data. Coarse

resolution data will generalize the data more than fine resolution data. The finest resolution

available elevation dataset covering the entire country of Haiti is the ASTER Global Digital

Elevation Model (ASTER GDEM). The ASTER GDEM is in geographic lat/long coordinates with 1

arc-second (approximately 30m) grid of elevation postings. This means that one grid cell

represents the average elevation within a 30m x 30m area.

A consequence of this averaging is that abrupt changes in elevation that occur within relatively

short distances are masked out. This has the tendency to “flatten” rough terrain. We see this

reflected in underestimated slope values calculated from the ASTER DEM in the three

watersheds studied.

Slope represents the rate of change of elevation for each DEM cell, and the inclination of slope

can be output as either a value in degrees or percent rise. We chose to represent slope as

percentage values. The values range from 0 to essentially infinity. A flat surface is 0 percent

and a 45-degree surface is 100 percent, and as the surface becomes more vertical, the percent

rise becomes increasingly larger.2

1 Other surface elevation representations are triangulated irregular networks (TINs) and LiDAR

point clouds. 2 ArcGIS 10.3 Online Help. URL http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/desktop/latest/manage-

data/raster-and-images/slope-function.htm

http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/desktop/latest/manage-data/raster-and-images/slope-function.htm

http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/desktop/latest/manage-data/raster-and-images/slope-function.htm


Appendix B. Study locations with approximate altitude. Samples collected from shore were

taken approximately 1 m out into the water. Watershed Site code date location latitude longitude approx alt (ft)

Lachaux

x1 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.30727 -73.84896

x2 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.30944 -73.84888

x3 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.3113 -73.84903

x4 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.31627 -73.85034

x5 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.31718 -73.84669

x6 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.31362 -73.84379

x7 9/Mar/2015 from shore

x8 9/Mar/2015 from shore 18.30876 -73.84465

x9 9/Mar/2015 from shore

x10 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.30832 -73.84627

x11 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.30906 -73.84585

x12 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.30927 -73.84522

x13 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.30989 -73.84584

x14 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31123 -73.84633

x15 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31283 -73.84572

x16 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31361 -73.84656

x17 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31441 -73.84798

x18 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31282 -73.84882 500

x19 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31152 -73.84864

x20 10/Mar/2015 on lake

x21 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.31001 -73.84889

x22 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.30925 -73.84845

x23 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.30832 -73.84791

x24 10/Mar/2015 on lake 18.3081 -73.84751

Douat D_spring 13/Mar/2015 spring 18.32137 -73.82909 648

D_hole 13/Mar/2015 pool 18.30667 -73.828 400

Laborde

B pool#1 14/Mar/2015 stream 18.31799 -73.80691 500

B spring (n. hill) 14/Mar/2015 spring 18.31943 -73.80662

B handdugwell#1 14/Mar/2015 well by B1 18.30601 -73.80027

B handdugwell#2 14/Mar/2015 well by parking 18.30464 -73.80334

B NGOwell 14/Mar/2015 well 18.30437 -73.80412 321

B8 18/Mar/2015 dug well 18.30308 -73.79644

B1 14/Mar/2015 from shore 18.30592 -73.80012

B3 18/Mar/2015 from shore 18.30362 -73.80267

B5 18/Mar/2015 from shore 18.3019 -73.80228

B6 18/Mar/2015 from shore 18.30014 -73.79888

B9 18/Mar/2015 from shore 18.3034 -73.79791

B10 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30161 -73.80129

B11 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30097 -73.80109 250

B12 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.3008 -73.80067

B13 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30112 -73.79973

B14 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30151 -73.79864

B15 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.3022 -73.79805

B16 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30299 -73.79822

B17 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30485 -73.79919

B18 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30501 -73.80106

B19 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30441 -73.80187

B20 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.30358 -73.80156

B21 19/Mar/2015 lake 18.3027 -73.80182


Appendix C. Photographs of fish collected during this study at Etang Lachaux and Laborde.

Family name Genus Species Creole English Lachaux Laborde

Cichlidae Tilapia Tilapia x x

Cyprinidae Cyprinus C. carpio Kap Common carp x x

Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys H. molitrix Boutlang Silver carp x

Poeciliidae Gambusia, Limia mosquito fish x x

Photo Taxon

Tilapia

Cyprinus carpio (mirror form on bottom)


Photo Taxon

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

Poeciliidae


Appendix D. Fishes of Haiti with occurrence classes. Endemic species are species known to

occur only in the Republic of Haiti. Except for Poecilia reticulata all introduced species were

introduced as mosquito control or food for humans. Modified from FishBase

(http://www.fishbase.org/Country/CountryChecklist.php?c_code=332&vhabitat=fresh&csub_c

ode=, output generated 26 May 2015). Additional introduced species listings are from the

Database on Introductions of Aquatic Species (http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias/en) and the

Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database/welcome).

Order Family Species Occurrence FishBase name

Anguilliformes Anguillidae Anguilla rostrata native American eel

Carcharhiniformes Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus leucas native Bull shark

Clupeiformes Engraulidae Anchoa parva native Little anchovy

Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Ctenopharyngodon idella introduced Grass Carp

Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Cyprinus carpio introduced Common carp

Cypriniformes Cyprinidae

Hypophthalmichthy

molitrix introduced Silver carp

Cypriniformes Cyprinidae

Hypophthalmichthy

nobilis introduced Bighead carp

Cyprinodontiformes Cyprinodontidae Cyprinodon bondi native Hispaniola pupfish

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis introduced Western Mosquitofish

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Gambusia beebei endemic Miragoane gambusia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Gambusia dominicensis native Dominican gambusia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Gambusia hispaniolae native Hispaniolan gambusia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Gambusia holbrooki introduced Eastern Mosquitofish

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae

Gambusia

pseudopunctata endemic

Tiburon Peninsula

gambusia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia dominicensis endemic Tiburon Peninsula limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia fuscomaculata endemic Blotched limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia garnieri endemic Garnier's limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia grossidens endemic Largetooth limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia immaculata endemic Plain limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia melanonotata native Blackbanded limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia miragoanensis endemic Miragoane limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia nigrofasciata endemic Blackbarred limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia ornata endemic Ornate limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia pauciradiata endemic Few-rayed limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia rivasi endemic Rivas's limia

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Limia tridens native Trident limia1

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Poecilia hispaniolana native Hispaniola molly

Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Poecilia reticulata introduced Guppy

Elopiformes Megalopidae Megalops atlanticus native Tarpon

Mugiliformes Mugilidae Agonostomus monticola native Mountain mullet

Mugiliformes Mugilidae Joturus pichardi native Bobo mullet

Mugiliformes Mugilidae Mugil liza native Lebranche mullet

Perciformes Centropomidae Centropomus ensiferus native Swordspine snook

Perciformes Centropomidae Centropomus parallelus native Fat snook

Perciformes Centropomidae Centropomus pectinatus native Tarpon snook

Perciformes Cichlidae Nandopsis haitiensis native Haitian cichlid


http://www.fishbase.org/Country/CountryChecklist.php?c_code=332&vhabitat=fresh&csub_code

http://www.fishbase.org/Country/CountryChecklist.php?c_code=332&vhabitat=fresh&csub_code

http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias/en

http://www.issg.org/database/welcome


Order Family Species Occurrence FishBase name

Perciformes Cichlidae Oreochromis aureus introduced Blue tilapia

Perciformes Cichlidae

Oreochromis

mossambicus introduced Mozambique tilapia

Perciformes Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus introduced Nile tilapia

Perciformes Gerreidae Eugerres plumieri native Striped mojarra

Perciformes Gerreidae Gerres cinereus native Yellow fin mojarra

Perciformes Gobiidae Awaous banana native River goby

Perciformes Haemulidae Pomadasys crocro native Burro grunt

Siluriformes Ictaluridae Ictalurus punctatus introduced Channel catfish

Syngnathiformes Syngnathidae Microphis lineatus native Opossum pipefish

1

Common name “Trident limia” was taken from Lee et al. 1983.


Appendix E. Photographs of macrophytes collected during this study at Etang Lachaux and

Laborde.

Photo Family Scientific name Creole

name

English

name Lachaux Laborde

Alismataceae Sagittaria lancifolia

L.

Bulltongue

arrowhead x

Araceae Pistia stratiotes L.

Water

lettuce x

Ceratophyllaceae

Ceratophyllum

demersum L.

Limon

femèl Coontail x x

Cyperaceae Cyperus odoratus

L.

Fragrant

flatsedge x

Cyperaceae Cyperus sp.

Sedge

x

Cyperaceae

Eleocharis

interstincta (Vahl)

Roem. & Schult.

Knotted

spikerush x



name

English


Cyperaceae Fimbristylis

miliacea (L.) Vahl Fimbry

x

Cyperaceae

Schoenoplectus

tabernaemontani

(C.C. Gmel.) Palla

Softstem

bullrush x

Menyanthaceae Nymphoides indica

(L.) Kuntze

Water

snowflake x x

Najadaceae Najas marina L. Limon

mal

Spiny water

nymph x

Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea

rudgeana G. Mey.

Rudge's

waterlily x

Onagraceae Ludwigia sp.

(sterile)

Primrose-

willow x x



name

English


Polygonaceae Persicaria punctata

(Elliott) Small

Dotted

smartweed x x

Typhaceae Typha* Cattail x x

*Not collected, photos only.

Plants collected at Douat.


name English name

Alismataceae

Echinodorus berteroi (Spreng.)

Fassett (sterile) Upright burrhead

Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Diri Rice

Malvaceae Hibiscus trilobus Aubl.

Threelobe

rosemallow


Appendix F. 2011 landuse/landcover maps of each lake watershed. Maps were generated by the Earth Institute for this study, using

watershed boundaries created by the Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program.

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