Developments of social person era

Developments of Social Person Era-management-

Masca Indra [email protected]

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Developments in the Era of Social Person

Developments in the Era of Social Person

Scientific Management

Toward Organizational

Behavior

Toward Organizational

Theory

Toward General Management

Theory

Social Person Era

Background of organization• The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership.• Aristotle addressed the topic of persuasive communication. • Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure based on the division of

labor. • One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational

organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership.• Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal setting and rewards to

motivate employees. • In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted

productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States.• Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies began as

an academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of this movement..

• After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused on teams, motivation, and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations.Prominent early scholars included Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Victor Vroom.

Scientific Management• Scientific management is defined as the use of the scientific method to define the “one best way” for a job to be

done.

• Frederick W. Taylor is known as the “father” of scientific management. Taylor’s work at the Bethlehem Steel companies motivated his interest in improving efficiency.

a. Taylor sought to create a mental revolution among both workers and managers by defining clear guidelines for improving production efficiency. He defined four principles of management.

b. His “pig iron” experiment is probably the most widely cited example of scientific management.

c. Using his principles of scientific management, Taylor was able to define the one best way for doing each job.

d. Overall, Taylor achieved consistent improvements in productivity in the range of 200 percent. He affirmed the role of managers to plan and control and of workers to perform as they were instructed.

• He was the first nationally known management thinker. His “Taylorism” or “scientific management” was amajor contribution to business operations as we know them today. The overview of his studies is given below:

a. Taylor developed scientific management to counter the problem of soldiering by workers—deliberately working below full capacity.

b. Taylor pioneered the time-and-motion study, where by a work task is broken down into its various motions, is improved by eliminating unnecessary motions, and then the motions timed to determine optimal daily production.

c. Through his four principles of scientific management, Taylor advocated scientific study of the task to find the best work method rather than relying on traditional methods handed down from one worker to another.

Scientific Managementd. Taylor successfully implemented his theory at Bethlehem Steel in two famous studies involving shoveling

and pig-iron handling.

e. Although real and imagined abuses or misuses of scientific management occurred (leading in one instance to a congressional investigation—and thereby adding to Taylor’s notoriety), Taylor’s strong support of science and his redefining the role of managers remains his primary contribution to management theory.

•Taylor’s Four Principles of Scientific Management:1. Study each part of the task scientifically, and develop a best method to perform it. 2. Carefully select workers and train them to perform a task using the scientifically developed method. 3. Cooperate fully with workers to ensure they use the proper method. 4. Divide work and responsibility so management is responsible for planning work methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the work accordingly.

•Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (1868-1924 and 1878-1972 respectively):They did studies aimed at eliminating unnecessary motions and way of reducing task fatigue.

a. They perfected the time-and-motion study techniques first introduced by Taylor. b. Together they provided the first vocabulary for identifying hand, arm, and body motions used at work which they called “Therbligs.” c. Lillian’s doctoral dissertation was published as the book, The Psychology of Management, one of the

first books published on the findings of psychology in the workplace. d. Frank “proved” the value of motion studies in his own construction company whose productivity was

nearly three times better than his competitors who used the older work methods.

Toward Organizational Behavior

Toward Organizational Behavior Sociometry

• Sociometry, an analytical technique to classify individuals into groups that were capable of harmonious relationships

• Sociometry research has sought to combine work groups such that they would be superior in quality and quantity of work as well as conducive to higher morale for the participants

• “A process of classification, which is calculated to bring individuals together who are capable of harmonious interpersonal relationship and so create a social group which can function at the maximum efficiency and with a minimum of disruptive tendencies and processes”

Group Dynamic• A group was a never at a steady state of equilibrium, but was in a continuos process of mutual

adaptation that Lewin called ‘quasi-stationary equilibrium”.• Group Dynamic, the way groups and individuals act and react to changing circumstances.

– (1) Group productivity: why was it that groups are so ineffective in getting things done? – (2) Communication: how influence is spread throughout a group. – (3) Social perception: how a person's group affected the way they perceived social

events. – (4) Intergroup relations. – (5) Group membership: how individuals adjust to these conditions. – (6) training leaders: improving the functioning of groups (T-groups).


Social motivation• Maslow focused on evolutionary, dynamic qualities of human needs, human relation thinking

emphasized the social, belonging needs.• Human beings have certain needs that they try to satisfy. Need is one of the oldest notion about

motivation.• From the work of Henry Murray, he built the most widely recognized theories of motivation. Needs :

physiological, safety, love, esteem and self actualization.• These basic needs are related to each other and were arranged in hierarchy of “ prepotency”

Participation– Participation was viewed as democracy in action, opening communication channel, diffusing

authority, motivating people to give a greater commitment of themselves to organizational goals. Leadership

– Found a two dimensional view of leadership:– Even thought this both of studies used different terms, each develop two-by-two matrix of leader

behaviors.• Task Oriented : Production oriented and initiating structure dimension. • Interpersonal relation oriented : Employee oriented and consideration dimension.

– The two dimension did not appear mutually exclusive, that is why a leader can combine them.


Hawthorne Studies and human relation• Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted studies at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant and began

with an investigation to see if different lighting affected workers’ productivity• Hawthorne studies reflected the scientific management tradition of seeking greater efficiency by

improving the tools and methods of work—in this case, lighting. 1. In the first set of studies, no correlation was found between changes in lighting conditions and

individual work performance. In fact, performance nearly always went up with any change—brighter or darker—in illumination.

2. In the second set of studies, the concept of the Hawthorne effect emerged. The Hawthorne effect refers to the possibility that individuals singled out for a study may improve their performance simply because of the added attention they receive from the researchers, rather than because of any specific factors being tested in the study.

3. The third set of studies centered on group production norms and individual motivation.4. Although simplistic and methodologically primitive, the Hawthorne studies established the

impact that social aspects of the job (and the informal group) have on productivity.


Hawthorne Studies and human relation• Conclusions: economic rewards didn’t totally explain behavior; workers respond to groups norms,

social pressures

1. In later experiments, variables such as wage levels, rest periods and length of the work day were varied

2. Worker performance seemed to increase over time leading Mayo and his colleagues to hypothesize the Hawthorne Effect

3. That employees worked harder if they received added attention, if they thought managers cared about their welfare and that supervisors paid attention to them

4. They succeeded in drawing attention to the “social man” and how managers using good human relations could improve worker productivity

• organizational studies shifted to how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused on teams, motivation, and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations


Early Behavioralist• Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. These include Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard.

1. Robert Owen, a successful Scottish businessman, proposed a utopian workplace.

2. Hugo Munsterberg created the field of industrial psychology—the scientific study of individuals at work to maximize their productivity and adjustment.

3. Mary Parker Follett was a social philosopher who thought the manager’s job was to harmonize and coordinate group efforts.

4. Chester Barnard, president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, saw organizations as social systems that required human cooperation.

a. He believed that managers’ major roles were to communicate and stimulate subordinates to high levels of effort.

b. He also introduced the idea that managers have to examine the environment and then adjust the organization to maintain a state of equilibrium.


Robert Owen

• He reduced the use of child labor and used moral persuasion rather than corporal punishment in his factories.

• He chided his fellow factory owners for treating their equipment better than they treated their workers.

• Owen hated the modern factory system, so he decided to revolutionize it.

• Owen’s strength was that he saw his employees as every bit as important to the success of his enterprise as the machines he owned. By examining working methods and conditions, and seeking to improve these, he is justifiably claimed as a father of personnel management.


Hugo Munsterberg

• He was one of the pioneers in applied psychology, extending his research and theories to Industrial / Organizational (I/O), legal, medical, clinical, educational and business settingsThe father of industrial psychology was Hugo Munsterberg.

• In 1892, Munsterberg established his psychological laboratory at Harvard, which was to become the foundation stone in the industrial psychology movement.

• Part one, the “best possible man,” was a study of the demand jobs made on people, and the importance of finding people whose mental capabilities made them well-matched for the work.

• Part two, the “best possible work,” described the psychological conditions under which the greatest output might be obtained from every worker.

• Part three, the “best possible effect,” examined the necessity of creating the influences on human needs that were desirable for the interests of business.

Toward Organizational Behavior Mary Parker Follet

• Mary Parker Follett was an American social worker, management consultant and pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior.

• However, she also began to think somewhat differently than the other theorists of her day, discarding command-style hierarchical organizations where employees were treated like robots.

Some Key Concepts that underpin Follett’s philosophy are:

A skillful leader influences by stimulating others.

In Mary Parker Follett leadership theory, genuine power is not “coercive”

(“power over”) but “coactive” (“power with”).

True leaders, according to Follett’s theory, “create group power, rather

than expressing personal power.”

Interrelatedness – ‘coactive’ as opposed to coercive.

• She was a pioneer and often not taken seriously by management scholars of her time.. Follett was one of those who integrate the idea of organizational conflict into management theory, and is sometimes considered the “mother of conflict resolution”.


Chester Barnard

•Chester Irving Barnard, was an American Business Executive, Public Administrator and the author of pioneering work in management theory & organizational studies.•He wrote his first book in 1938, Function of the Executive worked as his landmark. One of his contributions was the concept of the informal organization. He felt that these informal organizations provided necessary and vital communication functions for the overall organization and that they could help the organization accomplish its goals.•Barnard felt that it was particularly important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose where a willingness to cooperate is strongly encouraged. He is credited with developing the acceptance theory of management, which emphasizes the willingness of employees to accept that managers have legitimate authority to act.

Barnard felt that four factors affected the willingness of employees to accept authority: The employees must understand the communication. The employees accept the communication as being consistent with the organization’s

purposes. The employees feel that their actions will be consistent with the needs and desires of

the other employees. The employees feel that they are mentally and physically able to carry out the order.

Barnard’s sympathy for and understanding of employee needs positioned him as a bridge to the behavioral school of management, the next school of thought to emerge.

Toward Organizational Theory

• Frederick Taylor (1917) developed scientific management theory (often called "Taylorism") at the beginning of this century.

• His theory had four basic principles: – 1) find the one "best way" to perform

each task, – 2) carefully match each worker to

each task, – 3) closely supervise workers, and use

reward and punishment as motivators, and

– 4) the task of management is planning and control.


• Max Weber (1947) expanded on Taylor's theories, and stressed the need to reduce diversity and ambiguity in organizations. The focus was on establishing clear lines of authority and control. Weber's bureaucratic theory emphasized the need for a hierarchical structure of power.


• Mooney and Reiley (1931) formalized Administrative theory (i.e., principles of management). The emphasis was on establishing a universal set of management principles that could be applied to all organizations.


• The human relations movement evolved as a reaction to the tough, authoritarian structure of classical theory. It addressed many of the problems inherent in classical theory. The most serious objections to classical theory are that it created overconformity and rigidity, thus squelching creativity, individual growth, and motivation. Social era theory displayed genuine concern for human needs.


• Chester Barnard influenced human relations thinking and continues to influence our understanding of organizations and management.

Barnard defined a formal organization as “a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two more more persons.”


Barnard and Elements of Formal Organizations :• Willingness to cooperate, and this was to be facilitated by the offerings of objective

and subjective incentives.• Purpose or objectives of the organization. Although individual and organizational

motives were different, individuals could achieve their motives by working toward organizational purposes.

• Communication


Simon’s Administrative Behavior• Simon clarified the processes by which goal

specificity and formalization contribute to rational behavior in organizations. He criticized Fayol's platitudes and Taylor's "economic man" assumptions, proposing the "administrative man" who pursues his self-interests but often doesn't know what they are, is aware of only some of the possible decision alternatives, and is willing to settle for an adequate solution than continue looking for an optimal one.


Toward General Management Theory

Henri Fayol(1841–1925)

Henri Fayol• Was a mining engineer and director of mines who developed a general theory of Business administration. He was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.•He proposed that there were six primary functions of management and 14 principles of management

Functions of management1. Forecasting2. Planning3. Organizing4. Commanding5. Coordinating6. Monitoring

Principles of Management1. Division of work2. Authority3. Discipline4. Unity of command5. Unity of direction6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest7. Remuneration8. Centralization9. Scalar chain10. Order11. Equity12. Stability of tenure of personnel13. Initiative14. Esprit de corps


Henry Fayol in papers on administration

•POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of management and public administration that reflects the classic view of administrative management.

•It first appeared in a 1937 staff paper by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick written for the Brownlow Committee.

•POSDCORB is the answer, "designed to call attention to the various functional elements of the work of a chief executive because 'administration' and 'management' have lost all specific content

Luther Halsey Gulick (1892–1993)

Lyndall Fownes Urwick (1891 -1983)

Gullick dan Urwick :

POSDCORB


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndall_Urwick



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownlow_Committee

•Gulick began with the premise that the major purpose of organization was coordination. He formulated "principle of homogeneity" which meant grouping of similar activities under one head

Gullick dan Urwick : POSDCORB

•He noted four primary method for grouping activities; 1. Purpose or function performed2. The process used 3. Person or things dealt with or served 4. The place where the service is rendered

(4)(2) (3)


Shop Management

•Taylor developed his management theories in his book Shop Management published in 1903, making it arguably the first scholarly work on management. •Shop Management approached the role of manager as a general role with specific functions with respect to collaborative work.

•Taylor viewed the wage practices as rewarding for attendance, not performance.

Top Level of Management•The top management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for the company. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions.

•It is an art of getting things done through & with the people in formally organized groups

In This era, the paradigm of management shifting from individual management to the organization management

Ralph C. Davis(1894-1986)

•Davis took an early shop management approach, encountered the Coubrough translation of Fayol, leading him to his top management contributions.•Organic functions of management: planning, organizing, and controlling

He defined management as “the function of executive leadership.”

Organic Functions


•An organization is a social group which distributes tasks for a collective goal.

Organization and methods

•Organization & Methods originally came from the pioneers of scientific management (Taylor and Gilbreht). Their work influenced the early approaches and establishment of the function

•it is a specialist function that has a primary objective of improving an organizations efficiency and control.


•James D. Mooney and Alan C. Reiley, in Onward Industry, set out to develop principles of organizational efficiency that would meet the industrial objectives of "Profit through service“

•Productive efficiency was not enough to ensure the goal of industrial service.

•For them, the efficient organization was based on formalism, "the efficient coordination of all relationship"

Organizations: Structure and Design

James D. Mooney(1884 -1957)


Developments of social person era

Education

Transcript of Developments of social person era