Developing strategies for conservation of threatened endemic biodiversity of the sacred groves of Central Western Ghats

Project report (2011)

Rajasri Ray

Centre for Ecological Sciences

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012

India

TEAM Dr. Rajasri Ray (Principal investigator)

Mr. Vishnu Mukhri (Field assistant)

Mr. Mahabaleshwar Naik (Field assistant)

Dr. M.D. Subash Chandran (Advisor)

Dr. T.V. Ramachandra (Advisor)

CONTENTS Acknowledgements

Summary

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

References

Annexure

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Rufford Foundation, UK for the financial support to study on sacred

groves of Central Western Ghats in Karnataka state, India. We thank Karnataka Forest

Department for their support in this work. Thanks should go to Mr. Ananta Hegde Ashisar,

Chairman, Western Ghats Task Force, Govt. of Karnataka for suggestions and active

involvement in this program. We are also grateful to peoples of Siddapur for their help and

co-operation during the field work. Finally, team members express their gratitude to all

members of Energy and Wetland Research Group (EWRG) - Mr. G. R. Rao, Dr. Prakash

Mesta, Mr. Vishnu Mukri and colleagues of Kumta field station for their help in project

implementation and report preparation.

SUMMARY

Culturally protected forest patches or sacred groves have been the integral part of many

traditional societies. This age old tradition which is on the decline today, indeed functioned as

classical instances of community driven nature conservation sheltering native biodiversity,

supplying NTFPs and supporting various ecosystem functions particularly hydrology.

The current work in Central Western Ghats of Karnataka, India, one of the richest regions for

sacred groves, highlights that even small sacred groves here amidst humanised landscapes

dominated by agriculture and plantations serve as tiny islands of biodiversity, especially of

rare and endemic species. A study on population and regeneration status of four selected

endemic tree species indicates that grove size and relative protection are key factors for

survival of these endemics.

Among the various anthropogenic factors that contribute to the degradation of sacred grove

system in the recent times, are weakening of traditional belief systems and associated laxity

in grove protection. Revitalisation of traditional practices related to conservation of sacred

groves can go a long way in strengthening natural ecological systems of fragile humid

tropical highlands. The prevalence of some of the Critically Endangered tree species of the

Western Ghats such as, Syzygium travancoricum and Vateria indica in some of the small

groves studied, which are obviously the relics of the primary forests highlights that sacred

groves can have a greater role especially in conservation of the threatened endemic biota if

they are restored and managed well.

INTRODUCTION

Culturally protected forest fragments, popularly known as sacred groves are often relics of

original forests that covered the region before forest cutting and burning with the spread of

civilization. These preserved forest patches, which originally covered larger areas, are usually

close to human settlement, especially in Indian highlands, were the abodes of gods, as their

remains with often rare species and unique ecological functions still prove it. Shift in

developmental paradigm and consequent changing socio-economic scenario, land use

practices have transformed these patches leading into various stages of degradation. Groves’

supportive role in species maintenance, different ecological functions is well recognized.

Sacred groves present in humanized landscapes are especially important in this regard. They

are often part of the heterogeneous landscape intermingled with agricultural field, plantation,

barren land, water bodies as well as villages. Studies highlight that, groves support a good

number of rare and endemic species, which are extra-sensitive compared to common species,

and persist only in favourable niches, and the sacred groves are ideal places for them (Jamir

and Pandey 2003; Jayarajan 2004; Sukumaran and Raj 2007). However, there are gaps in

knowledge about these endemics, like their population status, reproductive biology, ecology,

etc. necessitating the present study. In India, most studies on sacred groves have hovered

around floral and faunal diversity and maintenance of rare threatened and endemic species

with sketchy descriptions of the ecological profiles and disturbance regimes. Very few

studies have adopted a landscape approach in this regard, considering grove as part of a

landscape. Studies in Kodagu district of central Western Ghats, where the groves are

relatively large sized and faith in their guardian gods still strong, groves harbour a good

number of forest tree and bird species even outside the forest, in a landscape dominated by

coffee, cardamom, black pepper and betel nut plantations on hill slopes and plains and rice

fields in valleys, forming good connectivity of landscape elements. (Bhagwat et al. 2005;

Page et al 2010). In Eastern Ghats highlands of southern peninsular India leaving forest areas

aside, sacred groves continue to be the most species rich ecosystem in agricultural landscapes

(Aiama 2007). However, no reports are available with focus on endemic species ecology and

their survival in current disturbance regimes especially in the sacred groves in humanized

landscapes.

Biodiversity conservation programs based on “Hotspot” declaration, protected area network

etc. often harp on the presence of rare and endemic species, which act as indicators of

conservation/threat status. This prioritization is mainly due to their limited distribution and

spatio-temporal sensitivity which make them prone to population decline. The risk is greatly

enhanced in humanized landscapes as these sensitive rare and endemic species are the earliest

to vanish from drastically modified habitats, as compared to the commoner and more

widespread species.

Forest patches/remnant forests/woodlands have often acted as shelter or refugia for rare

endemic species in human modified landscapes. These patches although, vary in size, quality

and distribution contribute significantly in maintenance of different life cycle phases of the

species in an area. Studies have reported their role in pollination and seed dispersal by

harbouring honey bees and small mammals, species diversity maintenance, avifauna survival

and many others (Deb et al. 1997; Bodin et al. 2006; Page et al. 2010). Interestingly, in a

good number of cases these patches are culturally protected forest segments associated with

local communities. Sacred groves which are present in humanised landscapes have

limitations in their spatial extent. In a highly productive landscape grove is represented either

by cluster of trees or small, isolated patches of few acres of land facing various levels of

disturbances. Despite their size limitations, these fragments conserve local biodiversity and

offer important ecological services although studies are scanty to substantiate the latter (Ray

and Ramachandra 2010). Except few ecological and floristic inventory studies, little is known

about the ecological profile of these groves, adaptation of vegetation under adverse

conditions and how do the diverse life forms survive in the system. Detailed study on these

aspects would help us to formulate suitable conservation strategy along with the improvement

in livelihood of local community.

Objectives of the study -

1) Inventorisation and spatial distribution of the sacred groves in the study area,

2) Mapping the distribution of endemic tree species in the sacred groves

3) To estimate population and regeneration status of few selected sensitive endemic species

to understand sacred groves’ potential in sheltering such endemics.

4) To identify disturbance regime that caused the disappearance of sensitive endemic tree

species from the landscape

STUDY AREA

Uttara Kannada is one of the well forested districts of central Western Ghats in the state of

Karnataka, India. The Western Ghats along with Sri Lanka constitute one of the 34 global

biodiversity hot spots (Myers et al. 2000). It harbours forests of varied kinds such as, tropical

evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist and dry deciduous types. These forests in many places,

because of human impacts through last few millennia have produced secondary kinds of

vegetation such as savannah, scrub and grasslands (Pascal 1988). As is characteristic of most

humid tropical mountainous regions of the world here too shifting cultivation, which

involved slashing and burning of forest patches for raising crops for two-three seasons and

shifting thereafter to newer patches with better soils, a practice through centuries, caused

formation of secondary forests in vast tracts of low altitude Western Ghats. The slash and

burn cultivators, who belonged to several indigenous communities, however, did not destroy

all the forests. In almost every of their settlement they spared substantial patches of primary

evergreen forests dedicated to the gods of villages. These forests in their original form ranged

in size from few hectares to few hundred hectares in the central Western Ghats, as of Uttara

Kannada and Shimoga districts, according to historical records. These are the sacred groves

on the institution of which there has been a flourish of studies in the recent decades from

many parts of India (Malhotra et al. 2001; Khan et al. 2008).

With Uttara Kannada district coming under British colonialism from the dawn of 19th century

the local communities began losing their traditional hold over forest resources including the

sacred groves. Throughout the 19th century the British brought various efforts at

consolidation of their hold on forest resources. By the close of the century, bulk of the forests

including sacred groves and shifting cultivation sites got merged with state reserved forests.

What remained of sacred groves where local communities got still some hold are smaller

ones that measure one to few hectares or merely fractions of a hectare that are dispersed

amidst well populated undulating agricultural landscapes. Most of the larger groves of Uttara

Kannada lost their special identities except for the fact that still there could be the deities in

some parts of them where the local communities continue to worship (Chandran and Hughes

1997; Chandran et al. 2010).

Our study was concentrated upon 5 km X 5 km area (14.280 – 14.310 N latitude and 74.840 -

74.900 E longitude) in eastern part of Siddapur taluk of Uttara Kannada district where

landscape is undulating with cultivation in the low lands forming a mosaic with grassy plains,

scrub, degraded secondary forests, monoculture tree plantations and small sacred groves

elsewhere. Siddapur taluk itself represents a transition zone from the high rainfall (> 3000

mm/yr) rugged hills clad in evergreen forests towards the west to the relatively drier plains

that merged with the Deccan Plateau to the east. Our study area is situated between the nearly

unbroken forest belt of the Ghats proper to the west and the Deccan landscape towards the

east. The tree plantations of the study area are mainly constituted of Acacia and Casurina.

Rain fed rice is the major crop grown in the fields. During the dry season parts of the rice

fields are used for growing vegetables, ginger, millets etc. Unlike in the more watered hilly

terrain the betel nut gardens are less in number and area and are usually located some

favourable spots with water sources, often situated in the vicinity of the sacred groves

(Chandran and Gadgil 1998; Nagendra and Gadgil 1999; Nagendra 2001) (Fig 1).

Fig 1. Study area

Location of the sacred groves in study area

METHODS:

Area survey: Survey of India toposheet (48_J_15 , 1978), Google earth imagery, land use map

prepared for the study area by Nagendra (1997) were used for gaining preliminary knowledge

on the focal landscape.

Mapping and documentation of sacred groves: Sacred groves were identified based on earlier study

done by Chandran and Gadgil (1998) and field survey with local community people. The

geographic location and area of the sacred grove were demarcated using GPS (Garmin etrex

vista) and the information was transferred to Map Info 7.5 version for preparing map and area

estimation. Observations were made of the general geomorphological factors related to the

groves and status of soil moisture conditions, litter cover, soil erosion etc. Details regarding

the existing management regimes were recorded through interviews with the community

elders.

Vegetation survey: As the groves were small (from ~17.8 sq. m to18, 000 sq.m) we recorded all

the trees in all the groves in the study area.

Studies on endemic tree species: We inventoried the presence of endemic tree species of Western

Ghats from all the sacred groves. In addition, we also noted down the presence of endemic

tree species in other landscape elements such as secondary forests, human habitations etc.

We chose four most sensitive endemic tree species viz. (Vateria indica, Syzygium

travancoricum, Calophyllum apetalum and Diospyros assimillis) for assessing their

population profile and regeneration status.

The GBH of these selected endemic tree species (≥ 30cm GBH) were measured wherever

they occurred. The tree heights were also estimated and recorded in different height classes.

For enumeration of saplings (> 1m in height but < 30 cm GBH) and seedlings (< 1 m in

height) we laid 5m X 5m quadrants on the forest floor.

Study of Forest area outside the groves: A small forest patch was present in the south-west corner

of the landscape. Using transect cum quadrant method we enumerated the trees and ground

vegetation of this forest (transect length 180 m.; no. of tree quadrants 5 each measuring 10 m

X 10 m with subplot for shrubs (5m X 5m) and herbs (1m X 1m))

Recording of disturbances: Details about weed infestation, invasion by species from nearby

plantations, soil erosion, relative distance from roads, lack of protection, cattle grazing etc.

have been collected.

Data analysis –

Sacred grove distribution – Distances between the groves and the only forest patch was

calculated through Euclidean distance by using open source GIS software GRASS

(http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/grass). The area-perimeter ratio of the groves was calculated through

Map Info (Version 7.5).

Endemic species population and regeneration analysis – The population data collected on selected

endemic species was categorised into GBH classes to understand the girth distribution of

these species in different size classes from all the landscape elements.

The regeneration data (seedlings and saplings for each selected species) was collected from

the groves and extrapolated for the entire groves.

Species richness and diversity - For forest tree species, richness (Margalef) and diversity

(Shannon-Weiner, Simpson) indices were computed as per standard methodologies (Simpson

1949; Margalef 1958; Shannon and Weiner 1963).

Disturbance measurement- The severity of disturbance has been measured through scoring

method with all disturbance parameters given equal weight. The value was expressed in terms

of relative disturbance ((scored value/maximum disturbance value)* 100) (Devar 2008)

RESULT –

Sacred grove area and endemism

A total of 53 groves have been recorded from

the study area with area ranges from 17.98 sq. m

to 18,220 sq. m. Size class arrangement of the

groves has shown that ~60% of them have area

<1000 sq.m. (Fig 2). Total area of the groves

represents only 0.36% of the study area in

comparison to 10.6% of the degraded natural

forest. Rest of the area are occupied by

agricultural field, areca nut gardens, Acacia

plantation, small water bodies etc. The average

distance of the groves from the forest patch

within the study area is 2.83 km (± 1.17) and

average area-perimeter ratio of the groves is

0.232 (Annexure I).

Sacred groves harbour 138 woody species among which 19 (13.7%) are endemic to Western

Ghats region. Grove area and total species richness show typical species-area relationship in

power form (Fig 3). 14 out of 19 endemics are exclusively confined to the sacred groves, the

other five (Beilschmiedia bourdillonii, Holigarna arnottiana, Hydnocarpus pentandra,

Terminalia paniculata and, Vateria indica) occur outside forest patch as well as in some

other landscape elements (Table 1). Whereas, 18 of the endemics are evergreen trees

Terminalia paniculata is deciduous in nature.

Forest Diversity and endemism

The non-grove forest patch (area 265 ha) in the study area shows moderate species diversity

and richness (Shannon’s index 2.6, Simpson’s index (1-D) 0.89, Margalef’s index 5.52).

Dominant species here are Aporusa lindlyana (IVI value 60.51), Terminalia tomentosa (IVI

value 49.75) and Terminalia paniculata (IVI value 32.83). Beilschmiedia bourdillonii,

Holigarna arnottiana and Terminalia paniculata are the only endemics present in the forest

patch.

Fig 2. Size class distribution of the sacred groves

Fig 3. Species-Area relationship in study area

Table 1. Distribution of endemic tree species in different land use elements in study area

Genus (Family) Sacred Grove

Forest area Village garden / Common area

Actinodaphnae malabarica (Lauraceae) Artocarpus hirsutus (Moraceae) Beilschmiedia bourdillonii (Lauraceae) Calophyllum apetalum (Clusiaceae) Cinnamomum malabatrum (Lauraceae) Diospyros assimilis (Ebenaceae) Diospyros candolleana (Ebenaceae) Drypetes confertiflora (Euphorbiaceae) Flacourtia Montana (Flacourtiaceae) Garcinia indica (Clusiaceae) Holigarna arnottiana (Anacardiaceae) Holigarna grahammi (Anacardiaceae) Hydnocarpus pentandra (Lauraceae) Ixora brachiata (Rubiaceae) Knema attenuata (Myristicaceae) Pittosporum dasycaulon (Pittosporaceae) Syzygium travancoricum (Myrtaceae) Terminalia paniculata (Combretaceae) Vateria indica (Dipterocarpaceae)

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

- - √ - - - - - - - √ - - - - - √ -

- - - - - - - - - - √ - √ - - - - - √

Population status and regeneration of the restricted endemics –

We selected four endemic species for detailed study, because of their restricted distribution

and association with shaded humid forests. These are Vateria indica, Syzygium

travancoricum, Calophyllum apetalum and Diospyros assimillis, of which the first two are

Critically Endangered (IUCN 2011). Vateria indica is found in eight (8) groves, of which

Devaravatti bana of Mattigar and Gamadevaru bana of Kavachur accounted for major

population of the species. Syzygium travancoricum is restricted in three (3) groves namely,

Devaravatti bana (Mattigar), Kadkod Choudamma bana (Aralihonda) and Choudamma bana

(Dugdimane). Similarly, Calophyllum apetalum has been found in two (2) groves Devaravatti

bana (Mattigar) and Choudamma bana (Dugdimane) and Diospyros assimillis is restricted in

three (3) groves Devaravatti bana (Mattigar), Kadkod Choudamma bana (Aralihonda) and

Kereamma (Kalyanpur). GBH class distribution of the endemic members in the sacred grove

shows typical “L” shaped curve indicating dominance of younger members. Height class

also ranges from 10-25 mt. for these members (Fig 4).

Fig. 4. Population status of selected endemic tree species in sacred groves

Regeneration study on all four species has revealed marked differences among them. V.

indica has highest seedling density on 10,458 ind/grove area followed by C. apetalum (9110

Table 2. Regeneration status of selected endemic trees in sacred groves of the study area

Species Grove name Village Grove area (sq. m.)

Seedling density

Sapling density

Vateria indica Bhutappana Bana Dugdimane 46.5 5.58 2.75 Bhutappana Bana (3) Aralihonda 774.2 61.9 10.29 Kattedevaru Bana Arendur 824.2 65.936 16.484 Mastamma Kavachur 845.5 8.52 33.82 Gamadeveru Bana Kavachur 2274 79.59 579.87 Mariamman Bana Hittalkoppa 4578 52.64 91.56 Kadkod Choudamma Bana Aralihonda 10730 214.6 53.65 Devarabatti Bana Mattigar 18220 10458.28 4227.04 Syzygium travancoricum Choudi Bana Dugdimane 329.6 52.736 24.17 Kadkod Choudamma Bana Aralihonda 10730 4549.52 1158.84 Devarabatti Bana Mattigar 18220 8235.44 3498.24 Calophyllum apetalum Choudi Bana Dugdimane 329.6 118.656 32.96 Devarabatti Bana Mattigar 18220 9110 2405.04 Diospyros assimillis Kereamma Kalyanpur 9264 222.336 370.56 Kadkod Choudamma Bana Aralihonda 10730 107.3 321.9 Devarabatti Bana Mattigar 18220 16.36 182.2

ind/grove area), S. travancoricum (8235 ind/ha) and D. assimillis (222 ind/grove area). On

the other hand, sapling level is dominated by V. indica (4227 ind/grove area) with closely

followed by S. travancoricum (3498 ind/grove area), C apetalum (2405 ind/grove area), and

D. assimillis (370 ind/grove area) subsequently. Study of these members’ shows that

Devaravatti Kanu in Mattigar village is the most important grove as it harbours all these four

endemics with their growing stock. Choudamma Banas of Aralihonda and Dugdimane

harbour three and two of these members respectively (Table 2).

Disturbances over the grove system –

We applied the impact of seven (7) disturbance factors on the groves. Based on the relative

disturbance scores groves have been categorised into highly disturbed (76-100%), moderately

disturbed (51-75%), less disturbed (26-50%) and least disturbed (0-25%).

Sixteen (16) of the groves belong to the highly disturbed category where relative disturbance

score exceeds 76%. All the sixteen groves have very small area < 1000 sq. m; they are

unprotected ones and are adjoining the roads. Lack of fencing makes them vulnerable to

cattle grazing, trampling and human interferences.

Thirty five (35) groves are rank in moderately disturbed category (disturbance scores 51-

75%). Notable disturbance factors are their smaller sizes and lack of fencing. Even,

Devaravatti Bana of Mattigar which shelters all the four sensitive endemic tree species is

moderately disturbed. This disturbance is due to the damages to the barbed wire fencing.

Two (2) groves that are less disturbed have their areas ranging from 2,000-10,000 sq. m.

They have better degree of protection due to boundary demarcation and existing social

norms. However, none of the groves comes under the least disturbed category.

DISCUSSION

The primary objective of this study was to find out whether sacred groves act as islands of

rare plant diversity including endemics. Studies from different parts of the world, especially

the humid tropics, indicate that culturally protected fragments are repositories of rare and

endemic species which have declined/vanished from rest of the local landscape due to

anthropogenic pressures (Mgumia and Oba 2003; Bossart et al. 2006; Sukumaran and Raj

2007; Chandran et al 2008). We found that, groves support a good number of endemic tree

species despite having serious limitation in their geographical extent. In our focal area of 25

sq. km the non-grove forest patch measuring around 265 ha has twenty five (25) tree species

out of which only three are endemics (12%). In comparison, in the 1.8 ha sacred grove of

Mattigar we recorded sixty three (63) tree species out of which sixteen (16) (25.3%) were

endemics. The grove at Aralihonda measuring 1.07 ha had forty five (45) tree species and

eleven (11) (24.4%) endemics. The Kalyanpur grove with 0.92 ha area has 13 (25.4%)

endemics out of 51 species and Choudamma bana at Dugdimane has twenty six (26) species

with four (4) endemics (15.3%) within an area of 0.03 ha. Interestingly all these four groves

had one or more of the sensitive endemic tree species including critically endangered

S.travancoricum and V. indica.

The groves in our study area, if they are reasonably well protected, in spite of their small

sizes still harbour several plant species on an otherwise humanised landscape dominated by

agriculture and monoculture tree plantations. Therefore, the groves play prominent role as

gene pools of native species with promising prospects for restoration of degraded lands in

their neighbourhoods under favourable conditions.

Out of the total of 138 number of tree species recorded from the sacred groves 19 were

endemic to the Western Ghats. The groves being very small in their sizes, understandably,

they are not ideal places for highly sensitive, moisture and shade loving tree species. Most of

the endemics for instance species like Holigarna arnottiana, Knema attenuate, Hydnocarpus

pentandra etc. have widespread distribution from 80 N lat to almost 200 N lat along the

Western Ghats. Therefore, to highlight the significance of smaller groves in central Western

Ghats acting as centres of sensitive endemics we have chosen four such species (namely

Vateria indica, Syzygium travancoricum, Calophyllum apetalum and Diospyros assimillis).

Of these the first two are enlisted as Critically Endangered in the Red List of IUCN. In fact S.

travancoricum originally discovered by Bourdilon in 1894 from 80 to 100 N latitude zones of

southern Western Ghats was not traced subsequently until its rediscovery by Sasidharan

(1997) in the home range. Later, the species was found in some of the sacred forests of

central Western Ghats of Uttara Kannada, almost 700 km north of the original range of it

(Chandran et al 2008). The rather tiny isolated sacred groves of Mattigar, Aralihonda and

Dugdimane harbouring this relic of primeval forests certainly emphasizes the need for more

studies, conservation and restoration of even the small sacred groves. These groves

themselves are relics of the original forests and have promising regeneration stock of S.

travancoricum in the form of seedlings and saplings and near swampy conditions necessary

for the species.

Natural populations of Vateria indica occurs in small numbers only in the sacred groves of

Mattigar, Aralihonda and few others and not anywhere else in whole district of Uttara

Kannada which has almost 6000 sq. km area under forest. This species when nursery grown

can become a successful tree for afforestation programs and has been found growing well as

avenue trees along the roadsides of the study area. However, the planted trees from nursery

raised seedlings or clones are no match for the natural populations. While natural population

shows considerably good number of seedlings and saplings at every stage inside the groves,

roadside populations mostly lack it. The probable reason for survival of natural populations in

the groves could be favourable microclimatic conditions and availability of mycorrhizal

partners necessary for regeneration of dipterocarps.

Species like Calophyllum apetalum and Diospyros assimillis which are exclusively evergreen

forest members have been found in only two and three groves respectively and they too have

regeneration in these groves.

Grove area is a crucial factor for maintaining

ecological integrity within the system. Here

also, relatively larger groves have shown

better species carrying capacity and suitable

microclimate for survival of endemics. Of

these four sensitive endemics Vateria indica

was found even in groves < 2000 sq. m.

The endemics in general show highly skewed

distribution towards relatively bigger groves in the area (Fig 5).

In comparison with the groves the non-grove forest patch situated in south-west corner of the

study area and covering almost 265 ha is a degraded forest, open to exploitation and cattle

grazing. Parts of it are fire prone, canopy open in many places and soils in compact state.

Most trees are of deciduous nature and only three tolerant endemics such as Holigarna

arnottiana Beilschmiedia bourdillonii and Terminalia paniculata alone were present.

The sacred groves of the 25 sq. km study area were, according to historical investigation,

were much larger in size, covering more than 6% of the landscape once (Chandran and

Gadgil 1998). However, the present estimation of total occupancy (0.36%) by the groves in

the study area indicates rapid change in land use pattern. The comparatively larger groves in

our study area are under some form of protection (either fencing or social norms) which

ensures their ecological integrity to some extent due to undisturbed interior part. On the

contrast, sharp difference exists along the grove border in terms of light, moisture and soil

profile (visual observation). This drastic change in environment restricts the endemics mostly

towards the grove interior except few which prefer open canopy and drier condition. There

are exceptions however. For instance, S. travancoricum, though elsewhere found more in

interior swampy forests, in our focal area we find it confined to the grove edges that border

rice fields. These edges are for most part of the year water logged favouring the growth of

this sensitive Western Ghats endemic.

Although groves in general are not intentionally impacted by humans the smaller groves (<

2000 sq.m) having more edges than interior are vulnerable to increased light and temperature

and wind effects not favouring the more humidity and shade loving endemics. In many places

the smaller groves merely consists of clusters of trees without any formal area demarcation.

Such groves are also prone to trespassing and trampling by humans as well as damages from

cattle entry and soil compaction. Tree species here are mostly older individuals with hardly

Fig. 5 Distribution of endemic trees in relation to grove area

any new recruitment. Community awareness and fencing are absolutely essential for saving

these groves from extinction.

CONCLUSION

The institution of sacred grove in the Western Ghats has beginnings in pre-history. The

sacred groves were conserved by early agricultural communities who colonised the humid

highlands over three millennia ago. Almost until the close of the 19th century the groves were

large to very large everywhere. The consolidation of forest monopoly by the British colonial

power and the denigration of belief system and culture of the Hindu folk tradition due to the

influence of Hindu textual traditions which emphasized temple centred worship system. Most

of the large groves with valuable timber growth and different types of NTFP came under the

monopoly of the state forest department. As local communities gradually lost their traditional

hold over the forest clad sacred places, in most villages they still retained their sacred places

surrounded by small patches of woodlands.

Sacred groves everywhere are well known to have protected native biodiversity that have

disappeared from rest of the humanised landscapes, especially in the Indian highlands.

Compared to sacred grove studies conducted in other parts of India, the groves in our focal

area, an undulating terrain dominated by agricultural communities, are very small in size (< ~

2 ha), therefore heavily prone to disturbance. Despite this grave scenario, our study in the 25

sq. km focal area of Siddapur shows that, even these small groves have important role in rare

species conservation. If their security is ensured through fencing and community awareness

programs these groves can play more important roles as de-centralised centres of biodiversity

conservation and ecological services. The groves were once recognised sources of springs

and streams that benefited the village communities. It is essential that through restoration of

sacred grove system and revitalisation of community centred management system the groves

can continue to play a greater role in strengthening rural livelihoods through supply of

various NTFP as well as providing water security, rendering pollination services and as ideal

local level mitigation measure for global climatic change.

On interacting with local communities we have come to the conclusion regarding the

importance of awareness programs related to grove conservation. Groves being the centres of

spiritualism, culture and community get together they are important places for re-

emphasizing also their roles in conservation of nature. The local people basically are

interested in continuation of their age old sacred grove based tradition. But in the sway of

modernism in life and religion the tradition is subjected to erosion. Elsewhere too, especially

in many other parts of Western Ghats, the larger sacred groves are also passing through a

critical phase, being subjected to tree felling, leaf manure collection, agricultural invasion and

diversion of lands for non forestry purposes. The scramble for globalisation should not cause

casting aside of this ancient, decentralised and local community centred conservation

practice.

REFERENCE

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ANNEXURES

Annexure I Details of the sacred groves in study area

Serial No. Village Name of the grove Deity Longitude Latitude Area (sq. m)

No. of tree spp.

Perimeter /Area ratio

Dist. from forest patch (m)

1 Akunji Bommadevaru Bana Bommadevaru Birappa 74.89182 14.30512 857 11 0.151746776 4230.059789

2 Akunji Choudammana Bana Choudi 74.89156 14.30365 320.8 12 0.212510964 4114.657916

3 Akunji Kere Bhutappana Bana Kere Bhutappa 74.89091 14.30362 137.3 6 0.32141508 4056.214524

4 Aralihonda Kadkod Choudamma Bana Choudi 74.89971 14.29652 10730 45 0.040669661 4339.700661

5 Aralihonda Kadkod Birappadevaru Bana Birappa 74.89950 14.29425 3694 15 0.066102394 4220.979322

6 Aralihonda Choudi Bana Choudi 74.89693 14.30389 760.3 16 0.156793024 4558.150926

7 Aralihonda Bhutappana Bana (1) Bhutappa 74.90113 14.30093 1793 19 0.096603877 4747.084418

8 Aralihonda Bhutappana Bana (2) Bhutappa 74.8979 14.30345 205.7 10 0.317572343 4638.632683

9 Aralihonda Bhutappana Bana (3) Bhutappa 74.89516 14.30552 774.2 12 0.143191869 4558.815695

10 Arendur Kattedevaru Bana Kattedevaru, Hulidevaru 74.87716 14.277 824.2 27 0.153663423 1347.846113

11 Arendur Mariamman Bana Mariamma 74.87727 14.27968 291.7 13 0.270622065 1394.520989

12 Arendur Kunt Bhutappana Bana Kunt Bhutappa 74.87649 14.27964 160.3 13 0.296876244 1294.768632

13 Arendur Acche Bhutappana Bana Acche Bhutappa 74.87924 14.27942 298.4 3 0.233553592 1605.363832

14 Arendur Maddalebare Bhutappana Bana Maddalebare Bhutappa 74.88009 14.28236 655.3 24 0.156693612 1745.681578

15 Arendur Kere Birappana Bana Kere Birappa 74.87841 14.28021 36.13 8 0.715801827 1514.428772

16 Arendur Bhutappana Bana Bhutappa 74.87411 14.27471 296.7 9 0.234275943 1082.937974

17 Arendur Kere Birappana Bana Kere Birappa 74.88279 14.28363 433 19 0.227588358 2067.896784

18 Arendur Bhutappana Bana Bhutappa 74.88355 14.27609 378.9 14 0.199535337 2090.864798

19 Arendur Holekoppa Choudammana Bana Choudi 74.88234 14.27546 1026 25 0.134687936 1959.982008

20 Arendur Kala Birappana Bana Kala Birappa 74.87257 14.27761 159.3 9 0.300480976 847.4267401

21 Dugdimane Choudi Bana Choudi 74.85605 14.31182 329.6 25 0.25269747 3891.703997

22 Dugdimane Sanyasi Bana Birappa 74.85491 14.30940 419.9 16 0.186449698 3663.319586

23 Dugdimane Bhutappana Bana Bhutappa 74.84865 14.30921 46.5 12 0.743568456 3905.113676

24 Golgudu Kunt Bhutappana Bana Kunt Bhutappa 74.87029 14.29447 372.4 23 0.209226665 1935.714488

25 Golgudu Hulidevaru Bana Hulidevaru 74.87259 14.2957 2230 14 0.092097767 2125.616023

26 Golgudu Kappehondaba Bhutappana Bana Bhutappa 74.87486 14.30061 670.4 8 0.150794723 2752.63018

27 Golgudu Thotada Choudammana Bana Thotada Choudamma 74.87465 14.29084 2148 12 0.100102731 1787.123151

28 Golgudu Heddarkatte Bhutappana Bana Heddarikatte Bhutappa 74.87248 14.28726 1840 23 0.101623273 1350.246867

29 Golgudu Maddale Bhutappana Bana Maddale Bhutappa 74.87002 14.29899 1078 14 0.119226816 2414.375357

30 Golgudu Jattidevaru Bana Jattidevaru 74.87283 14.29473 1957 8 0.093476988 2057.75521

31 Harlikoppa Jatakadevaru Bana Jataka, Nagara 74.86048 14.2934 1381 26 0.112051885 1788.448459

32 Harlikoppa Choudi Bana Choudi 74.86539 14.29438 250.3 11 0.25394892 1840.093778

33 Harlikoppa Nagara bana Nagara 74.86565 14.29435 269.4 10 0.324427473 1824.938976

34 Hittalkoppa Mariamman Bana Mariamma 74.90049 14.27799 4578 26 0.057708798 3970.837255

35 Hittalkoppa Jatakadevaru Bana Jataka 74.89426 14.27669 3517 30 0.063875863 3256.631219

36 Kalyanpur Akshaya Bhutappana Bana Akshaya Bhutappa 74.88128 14.29438 330.1 9 0.212895241 2587.108318

37 Kalyanpur Choudammana Bana Choudi 74.88033 14.29336 432.7 9 0.189460584 2412.226505

38 Kalyanpur Maddele Bhutappana Bana Maddele Bhutappa 74.88015 14.29468 781.3 16 0.14923619 2508.952214

39 Kalyanpur Jatti Bana Kereamma, Jatakappa 74.88016 14.29109 9264 51 0.045547535 2203.317041

40 Kalyanpur Kunt Bhutappana Bana Kunt Bhutappa 74.87878 14.29053 712.1 9 0.162225582 2074.056368

41 Kalyanpur Kerehonda Bhutappana Bana Kerehonda Bhutappa 74.88824 14.29186 889.1 14 0.145071084 3004.972717

42 Kavachur Hosakatte Bhutappa Bana Hosakatte Bhutappa 74.89635 14.26884 841.5 11 0.134831243 3631.518939

43 Kavachur Choudibana Choudi 74.89743 14.27296 2075 25 0.087803298 3650.490627

44 Kavachur Gamadeveru Bana Gamadevaru 74.89831 14.27032 2274 20 0.090102012 3789.04741

45 Kavachur Mastamma Mastamma 74.89797 14.26949 845.5 9 0.140417712 3766.236814

46 Kavachur Kunt Bhutappana Bana Kunt Bhutappa 74.89302 14.26689 1257 15 0.121701729 3340.046222

47 Kavachur Manekere Choudi Bana Choudi 74.90026 14.26567 1627 8 0.108589145 4145.42564

48 Mattigar Devarabatti Bana Jatakappa, Choudi, Birappa 74.87014 14.30546 18220 64 0.028901194 3182.628775

49 Mattigar Nagappa Bana Nagappa 74.87303 14.30791 845.6 14 0.124274244 3449.56993

50 Mattigar Yaxi Bana Yaxi 74.86674 14.31121 2731 34 0.079806446 3697.222257

51 Mattigar Bhutappana Bana Bhutappa 74.86682 14.31036 343.7 8 0.207108131 3613.898626

52 Mattigar Hulibesi Bhutappana Bana Hulibesi Bhutappa 74.87343 14.31371 17.98 3 1.271739164 3701.256504

53 Mattigar Kadanmattibiralu Bana Biralu 74.87953 14.30759 2183 25 0.087272067 3697.582127

Annexure II

• Conference session on Ecosystem and Sacred Natural Sites

• Interactive Workshop on Sacred grove: Peoples’ participation in natural resource management

Session on “Ecosystem and Sacred Natural Sites” 23 rd December 2010

As a part of Rufford project activity on sacred grove, a parallel session on “Ecosystem and Sacred Natural Sites” was conducted during Lake 2010 : Wetlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change (7th Biennial International Lake Conference) held in 22-24th December 2010, at IISc, Bangalore (http:// wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/lake2010/index.htm).

M.D.Subhash Chandran in his brief inaugural address discussed the ecological insights to the origin of sacred grove traditions, interrelation between ecosystem and biodiversity and highlighted the need for scientific understanding about the ecological phenomena. This was followed by four presentations focusing on case studies. Excerpts of presentations are given below:

Dr. Rajasri Ray

Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Dr. Ray presented a case study related to ecosystem services from sacred groves of Uttara Kannada, Karnataka highlighting the water conservation, floral diversity and carbon sequestration capacity of groves. The study reveals that , highland groves have potential to conserve water throughout the year, even grove associated ponds have good use to local community. Similarly, floral diversity and carbon sequestration results also establish that groves are worthy of conservation from the local ecological and environmental perspective apart from supporting the livelihood of rural community.

Mr.G.R.Rao

Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES), Kumta field station

Mr. Rao discussed about the relic forests of Uttara Kannada which are mostly preserved through socio-religious norms. Comparative study of relic and non-relic forest patches have shown that relic patches harbour a higher number of endangered and rare endemic members in comparison to prevalence of secondary evergreen and common endemics in non-relic patches. Relic patches have better percentage of species diversity, ever greenness, with higher basal area and endemism. The threats as per the study are encroachment or land conversions, water body diversion, weed invasion, etc.

Ms.R.S.Neethu

Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Peechi, Kerala

Ms. Neethu focused on conservation and management strategies of sacred groves based on the survey conducted in 28 selected sacred groves in Kerala state to document their current status and threats over their existence. The major threats are lack of awareness, absence of protection measures, natural calamities and lack of legal and regulatory support. The management plan

suggested include protective measures (boundary demarcation, fencing etc.), revival of water conservation structures, weed management and restoration.

Dr. Debal Deb

Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies, West Bengal

Dr. Deb shared field based experience on sacred grove work. He highlighted the presence of rare floral members in sacred groves of South-Western West Bengal and their current dwindling status due to various threats.

The panel discussion after the presentation covered the aspects like threats over the sacred groves, conservation measures, socio-economic change in rural society, application of technologies like GIS and remote sensing etc. Recommendations of the session are:

• Grove should be rejuvenated and managed by including all stakeholders’ in particular local

community.

• Inventorisation, mapping of sacred groves – spatial extent with species composition through

spatial databases.

• Research needs to focus on lower group of floral members and fauna.

Interactive Workshop on “Sacred grove: Peoples’ participation in natural resource management” Date: 18-19th July, Venue: Hotel Madhuvana, Sirsi, Uttara Kannada Aim of this workshop was to disseminate the outcome of the research carried out with the financial support from Rufford small grant on sacred groves in Siddapur among all stakeholders. Participants included stakeholders at local and regional levels – Government representatives (forest department, Western Ghats task force), local communities (villagers from Sirsi and Siddapur areas) and local media (news paper and television). Presentations focussing on experience and attempt was made through consultative process to arrive at location specific conservation and management measures of sacred groves. . The program was inaugurated by Shri. Anant Hegde Ashisar, Chairman, Western Ghats Task Force, Govt. of Karnataka. He emphasised various aspects of sacred groves especially their management and conservation in the region. He also highlighted the activities of task force in different taluks of two districts Shimoga and Uttara Kannada, namely, Sagar, Sorab, Hosanagar, Thirthalli and Sirsi. On behalf of the Government of Karnataka, he assured of support and suggested to extend the study to other parts of Uttara Kannada i.e. Siddapur, Sirsi, Kumta, Honnaver, etc.. This was followed by scientific talk by. M.D. Subash Chandran and T.V. Ramachandra, Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES), Indian Institute of Science highlighting the research being carried out by CES researchers in this region and highlighted the need to strengthen the research further by networking with the local education institutions. A status report on “Sacred groves in Siddapur Taluk, Uttara Kannada, Karnataka: Threats and Management Aspects” – ENVIS Technical Report 38 was released at this meeting. The report provides the information related to the findings of the research conducted in the groves. This was followed by interactive technical sessions Dr. Rajasri Ray, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science presented the research findings of sacred groves in Siddapur. The study highlights that , despite small size, the groves are the repositories of many native species . Groves also serve as refugium for many regional endemic members some of which are considered threatened by IUCN and have role in water conservation both at macro and mini scales. Also the study listed the current threats over the system and possible ways to mitigate them. Other speakers Smt. Shailaja Goranmane (Media person) and Mr. G.R.Rao shared their experience on sacred groves covering various aspects viz., involvement of village forest committee in grove management, floral diversity, current threats and local level awareness etc. Post lunch session with local communities brought out the local people’s perception of sacred groves conservation. Four working groups were made according to villages (viz. Akunji, Arendur, Aralihonda and Kalyanpur) and discussion was based on sacred groves in their area, their current status and future conservation strategy. The workgroups compiled the information on sacred groves through questionnaires and the co-ordinator of each workgroup did the presentations covering issues like grove management, maintenance and potential for livelihood development.

The 2nd day program was mainly deliberations among researchers, media persons and villagers from Sirsi taluk, Uttara Kannada covering aspects like ecosystem goods and services, livelihood options for local people and future research needs in this direction. Deepak Bhat, (short term intern) presented on kan forests of Sirsi taluk. His presentation highlighted the potential of GIS in sacred grove mapping and area demarcation. The extent of land use change in the region was compared by using historical land use data with the current remote sensing data and collateral data from available documents . This was followed by a discussion on application of current methodologies in sacred grove system especially mapping techniques. Issues like availability of records, old maps, problem in boundary demarcation and its application in planning were discussed among the participants. Recommendations – • There is a need for detail exploration of sacred groves in the region irrespective of their size,

condition and management. • Smaller groves should be preserved in humanised landscape because of their higher species

carrying capacity in comparison to their nearly homogeneous surroundings.

• Mapping of the sacred groves is prerequisite for developing effective conservation strategy.

• Active participation from local community, forest department, educational and religious institutions for effective implementation of management plan.

The meeting was concluded with vote of thanks by Dr. Prakash Mesta and Dr. Rajasri Ray.

Annexure III

Educational Posters related to sacred grove