Development and Aging
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![Page 1: Development and Aging](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062301/56812cc3550346895d917e34/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Development and Aging
Chapter 17
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Stages of Development
Gamete formation
Fertilization
Cleavage
Gastrulation
Organ formation
Growth, tissue specialization
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Cleavage
• Divides up cytoplasm
• Each blastomere ends
up with a portion
• Creates variation
among blastomeres
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Three Primary Tissues
• Gastrulation rearranges blastomeres
and creates:
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
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Organogenesis
• Process by which organs form
Cell determination
Cell differentiation
Morphogenesis
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Fertilization
• Sperm penetrates to egg cytoplasm
• Secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II;
forms mature egg
• Egg nucleus and sperm nucleus fuse to
form diploid zygote
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Pregnancy
• Averages 38 weeks from fertilization
• Takes 2 weeks for blastocyst to form
• Weeks 3 to 8 are embryonic period
• Weeks 9 to birth are fetal period
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Early Divisions
• Cleavage begins within 24 hours of fertilization
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4(morula)
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Day 5 - Blastocyst Forms
• Cell secretions produce a fluid-filled
cavity in center of ball of cells
• Layers of blastocyst
– Inner cell mass
– Trophoblast
– Blastocoel
inner cell mass
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Implantation Begins
• Blastocyst attaches to endometrium; begins to burrow into maternal tissues
blastocoel
inner cell mass
trophoblast
Uterine cavity
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Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
• Hormone secreted by the blastocyst
• Stimulates corpus luteum to keep making progesterone and estrogens
• This maintains endometrium, prevents menstruation
• Can be detected by week 3 with a home pregnancy test
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Extraembryonic Membranes
DAY 14
yolk sac
chorionic cavitychorionic
villi
chorion
amniotic cavity
connecting stalk
• The amniotic
membrane will
enclose embryo
• Yolk sac forms
• Chorion begins to
form fingerlike villi
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The Placenta• Interlocking fetal and
maternal tissues
• Performs digestive, respiratory, and urinary functions for the fetus
• Materials exchanged across membrane that separates bloodstreams
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Gastrulation - Day 15
• Primitive streak
forms along one
axis of the inner
cell mass
• Cells migrate
inward here to form
endoderm and
mesoderm
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Vertebrate Body Plan Emerges
paired neural folds
somites
pharyngealarches
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Morphogenesis
• Orderly changes result in specialized tissues and early organs
• Cells migrate
• Whole sheets of cells expand and fold
• Programmed cell death sculpts body parts
Cell migration
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Embryonic Period
• Weeks 3 to 8
• By the close of embryo period
– Appears human
– Primordial tissues of all internal and external structures have formed
Week 4
Week 8
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Fetal Period
• Weeks 9 to birth
• Fetus is initially about 1 inch long
• Fetus born before 22 weeks cannot survive
• Survival is poor before 28 weeks because lungs are not fully formed
• By 36 weeks, survival is 95 percent
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Fetal Circulation
• Fetal hemoglobin
• Temporary bypass vessels form and
function until birth
• Umbilical arteries
• Foramen ovale and the arterial duct
• Venous duct
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Birth (Labor)
• Cervical canal dilates
• Amniotic sac ruptures
• Uterine contractions
drive fetus from uterus
• Placenta is expelled as
afterbirth
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Lactation
• During pregnancy, progesterone and estrogen stimulate gland development
• After birth, prolactin induces synthesis of enzymes for milk production
• Oxytocin triggers contractions
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Cloning Embryos
• Biological carbon copy of an organism
• Use chemicals to spur unfertilized, donated eggs to divide
OR
• Fuse enucleated egg with an adult cell
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Fetal Nutrition
• All nutrients for fetal growth and
development must be delivered via
the placenta
• Mother’s diet affects fetal health
• Smoking may affect ability to absorb
nutrients and to pass them to fetus
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Teratogens
• Drugs and environmental factors that may induce deformities during development
• Effect depends upon time of exposure
• Most have no effect until after second week
• Thalidomide
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Stages of Human Development - Prenatal
• Zygote - Single cell
• Morula - Solid ball of cells
• Blastocyst - Ball with fluid-filled cavity
• Embryo - 2 weeks to 8 weeks
• Fetus - 9 weeks to birth
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Stages of Human Development - Postnatal
• Newborn - First 2 weeks after birth
• Infant - 2 weeks to 15 months
• Child – To 10-12 years
• Pubescent - At puberty
• Adolescent - Puberty to maturation
• Adult
• Old age
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Aging
• Programmed life-span hypothesis
• Cumulative-assaults hypothesis
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Aging Skin and Hair
• Number of fibroblasts in the dermis starts to decrease
• Elastin replaced by collagen
• Loss of sweat glands
• Hair follicles die or become less active
• Pigment-producing cells die
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Aging Muscle and Bone
• Fibers in skeletal muscle atrophy
• Lost muscle tends to be replaced by fat
and, with time, collagen
• Bones become weaker, more porous,
and brittle
• Cartilage in joints deteriorate
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Aging Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems
• Walls of alveoli break down
• Heart muscle becomes slightly smaller
• Less blood and oxygen are delivered to
muscles and other tissues
• Blood vessels become narrowed and
less elastic
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Aging Nervous System
• Brain neurons die steadily throughout life
• Neurofibrillary tangles
• Beta amyloid plaques
• Memory loss
• Slowed reflexes
• Farsightedness
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Aging Reproductive Systems
• Reduced secretion of estrogens and progesterone triggers menopause
• Falling levels of testosterone reduce male fertility
• Vascular changes impair ability to achieve erection
• Prostate-gland enlargement
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Aging Immunity, Nutrition, and Urinary System
• Number of T cells falls and B cells become less active
• Mucus-secreting glands of GI tract degenerate
• Basal metabolic rate declines
• Weakening of muscles causes urinary incontinence