5DEVELOPING RESPONSE TACTICS

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Previous chapters described the importance of assessing the hazards and identify-ing the potential credible incidents at the facility before any emergency. Chapter4 provided guidance for determining a facility's overall emergency responsestrategy and approach. With this determined, specific tactical considerations canbe given to particular hazards. This chapter discusses response tactics for primaryindustrial hazards such as fire, explosions, and hazardous materials release. Asimilar approach to developing tactics can be used for medical, rescue, and naturalhazards.

To develop effective response tactics, the planner must assess and considerseveral general factors for each credible incident:

• Processes—pressure, temperature, chemical reactions.• Usage—what form the material is in (solid, liquid, or gas), what quantities

are involved.• Material Transfer—the movement of materials throughout the system,

including on-site tanker and rail car deliveries, loading and unloading fixedtanks, compressed gas, and pipelines.

• Storage—any materials needing isolation or segregation, including propercontainment, with emphasis on compatibility and quantities.

With a complete understanding of the facility's credible incidents includingthe above factors, the planner can develop safe tactics and actions for mitigatingan incident.

Tactics are the actions taken to achieve desired goals. They can be defensive(containing the problem from spreading and limiting the loss, but not eliminatingit), offensive (aggressively attacking the problem at its source), or a combinationof each (such as first containing the problem then moving in to mitigate).Emergency planners should determine whether the risk associated with a particu-lar tactic is worth the potential benefit. History shows that without a plan for clear

and effective tactics, emergency responders will face unnecessary risk. To lendcredence to this statement, consider that 51% of all deaths that occur during rescueoperations are those of the would-be rescuers. Many times these deaths result froman inadequate tactical plan.

The following incident demonstrates the effects of not having proper emer-gency response tactics and decisions:

Three members of an industrial fire brigade and two other employees diedduring a fire at a warehouse in 1980. Automatic sprinklers protected the storagebuilding, which measured 46 by 72 feet. The warehouse stored baled scrap paperapproximately 15 feet high. Nearby welding and grinding operations started a fire,which was subsequently discovered by an employee who then notified the plant firebrigade.

Arriving members of an industrial fire department found the building heavilycharged with smoke and sprinklers operating at the ceiling. They entered the buildingwith hose lines to find the seat of the fire. One crew of firefighters was approximately12 feet inside the building when bales of paper fell, trapping two of them. Otherfirefighters and employees outside the building rushed in to assist. A second collapsetrapped seven would-be rescuers. By the time the incident was over, two employeesand three industrial firefighters were dead due to the collapsing bales and resultingsuffocation. Seven other fire brigade members were injured in the incident.

This case illustrates why proper tactics are essential. If the responders hadthought about their actions, they might have identified the problem of the paperbales collapsing under the weight of water. Effective planning will allow otherlife-saving factors to be considered.

The remainder of this chapter is divided into discussion of tactics for fire andfor hazardous materials releases. Many of the tactical considerations discussed forone hazard may apply to others; however, some differences exist. As much aspossible, an incident commander (IC) should follow common tactics consistentlyand consider differences as applicable.

5.2. PRINCIPLES OF RESPONDING TO FIRES

Several issues that planners need to consider when developing tactics for theidentified credible fire scenarios include the capabilities of the facility's own fireresponse organization, and the integration between on-site fire brigades andoff-site fire departments.

5.2.7. Plant Fire Response Organization

5.2.7.7. Fire-Fighting BrigadeThe planner should first review the capability of the facility's fire brigade. The twomost common types of brigades are an incipient fire brigade and an interior

structural fire brigade, both described under OSHA regulations 29 CFR1910.156 [2].

The key tactical difference between the two brigade types is that, operation-ally, an incipient brigade does not require personal protective clothing and itstrictly adheres to extinguishing small incipient (beginning) stage fires by usingportable fire extinguishers or hose lines no larger than 1.5 inches in diameter. Theinterior structural fire brigade uses approved fire-fighter protective clothing(bunker gear) and receives more extensive training in fire-fighting techniques,such as the use of extinguishing equipment including larger hose lines, foam, andother special extinguishing agents.

5.2.7.2. EquipmentAnother issue affecting the development of fire response tactics is the on-siteavailability of personal protective equipment (PPE) including self-containedbreathing apparatus (SCBA), bunker gear, gloves, boots, helmet, and otherequipment, such as portable monitoring devices, fire apparatus, hoses, nozzles,foam, foam eductors, and nozzles. Chapter 7 provides an in-depth discussion offire-fighting and personal protective equipment.

5.2.7.3. Personnel AvailabilityA major consideration is the number of trained personnel available at any time.For example, response brigade members must be able to leave their normal dutystations, such as boilers or intricate chemical processes, at all times. A sufficientnumber of fire brigade members are needed for response activities such as rescue,foam operations, securing utilities, stretching lines, forcible entry, ventilating, andprotecting unaffected property and equipment.

5.2.2. Integration ofOn-Site Fire Brigades and Off-Site Departments

When contemplating using outside response agencies, planners should evaluatetheir response time, availability, capability to recognize and handle unusualhazards and critical processes, and ability to participate in drills.

Many issues can be resolved through pre-incident planning, integrated train-ing, and periodic drills and exercises.

Planners should carefully determine and describe when help from outside firedepartments is needed and how it is requested. There are many examples whendelayed alarms contributed to large industrial fire losses. Using emergency actionlevels may help avoid unnecessary calls while ensuring prompt completion ofnecessary notifications. A version of the CCPS emergency action levels, discussedin Chapter 4, and modified for use in fires, can guide facility decision makers indetermining when to call for outside assistance.

TABLE 5.1Sample Fire Emergency Action Levels

Level

Localized fire

Major fire

Catastrophic fire

Act/on

Localized effect zone, limited to a single plant area (e.g., small fires, pumpfires, trash fires). This could be handled by either an incipient fire brigade or astructural fire brigade.

Medium effect zone, limited to site boundaries (e.g., major fire, chemical fire,small explosion). An incipient fire brigade could not handle this. This fire maybe handled by a properly equipped and trained interior structural fire brigadewith or without outside responders.

Large effect zone, off-site effects on the surrounding community (e.g., majorexplosion, large chemical fire). This fire must be handled with all availabletrained personnel including site brigade and outside agencies.

5.2.3. Response Tactics

Emergency response, like most other activities, involves proper decision makingfollowed by effective implementation, so advance planning is essential.

In general, making decisions in normal, day-to-day operational situationsinvolves three main factors:

• Quantity: Resource limitations always exist (budget, personnel, logistics,information limitations, etc.),

• Quality: Making decisions under stress with limited information is diffi-cult. People strive to make correct, effective, quality decisions, and

• Time: Every decision has deadlines (the time available to make a decisionis compressed).

The impact of these decision factors—quantity, quality, and time—increaseduring emergencies. Proper planning prior to emergencies will help ensure thatadequate resources are available when needed. Typically, relatively little time isavailable to make decisions, and the quality of the decision and its implementationcan have a very serious effect on human safety and environmental protection.

5.2.3.7. Incident Pre-PlansThe term pre-planning describes the actual process of developing fire responsetactics. A fire pre-plan provides emergency first responders an inventory ofessential information necessary for developing tactical response plans at the outsetof the emergency. Pre-plans can take many shapes and should be part of thefacility's emergency response plan. They can cover different hazards including fireand chemical incidents (for example, choosing when fixed manual systems shouldbe integrated).

Table 5.2 describes the information that can be included in a pre-plan.

TABLE 5.2

Sample Information for Pre-Plans

Information Description

GENERAL

Facility identification

Facility plot plan

Date

Number of levels instructures

Structure dimensions

People in area during dayand night

Included areas

Sub levels

Facility activity

Construction type

Exterior doors, type andnumber

Elevators/lifts

Stairway locationconstruction

Interior wall construction

Exits illuminated?

Corridor widths/height

Tanks/vessels

Tank/vessel construction

Contents

Marking system

Dikes and berms

Sprinklers

Facility name (use common name)

Is it current?

Date the information is gathered

Number of floors from ground floor up (or height if more appropriate)

Estimate the overall size of building or open structure.

Typical number of people that can be found in the area during theday and night time. Any special needs people?

Describe the area(s) that are associated with building/facility/area.

Number of below ground levels

What activities are taking place in the area?

STRUCTURE

What is the structure made of?

What are outer doors made of, how many, and how do they work?

State if structure has elevators and, if so, where.

State where stairs are located and what they are made of.

What are the walls inside structure made of?

Are the exits illuminated and do they have back-up power (battery)?

How wide are the corridors and aisles and how high are both?

PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Number of tanks/vessels and size in gallons

What is each tank/vessel made of, pressure rating, relief settings,insulation?

What product does it contain and quantity?

What marking system is used on the tank (e.g., NFPA 704)?

What are the dikes and berms made of and how much product will ithold? Are there drains in the diked area? Can drains be shut?

Sprinkled area?

Table continues on page 88.

TABLE 5.2Sample Information for Pre-Plans (continued)

Information Description

PROCESS EQUIPMENT (continued)

Chemical shutoffs

Drainage description

Foam system

Water monitor

Heating type

Electrical shutoff location

Gas shutoffs locations

Water shutoffs locations

Fire alarm type

Fire detection type

Sprinkler type

Sprinkler wet or dry

Sprinkler fire departmentconnection

Portable extinguishers

Portable extinguisher: type

Stand pipe fire departmentconnection

Stand pipe hose diameter

Stand pipe wet or dry

Nearest hydrant

Secondary water source

Other protection systems

Locations

Where will liquids running from the area go?

SUPPRESSION

Do tanks have foam or subsurface system?

Is tank area protected by water monitor system? Can foam be used inthe system?

UTILITIES

What type of heat is used? What is the fuel source?

Where are the panel boxes or main shutoffs and what type breakers,fuses?

If gas is used in the area, where are the shutoffs?

Where are the water shutoffs?

PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Does the fire alarm sound only in the area or does it go off somewhere else?

State type of alarm in area, if any.

Does system cover entire area or just sections?

Is the system wet or dry? What are the sprinkler heads rated for?

Where is the fire department connection for the sprinkler system? Onthe outside of any structure? Design pressure?

Number and location

State what types of extinguishers are maintained in area.

Does the area have a standpipe system? If so where is it located andwhere is the fire department connection? Size and thread?

Does the standpipe system have fire hose stations? If so, what size isthe hose?

Is the system wet or dry?

Where is the nearest hydrant?

Where would the secondary water source be found?

List any other fire protection systems in area.

Information Description

INSTRUMENTATION

Inventory devices

Leak detectors

Chemicals in area

Other "in-process"chemicals

Process description

List of credible incidents

Summary of hazards

Nearby hazards

Response considerations

Other comments

Are there high-level alarms on tanks?

Are there any leak detectors in the diked area or on tanks?

RESPONSE CONSIDERATIONS

What chemicals are stored or used in the area?

What chemicals are produced during the process, if any?

Briefly describe the type of process taking place in area?

Taken from studies of what can go wrong.

Give a brief statement or overview of hazards in area.

List hazards that are nearby such as chemical storage, other processestaking place in building nearby.

Try to think of any information that a fire department or otheremergency responders will need to know if a problem were to occur,such as any special mitigation techniques or actions, how would theyget to the area, or whether they would need special tools.

This area is for any additional information.

Developing a pre-plan provides an opportunity for plant emergency personneland outside responders to meet, discuss, and evaluate each other's capabilities andlimitations. To ensure effectiveness and to determine information accuracy,facilities should test a pre-plan by conducting real-time drills. As with all emer-gency planning documents, personnel must update a pre-plan, as the plant and itsresponse capabilities change, or at least annually.

5.2.3.2. Initial Assessment and Size-UpThe first step in dealing with a fire or other incidents is the initial assessment andsize-up, which is a phrase that describes the first responders5 observations uponarrival at the scene. It deals with the first few critical minutes when understandingthe situation is essential to determine the actions needed to contain and controlthe emergency safely. Responders should be sure to communicate with plantpersonnel to obtain information in order to size up, or evaluate the extent of anemergency and to help responders recognize the potentials for fire spread and theneed for outside help.

During the first few minutes of a fire, response personnel must make severaldecisions, such as where to place the first hose line, who and when to evacuate,

and to where. Responders must quickly make decisions based on availableinformation, since the decisions made during the first few minutes may determinethe outcome hours later.

A useful method, known as LOCATE (Figure 5.1), describes the issuesresponders need to consider during their initial assessment and size-up.

Who is in jeopardy and what needs to be done to protectemergency responders, employees, and neighbors?

What is inside the buildings, tanks, pipes, and other structures?

What is the size, height, type of material (steel, aluminum,glass, etc.) used in the building?

What activities are occurring in the immediate area and whataffect do they have on the fire and vice versa? Do nearbychemical operations need protection?

What tiem of day is it? What season and weather conditionsare germane ? How long has it been burning ? How long beforeany corrective actions can be taken?

What is exposed to the fire that needs protection, such as people,buidings, nearby areas, the environment (e.g.,protection fromcontaminated fire water runoff) ?

FIGURE 5.1. LOCATE. Note: The initial responders must consider several factors upon arrival at the

scene. By applying LOCATE factors, responders can develop a good tactical plan. Another useful

technique, DECIDE, is described in Section 5.3.2 on page 93.

5.2.3.3. Managing the IncidentAs discussed previously, managing and decision-making during an emergency areobviously much different from normal operations because decisions must be madequickly without complete information. Well-trained first responders and a properchain of command will allow for effectively managing the incident.

As a result of major wild land fires during the early 1970s, fire and otheremergency services developed a management system, commonly referred to as theincident command system (ICS). The ICS creates a clear chain of command so thatresponders report to one supervisor. An ICS allows for an appropriate span ofcontrol enabling the incident commander (IC) to divide large operations intosmaller, more manageable parts. The system enables the IC to develop a tailoredresponse to each incident by using only necessary resources to bring the incidentto a safe conclusion.

The ICS is a major component for controlling and mitigating any type ofemergency. Chapter 11 provides a more fully developed explanation of the ICS.

5.2.3.4. Response PrioritiesThe tactical priorities for fire fighting should be as follows:

1. Safety of employees and the firefighters,2. Preventing the fire from spreading,3. Protecting the environment, and4. Protecting the property itself.

The first priority is to protect the employees by evacuating or rescuingendangered people and by determining whether the area is safe for responders toenter; next, to choose a defensive plan to keep the fire from spreading. In takingan offensive approach, an IC must not forget the first priority—safety of people.The IC should also try to protect the environment from fire water runoff, smoke,and hazardous gases (e.g., can temporary dikes be built by responders? will firewater react with nearby chemicals?). An offensive plan can minimize the damagesince crews will enter the area and extinguish the fire.

5.2.3.5. Fire SuppressionThe basic strategy in firefighting is to contain and extinguish the fire. Althoughthis strategy sounds quite simple, deciding where and how to cut off the spreadingfire during heavy smoke conditions is not a simple decision. The possible need torescue employees further complicates the operation. Some issues to considerduring fire suppression include:

• Communication—Do proper communications exist between the IC andfire fighters during the response? Do fire fighters continually provideupdates so that the IC can effectively evaluate the tactical plan?

• Location and Extent—Where is the seat of the fire and how far has itspread from the area of origin? Is the area safe to enter? Are water attack

lines large enough to control the fire? Are back-up lines in place to protectthe attack crews? Can heavy fire streams protect exposures?

• Apparatus and Equipment—Is there adequate equipment, such as attacklines, water supply lines, and master stream devices to handle the incident?Are there tools to perform forced entry and ventilation? Is enough foamavailable to use in case of a flammable liquid fire? Is there proper equipmentto apply foam? Is it the right type of foam to handle the problem—is it ahydrocarbon-based fire or a polar-solvent (alcohol) fire? Are apparatus andpersonnel correctly positioned?

• Water—How accessible are the water sources to the scene? Has the ICevaluated the water flow to determine whether there are adequate capacityand pressure on-site to meet the suppression needs? Is there a secondarywater source? What areas can fire water run-off adversely affect? Is theweight of the water on the structure a concern? Are materials water reactive?

• Fuel—Shut off supply of fuel if possible.

5.3. HAZARDOUSMATERIALS

5.3.1. Hazardous Materials Response Regulations

While many of the tactical considerations discussed for fire fighting apply tohazardous material (Hazmat) situations, some differences exist. A primary con-sideration in developing a capability to respond to Hazmat situations is OSHA'sHazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response regulation, 29 CFR1910.120 [1], commonly referred to as HAZWOPER. This regulation is moreencompassing and stringent in defining levels of response capabilities thanOSHA3S fire brigade regulation.

OSHA developed the HAZWOPER regulation to address an estimated13,600 spills of hazardous chemicals that occur annually inside fixed industrialfacilities. In terms of emergency response activities, it requires employers to havetraining, protective gear, cleanup equipment and supplies, and emergency plansin place before a spill occurs. It outlines duties and responsibilities of spill responseteams in the private and public sector. The OSHA rule requires that all employeeswho will be responding to and/or working at chemical emergency incidents beprovided with training. Specifically, OSHA designated five levels of responsetraining based on duties during a Hazmat event:

First Responder Awareness Level,First Responder Operations Level,Hazardous Materials Technician,Hazardous Materials Specialist, andOn-Scene Incident Commander.

Table 5.3 summarizes the duties of each responder.

TABLE 5.3Hazmat Responder Levels

Responder Level

First responders at theawareness level

First responders at theoperations level

Hazardous materialstechnicians

Hazardous materialsspecialists

On-scene incidentcommander

Duties

Individuals who are likely to witness or discover a hazardoussubstance release who should be capable of initiating anemergency response sequence by notifying the proper authoritiesof the release.

Respond in a defensive fashion without trying to stop the release.Their role is to protect nearby persons, property, and theenvironment from the effects of the spill, leak, fire, or explosion.

Respond to incidents to stop the release. They assume a moreoffensive role than a responder at the operations level in that theyplug, patch, or otherwise stop the release of a hazardous substance.

Specialists require a more specific knowledge of the materials theymust contain. The hazardous materials specialist would also act asthe site liaison with federal, state, local, and other governmentauthorities regarding incident scene activities.

Assumes control of the incident scene and directs the activities ofthe emergency responders.

The first action at a hazardous material incident is establishing an incidentcommand system (ICS) and the second is ensuring that a safety officer is at thescene, as mandated by HAZWOPER. The safety officer's role is to ensure thesafety of the responders at the scene [3].

5.3.2. Hazmat Initial Assessment and Size-Up

As with fire situations, the LOCATE methodology can be used to perform aninitial size-up for hazardous materials incidents.

Although the LOCATE stratagem is effective, another tool helpful in theinitial size-up is DECIDE, as shown in Figure 5.2.

One key issue dealing with a hazardous material incident size-up is to identifythe materials involved. Until the material is known, one cannot plan appropriatecorrective actions. Whenever possible, the IC should talk to plant operatingpersonnel to determine the material involved and to discern what caused the eventto take place. Understanding the reasons for the incident can provide insight asto how the team can mitigate the problem. For example, if there was an explosionresulting in a number of damaged pipes, the likelihood of trying to patch thedamaged pipes may be futile. With the cooperation and help of the plant operators,the IC should seek ways to stop open pipe leaks via remote shut-off, depressuri-zation of sources, or shutting down operations.

FIGURE 5.2. DECIDE.

5.3.3. Hazmat Reconnaissance

If the above issues cannot be answered upon initial arrival and after discussionwith plant personnel, reconnaissance of the incident will be necessary using oneof two primary reconnaissance methods. One approach involves having a two-person crew survey the incident from a safe distance (elevated and upwind distanceensuring that they will not come in contact with any of the materials) to determinewhat is taking place.

The second approach, although more dangerous, entails sending a minimumteam of two responders directly into the incident area to assess conditions. Withthis approach, the reconnaissance team should use the highest level of chemical

protective clothing (CPC), The IC should have back-up personnel in CPC readyto move in if there is a problem and set up an emergency route out of the area incase the initial entry route becomes blocked. The safety officer should also establisha decontamination (decon) area prior to entry.

5.3.4. Work Zones

Another important function during the initial size-up is establishing work zones.These zones clearly define work areas where certain actions can take place andparticular personnel can work. These allow the emergency responders to effec-tively control the flow of equipment and to account for personnel moving in andout of the incident.

Determining work zone boundaries begins during the initial size-up, basedon known incident hazards, weather conditions (especially wind direction), andlocation (keeping your work areas and personnel up-hill of the incident). In settingup work zones, ensure adequate room to work. It is easier to start off larger thanneeded and reduce the zones as necessary than to start off too small and have topull back in a hurry and start over,

Three work zones, as represented in Figure 5.3, need to be set up for ahazardous material incident. These zones are:

• Hot zone• Warm zone• Cold zone

ESTiMATEDBOUNDARYOFAREAWITHHIGHEST

CONTAMINATIONHotline

C O L D Z O N I

Contamination Reduction Corridor

Contamination Control Line

C O M M A N DP O S T

FIGURE 5.3. Work zones.

The hot zone, also referred to as the exclusionary zone, is the area where theincident is taking place. The size of this area will depend on the size of the releaseand what mitigation activities will occur. Only properly trained and equippedHazmat personnel will work in this zone. The warm zone, an area encircling thehot zone, is also known as the decontamination or limited access zone. This is abuffer zone between the cold and the hot zones where decontamination will occur.Decontamination occurs in an area of the warm zone referred to as an accesscorridor. Only trained decontamination personnel and the safety officer can workin this zone.

Depending on the situation, the decon process can be as simple as using a pailof water with brushes, or an elaborate, multiple step process. The importantconcept is that decon is essential at each incident, and that the decon methodemployed must be appropriate and compatible with the materials involved.

The third work zone is the cold zone (also know as the support zone), whichis the area for the command post and staging area. This zone must be secure andonly response personnel and necessary advisors should be in this area.

5.3.5. Hazmat Tactical Action Plan

Once the initial size-up is complete and work zones in place, the IC thenformulates a tactical action plan. This incorporates the information obtainedduring the size-up, any existing pre-plan, and any other information such asmaterial safety data sheets (MSDS) information, manufacturer's information, orother reference materials on hand. This plan need not necessarily be written, butkey actions taken should be documented.

The IC should consider the "what," "where," "when,33 and "who33 in settingup an action plan. The "what33 part deals with defining response objectives,determining the need to intervene in the situation, and evaluating the riskassociated with that intervention (i.e., can the responders change the incident3soutcome in a favorable way?).

"Where33 deals with the location of all mitigation action such as decon set up,emergency exit routes, and staging areas.

The "when33 element deals with the time frames: how much time there isbefore something needs to be done, and how long it will take to do.

The last element that forms the tactical plan is determining "who33 will carryout the plan, including entry team, back-up team, decontamination team, andother support personnel. The action plan must address how many entry teampeople wiU be necessary to handle the problem. HAZWOPER states that a buddysystem (entry and back-up teams with at least two people each) is necessary athazardous material incidents. An equal number of people is advisable for theback-up team. The plan must also address the need for support personnel fordecon, medical monitoring, and other areas.

5.3.6. Continual Reassessments

Once the action plan is complete, the IC must ensure that the responders areinformed as to what they must do and how to do it, with the emphasis on safety.When all teams are briefed and ready, the IC can implement the plan. The ICmust continually assess the plan's effectiveness and alter it if it does not work(again, briefing all involved before implementing the changes). Most importantly,a tactical plan rarely works without some modification. Therefore, the IC shouldnever hesitate to reconsider tactics if necessary.

5.3.7. Termination

Once a hazardous material incident is under control, the IC can terminate theresponse and document the events. Documentation is important because it servesas a record of incident events and identifies the personnel involved. It alsofacilitates tracking any problems after the fact, such as medical concerns withresponse personnel, employees, and any environmental issues.

Only the IC can terminate an incident. This ensures that there will be anorderly dismissal of response personnel, makes collecting all documents andinformation regarding the incident easier, and allows the IC to debrief respondersand any other involved personnel and to pass along any information regardingmedical concerns or any other problems. Upon termination, the IC and otherpersonnel must critique the response to determine what worked and did not work,and to determine if there is a need for any corrective actions. These records serveto meet certain regulatory requirements.

REFERENCES CITED

1. U.S. Department of Labor. 29 CFR Section 1910.120.2. U.S. Department of Labor. 29 CFR Section 1910.156.3. National Fire Protection Association. Hazardous Materials Response Handbook. Quincy,

MA.

Other References

Chemical Manufacturers Association. 1992. Site Emergency Response Planning Guidebook.Washington, DC.

IFSTA 200 Essentials of Fire Fighting, IFSTA 209 Fire Fighting Safety, IFSTA 210 PrivateFire Protection, IFSTA 35010 Industrial Fire Protection. Stillwater, OK: InternationalFire Service Training Society.

National Fire Protection Association. Industrial Fire Hazards Handbook^ Third Edition.NFPA 472, Hazardous Materials Incidents Responders, Professional Competence. 1992.

Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.U.S. Department of Transportation. 49 CFR Parts 100 to 177, HM 181.