Development of FriendshipDevelopment of Friendship

What is a friend?

How do we form and maintain a friendship?

What is Special about Peer Relationships?What is Special about Peer Relationships?

• Relationships of relative equality

• Source of companionship and emotional support

IntimacyIntimacy

The ability to share experiences with others, to establish and maintain a sense of closeness with other people

Autonomy

The ability to understand, coordinate, and negotiate one’s own needs and interests with the needs and interests of another person

Social Perspective TakingSocial Perspective Taking

Understanding of how people’s points of view are coordinated with one another

Robert Selman

DEVELOPMENT OF FRIENDSHIP

Level 1 Friendship (3-6 yrs)Level 1 Friendship (3-6 yrs)

Social Perspective Taking

difficulty understanding that others have perspectives different from one’s own

Level 1 Friendship (Level 1 Friendship (3-6 yrs3-6 yrs))

Intimacy Function

–being in the same place at the same time

–sharing through unreflective sensorimotor imitation or “contagion”

Level 1 Friendship (Level 1 Friendship (3-6 yrs3-6 yrs))

Autonomy Function

–unreflective physical strategies

Level 1 Friendship (3-6 yrs)Level 1 Friendship (3-6 yrs)

Concepts of Friendship

–physical or geographical associations

–temporary bonds

–desires of the self

Level 2 Friendship (Level 2 Friendship (5-9 yrs5-9 yrs))

Social Perspective Taking

–difficulty taking two perspectives into account simultaneously

Level 2 Friendship (5-9 yrs)

Intimacy Function

–sharing through expressive enthusiasm, without concern for reciprocity

Level 2 Friendship (5-9 yrs)

Autonomy Function

–one-way commands

–unchallenging accommodation

Level 2 Friendship (Level 2 Friendship (5-9 yrs5-9 yrs))

Concepts of Friendship

–a friend is someone who helps me

–lacks mutuality, lacks reciprocity

Level 3 Friendship (Level 3 Friendship (7-12 yrs7-12 yrs))

Social Perspective Taking

–understands that reciprocal subjective evaluations take place

Level 3 Friendship (7-12 yrs)Level 3 Friendship (7-12 yrs)

Intimacy Function

–shared experience through joint reflection on similar experiences

Level 3 Friendship (7-12 yrs)Level 3 Friendship (7-12 yrs)

Autonomy Function

–negotiation through cooperative or reciprocal strategies designed to protect the subjective interests of the self

Level 3 Friendship (Level 3 Friendship (7-12 yrs7-12 yrs))

Concepts of Friendship

–trust, cooperation

–reciprocal interest

–no sense of an enduring relationship

Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)

Social Perspective Taking

–can assume a third party perspective

Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)

Intimacy Function

–shared experience through collaborative empathic reflective processes

Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)

Autonomy Function

–negotiation through collaborative strategies oriented towards integrating the interests of the self and the interests of the other person

Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)Level 4 Friendship (10-15+)

Concepts of Friendship–mutual understanding–mutual concern–possessiveness

• non-subjective relationships

• relationship based on a positive feeling

• relationship based on reciprocity and trust

• relationship based on mutual awareness and understanding

Friendship FormationFriendship Formation

GOTTMAN

– Establishing common-ground activity

– Greater communication clarity

– More successful at exchanging information

– More skillful at conflict resolution

– More self-disclosure

Friendships of Very Young ChildrenFriendships of Very Young Children

• Young children aren’t able to articulate their ideas about friendship

• Depth of intimacy & strategies for negotiating conflict improve with age

• Nonetheless, even toddlers interact differently with friends than with non-friends

Friendships of Very Young ChildrenFriendships of Very Young Children

• spend more time with friends• attempt reconciliation more often with friends• quarrel more with friends• are more forgiving of friends

Friends act as a support in times of change

Friendships of Very Young Children

• Loss of friends is associated with:– decline in social play

– distress and anxiety

• Early friendships can be stablemore than 50% of preschoolers have reciprocal friendships

more than 60% of these friendships are stable over 6 months

Sociometric TechniquesSociometric Techniques

• Nominations

• Rating scales

• Paired comparisons

Popularity and Sociometrics

Positive

Votes

FEW

MANY

Negative Votes

FEW

neglected

popular

MANY rejected controversial

Rejected-Aggressive ChildrenRejected-Aggressive Children

• Tend to misinterpret innocent behaviors of others as hostile

• Poor social problem solvers

• Show severe behavioral problems

Does being Aggressive mean being Rejected?Does being Aggressive mean being Rejected?

Many aggressive children tend to form their own friendship networks

Many aggressive children have “best friends”

Networks and friendships are composed of other aggressive children

Rejected-Withdrawn ChildrenRejected-Withdrawn Children

• Shy, passive, socially awkward.

• Have negative expectations of how others will treat them.

• At risk of being victimized by bullies.

Rejected children (aggressive and withdrawn) have more difficulty than other children finding

constructive solutions to difficult social situations.

Rejected children suggest fewer and more hostile strategies than do their more popular peers.

Neglected ChildrenNeglected Children

Socially uninvolved children

Are they at risk?– usually well-adapted– not particularly unhappy or lonely– not aggressive or hostile– enjoy solitary activities

Is there a connection between being Is there a connection between being neglected and rejected?neglected and rejected?

• It may be that neglected children are children who were rejected– rejection withdrawal

• It may be that neglected children will end up being rejected– withdrawal rejection

Controversial Children

• hostile and disruptive

BUT ALSO

• engage in pro-social behaviors

• appear happy and well-adjusted

Popular ChildrenPopular Children

• Friendly, helpful, considerate

• How do they get to be popular?– Make attempts at entering group– Initially go along– Don’t ask too many questions– Don’t try to change group’s agenda

Stability of Sociometric StatusStability of Sociometric Status

• In the short term, popular & rejected are more stable than neglected or controversial

• In the long term, sociometric status is relatively unstable except for rejected children

Close FriendshipClose Friendship

Reciprocity

Quality

PopularityPopularity

• Based on how many peers nominate a child as someone with whom they like to play or work.

• There is only a partial overlap between popularity and friendship.

POPULARITY: involves gaining acceptance among peers

FRIENDSHIP: involves forming a stable & intimate relationship with a peer

Parker & Asher (1993)Parker & Asher (1993)

Low accepted children (LA)

High accepted children (HA)

• Do LA children they have friends?

• What is the quality of their friendships?

Parker & Asher (1993)Parker & Asher (1993)

• HA more likely to have a best friend than LA

• not all HA have a best friend• many LA have a best friend

• best friendships of LA are more problematic than those of HA

• regardless of status, children without a best friend are more lonely than children with a best friend

Popularity & Friendship contribute to Popularity & Friendship contribute to children’s well-beingchildren’s well-being

• Popularity and Peer Acceptance– serve as a context in which children develop

leadership skills, assertiveness, & conflict resolution strategies

• Close Friendships– provide a safe context for self-exploration– meet child’s needs for intimacy and social support

Consequences of Close FriendshipsConsequences of Close Friendships

• School performance/adjustment

• Social & emotional support

How can parents and teachers help children develop the skills for creating and maintaining close friendships?