DEVELOPING GROWTH MINDSET THROUGH REFLECTIVE WRITING … · DEVELOPING GROWTH MINDSET THROUGH...

Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 3, No. 1, October 2016

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DEVELOPINGGROWTHMINDSETTHROUGHREFLECTIVEWRITING

Ryan Korstange

[email protected]

Abstract

CarolDweck’sconceptofgrowthmindsetisa“thresholdconcept”forthinkingaboutstudent

success incollege.Thisarticleargues that reflectivewritingassignments focusedaround

processreflection‐theintentional,structuredorsystematicanalysisofprocessesandtheir

outcomes‐cancontributetogainsinstudentretentionandpersistencebecausetheyhelp

studentsdevelopgrowthmindset.

Keywords: Reflective practice, reflection, process reflection, growth mindset, studentsuccess,FYE

1.Introduction

Overthelastseveraldecadesaccesstohighereducationhasbeenbroadenedinlarge

degrees.According to theU.S.DepartmentofEducation, in1983 therewere10.8million

studentsenrolledincollege(USDepartmentofEducation2016);bythespringof2016there

were 18.3 million students enrolled in Title IV, degree‐granting institutions (National

StudentClearinghouseResearchCenter,2016).Thisisanastronomicalincreaseinstudent

enrollment.Atthesametime,thepercentageofstudentswhoenrollincollegewhograduate

isstillwoefullylow.In2013,thesix‐yeargraduationwas59%(DepartmentofEducation,

2015; Eaker & Sells, 2015). Increased access to education is a significant achievement


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because of the many positive impacts of higher education (Abel & Dietz, 2014). But,

increased access does notmean that students are getting all the benefits that education

providesthem.Educatorsconcernedwithstudentsuccessneedtodoabetterjobofbridging

thegapbetweenaccesstoeducationanddegreecompletion.

CarolDweck'sideaof"GrowthMindset"hasbecomeconsistentfixtureindiscussions

aboutStudentSuccess,particularlysincethepublicationofher2006monographentitled

Mindset:TheNewPsychologyofSuccess.Dweckdifferentiates fixed fromgrowthmindset;

suggesting that students who understand intelligence to be static have a fixedmindset,

whereasstudentswhounderstandintelligencetobedynamicormalleableareunderstood

tohaveagrowthmindset(Dweck,2006).Thedifferenceofmindsetisclearlydemonstrated

whenstudentsfacechallenges;studentswhohavegrowthmindsetaremorelikelytosee

failure and challenge as a momentary setback and an opportunity for personal growth,

rather thanademonstrationof the firm limitof theirknowledgeorabilitywhich ishow

failure is interpreted by thosewith a fixedmindset. Further, studentswho have growth

mindsetaremoreacademicallysuccessfulthanthosewithfixedmindset(AlpayandIreson,

2006;Blackwelletal.,2007;Dweck,2008).

DianeBoydcallsDweck'snotionofGrowthmindset,a“thresholdconcept”forcourse

design, that is “a transformativeand irrevocablewayof thinkingaboutsomething,which

producesaqualitativelydifferentviewoflearning”(Boyd2014:630).Dweck'sconceptof

GrowthMindset certainly has important implications for effective course design, and in

particular, FYE course design. In this article, I will argue that deliberately created and

carefullyassessedreflectivewritingassignmentscanhelpstudentsdevelopgrowthmindset


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withstudents,andconsequentlyincreasetheirretentionandpersistence.

2.ReflectiveThinking

The term "reflection" is used with surprising ubiquity and variety in scholarly

literature (Richardson, 1992; Grimmett & Erickson, 1988; Loughran 2002). Further,

reflectivepracticetakesdifferentformsasitisappliedintomanydifferentfieldsincluding

medicine,nursing,socialwork,law,managementandhumanresources,andeducation(for

anoverviewoftheseapplicationsseeFook,White,&Gardner,2006).Forthisreason,itis

importanttodefinereflectioncarefullyfromtheoutset.

Fromahistoricalperspective,whatwecallreflectivethinkingcanbetracedbackto

Socrates,whoassertsinPlato’sApology38bthat:"theunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving"

(trans.,Fowler1990).Morerecentlyreflectionhasbeenidentifiedasessentialpartofthe

learningprocess.Learninghappenswhenconnectionsaremadebetweenwhattheyalready

know and any new information they are receiving (Vygotsky 1978; Carey 2014; Brown

2014).Bymakingconnections,studentsengageina“processofmakinganeworrevised

interpretationof themeaningof anexperience,whichguides subsequentunderstanding,

appreciation,andaction”(Mezirow,1990:1).

Dewey speaks of reflection inmuch the sameway, suggesting thatmaking these

connections happens through what he called "reflection," by which he meant "active,

persistent,andcarefulconsiderationofanybelieforsupposedformofknowledgeinthelight

ofthegroundsthatsupportitandthefurtherconclusionstowhichittends”(1910:6;1933:


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8).

CarolRodgersextrapolatesDewey’sthoughtsonreflectionintofoursteps:

1) Presencetoexperience;

2) Descriptionofexperience;

3) Analysisofexperience;and

4) Intelligentactionand/orexperimentation(Rodgers2002:856).

This methodology highlights the central place that Dewey gave to the active, careful

considerationofanexperience.

Reflectivethinkingisnotallofthesametype.Redmond(2004:9)pointsoutthatmost

reflective theories divide between at least a lower and higher order level of reflection ‐

though these theories do not define lower and higher order reflection in the sameway

(examples of this variety: Bleakley 1999; Ixer 2000; Leung andKember 2003; King and

Kitchener 1994; and Schön 1983, 1987). For our purposes, the four stages of reflective

writingthatHattonandSmith(1995) identifyareparticularlyrelevant,and illustratethe

differencebetweenhigherandlowerorderreflectionthatRedmondpointsout.Hattonand

Smithsaythatreflectivewritingtakes fourstages:First,descriptivewriting,which isnot

reflective at all, but simply describes eventswithout offering any justification or reason.

Second,reflectivedescription,whichprovidesjustificationorreasonsfortheeventsbeing

described,andincludessomereferencetoalternativeexplanations.Third,dialogicreflection

whichismarkedbywhattheycalla“‘steppingback’fromtheeventsoractions”whichleads

toananalyticaland/orintegrativereflection(1996:48).Finally,criticalreflectionwhichis

marked by awareness of multiple perspectives in various historical and socio‐political

contexts. The division between higher and lower order reflection occurs between stages


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three and four ‐with critical reflectionbeing the high order reflection, and shares some

similaritywiththetheoryofsinglevs.doublelooplearningwhichwasidentifiedbyChris

ArgyrisandDonaldSchon(1978).

“Reflection”isalsoappliedinacoupleofdifferentdirections.Forsome,“reflection”

functionsasapartofawidertheoryoflearning(Carey2014;Brown2014;Ambroseet.al,

2010).Inthisusage,studentsareencouragedtorecallinformationorexperiencesthatthey

havehadpreviously,andconnectinformationtheyaretryingtolearntothoseprevious

bitsofinformationandexperiencethroughconsciousreflection.Itshouldbeborneinmind

thatconnectingnewcontenttopreviouslylearnedinformationisnotalwayshelpful

(Ambroseet.al,2010).Ifpriorknowledgeisinactive,insufficient,inappropriate,or

inaccurate,thenitwillbeahindranceforlearning(Ambroseet.al,2010:14‐27).Reflective

thinkingprovidesawaybywhichstudentscanassessthispriorknowledgeandmarshalit

correctlyfortheirlearning.

Second,somethinkersspeakof“criticalreflection,”whichhasbeeneffectively

definedbyStein(2000:1);as“theprocessbywhichadultsidentifytheassumptions

governingtheiractions,locatethehistoricalandculturaloriginsoftheassumptions,

questionthemeaningoftheassumptions,anddevelopalternativewaysofacting.”

Similarly,Fook,White,andGardner(2006)concludetheirextensivereviewofvarious

definitionsofreflectionbyidentifyingfouraspectswhichtheyconsiderconstitutea“full

viewofreflectivepractice.”Intheiropinion,reflectivepracticeinvolves

(i) “aprocess(cognitive,emotional,experiential)ofexaminingassumptions(ofmanydifferenttypesandlevels)embeddedinactionsorexperience;

(ii) a linking of these assumptions with many different origins (personal,


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emotional,social,cultural,historical,political);

(iii) a review and re‐evaluation of these according to relevant (depending oncontext,purpose,etc.)criteria;

(iv) a reworking of concepts and practice based on this re‐evaluation” (Fook,White,&Gardener2006:12).

Criticalreflectionisdistinguishedfromothertypesofreflectionbyitsfocusonconsciously

questioningtheassumptionsthatthethinkermakes.

Finally,wecantalkaboutwhatIwouldcallprocessreflection.Thistypeofreflection

isepitomizedinDavidKolb’s(1984)modelofexperientiallearningwhichisbrokenintofour

steps:ConcreteExperience;Reflectiveobservation;Abstractconceptualization;andactive

experimentation.Kolbunderstandsreflectiveobservationasthesearchforthemeaningof

things that happened during the concrete experience that is the basis for the learning

experience. Donald Schön’s distinction between reflection‐in‐action, and reflection‐on‐

actionalsofitshere.AccordingtoSchön,"reflection‐on‐action"isthesystematicreviewof

theprocess andoutcomesof a situation,whereas "reflection‐in‐action" is the abilityof a

professional to notice what is happening and modify their actions instantaneously,

essentiallythinkingonone’sfeet(Schön1983,1987;Hatton&Smith,1995).

Thisbriefsurveyoftheliteratureshowswhyreflectionisusedwithsuchvariety‐it

has application inmany arenasof thought. As it relates to the developmentof reflective

thinkingamongststudents‐thepointtobemadeisthatinalloftheseapplications,thesame

basicmethod of reflection holds, the difference is in the direction towhich reflection is

extended. There can be no question that college students benefit from learning to think

reflectivelyineachoftheseways.Yet, inthisarticle,Iarguethatintentionallydeveloping

studentabilitiesinprocessreflectioncanhelpthemdevelopgrowthmindset.


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ReflectiveWriting

Duetothefactthatreflectivethinkingisavariedmetacognitiveprocess,itisdifficult

toassignandmeasureintheclassroom.Therefore,reflectivewritingassignmentsmustbe

constructed carefully so as to both promote good, high order reflection, but also to

accommodatefairandethicalassessment.Reflectivewritingassignmentscanbecreatedand

tailoredforanyofthepreviouslymentionedlevelsofreflection.

Severalmethodologiesexistwhichaimtobothstreamlinetheprocessofreflective

thinking for student acquisition of the concept, and to transfer reflective thinking into

assignments that can be used in class. Graham Gibbs (1988) expands on the reflective

observationelementofDavidKolb's(1984)experientiallearningmodel,depictingreflective

writingasacyclemadeupofthefollowingelements:

• Description‐whathappened?• Feelings‐Whatwereyouthinkingandfeeling?• Evaluation‐Whatwasgoodandbadabouttheexperience?• Analysis‐Whatsensecanyoumakeofthesituation?• Conclusion‐Whatelsecouldyouhavedone?• ActionPlan‐Ifitaroseagain,whatwouldyoudo?

Bulman and Shultz (2013) have adaptedGibb'smodel into nursing education. For them,

reflectivewritingtakesthefollowingsteps:

• Whathappened?• Whatwereyouthinkingandfeelingsandhowdidyouact?• InitialEvaluationoftheexperience:Whatwasgoodandbadaboutit?• CriticalAnalysis:Whatsensedidyoumakeoftheexperience?• Conclusion:Whathaveyoulearntfromreflectingonthisexperience?• FinalEvaluationandActionPlan:Whatwouldyoudodifferently?

Peters,(1991)suggestsamodelbasedontheacronymDATA:Reflectivewritingoughtto

firstDescribea learningexperience, thenAnalyze that experience, then connect relevant

Theorytothatexperience,andfinallyreflectivewritingmustidentifythewaythatAction


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willchange.

Similarly,Rolfe,etal.(2001)suggestthefollowingmethod:

•What?(descriptionofthesituation)•SoWhat?(Theoryandknowledgebuilding)•NowWhat?(Howtoimprovethesituation).

AshandClayton(2009)identifyaprocessofreflectivewritingsummarizedbytheacronym

“DEAL,”whichincludesthefollowingsteps;

•Describealearningexperience,•Examinehowthisexperiencecohereswiththeirlearninggoals,•ArticulateLearningincludingboththecapturingoflearningthathasbeendoneanddrawingoutimplicationsofthatlearningfortheirfuturebenefit

Three components reappear ineachof theaforementionedprocessesof reflective

writing.First,thereflectivelearningendeavorbeginswiththedescriptionofaspecificevent

‐ be it a lecture, the content in a textbook chapter, active learning experience, or non‐

academicexperience.Second,connectionsaremadetoandfromthisconcreteexperience.

Theseconnectionscanbetopreviouspersonalexperience,followingMeizrow’sobservation

that:

Much of what we learn involves making new interpretations that enable us toelaborate, further differentiate, and reinforce our long‐established frames ofreferenceortocreatenewmeaningschemes(Meizrow,1990:5).

Connections can also be made between theories being learned as a part of classroom

instructionorpersonal/professionaldevelopment‐thisprocessistypicallyreferredtoas

integrativethinking(Kallio,2011).Finally,allthesereflectivemodelsconcludewithsome

type of application,where the thinker determineswhat should change as a result of the

reflection.

So,thebestreflectivewritingassignmentsencouragestudentstothinkreflectively.


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Thisrequiresthattheythinkaboutaspecificlearningexperience,makeconnectionstoand

fromthatexperience,andstrategizeastohowtheirthinkingoractionwillchangeasaresult

ofthereflectiveprocess.

3.ReflectionintheFirst‐YearClassroom

Havingnowdescribedwhatismeantbyreflection,andthebestpracticesinreflective

writing, we can pass on to a description of why reflection matters in a FYE classroom.

Certainlyalllevelsofreflectivethinkingbenefitfirst‐yearstudents,butinthissection,Iwant

tofocusonwhatIhavecalledprocessreflection‐theintentional,structuredorsystematic

analysisofprocessesandtheiroutcomes.Helpingstudentstoevaluatetheirprocesseshas

numerousbenefits,whichwillbecomeclearbelow.

Thebenefitofprocessreflectionforstudentsiswellknown.JoeCuseoandcolleagues

(2007)arguethatself‐reflectionisoneofthefourkeythingsstudentsneedtolearnintheir

firstyearofcollege.ThereflectionthatCuseoet.aladvocateisfurthersegmentedintofour

areas:a)Self‐Assessment‐ the intentionalevaluationofone’spersonalcharacteristics,b)

self‐monitoring‐ analysis of the effectiveness of their learning, and the synchronous

adjustment of learning strategies to make sure to meet the standards set for them, c)

reflectiononfeedbackwhereinstudentsdeterminehowtousefeedbacktoimprovetheir

performanceonacademictasks,andfinallyd)reflectingonthefuture,duringwhich look

aheadtowhattheyhopetodointhefuture.InmuchthesamewayKenBain(2012)suggests

thatthemostsuccessfulstudentslearnfromtheirfailuresandtheirsuccesses.Also,twoof

theelevenhabitsofsuccessfulcollegestudentsthatJohnBader(2011)articulatesrelateto


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learningfromfailure.

Why the focus on learning from failure? In part, because college graduation rates

typicallyhoveraround50%(Eaker&Sells2015:9).Insomeways,thislowgraduationrate

implies that nearly half of the studentswho attend college are unable to copewith the

challengethatcollegeprovidestothem‐insomewaystheyfail(ortheuniversitysystem

failsthemdependingonone’sperspective).Studiesofstudentretentiondemonstratethat

studentsleaveschoolforavarietyofreasons,andthatthemajority(75‐80%)areingood

academicstandingwhentheychoosetoleavetheinstitution(Noel,1985;Tinto,1993).The

emphasisonpersonal,process,reflection,andtheadvocationoflearningfromfailureisa

responsetothe lowgraduationrate.Thetheorygoesthat ifstudentswerebetterable to

handlechallenges,andtolearnfromtheirfailures,theywouldbemoresuccessfulinsideand

outsideoftheclassroom.Afterall,concentratingonacademicsalonehasalreadybeenshown

tohaveaninsignificantimpactonstudentretention(Lotkowski2004).

ThisiswhereDweck’sideaofgrowthmindsetisparticularlyrelevant.Inmanyways

the differences Dweck identifies between fixed and growth mindset are most apparent

during times of transition and challenge. In speaking about the transition of a group of

studentsfromelementaryschooltohighschool,Dweckpointsoutthat,whilestudentswith

a fixedmindsetunderstoodthedifficult transitiontobeathreat,andanindicationofthe

limit of their intelligence,whereas “with the threat of failure looming, studentswith the

growthmindsetinsteadmobilizedtheirresourcesforlearning”(Dweck2006:58).Dweckis

alsoclearthatmindsetcanbechanged.Therefore,intheFYEclassroom,oneofthecentral

obligationsistohelpstudentsunderstandthatchallengeisjustchallenge‐notthemarkof


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inability.

Dweck’sideaofgrowthvs.fixedmindsetstemsfromherpreviouswork,inparticular,

her work with Carol Deiner regarding learned helplessness. Deiner and Dweck (1980)

explain that learnedhelplessness is “when individualsview theiractionsas irrelevant to

subsequent outcomes” (Deiner & Dweck, 1980: 940). Further, viewing failure as

insurmountablehas“debilitatingeffectsonperformance”whereas“perceivingthatoneis

abletoavoidorescapefromfailurecanhavefacilitatingeffects.”Theseresponsesarenot

connectedtotraditionalmeasuresofability‐IQ,readingcomprehension(Deiner&Dweck,

1980). Student effort is incredibly relevant to their performance in class and to their

fulfillmentoftheirnon‐academicresponsibilities.

IntheFYEclassroomthen,studentsneedtobeencouragedtoreflectonkeyaspects

of their academic and non‐academic lives. This can be accomplished by applying the

methodology of reflective thinking to student learning experiences through carefully

constructed reflective writing assignments. Training students to think reflectively helps

themtolearnmoreefficientlyandeffectively,andhelpsthemtodevelopgrowthmindset.I

wanttobeclear,Iamadvocatingadifferentwayofassigningandassessinglearning,andnot

the loweringofstandardsforstudenteducation. Inmanyways,I thinkthatthereflective

workIamproposinghere,whendonecorrectly,requiressubstantialwork(Dweckisalso

clearthatloweringstandardscannotbethesolution,shesuggests“loweringstandardsjust

leadstopoorlyeducatedstudentswhofeelentitledtoeasyworkandlavishpraise”(2006:

193).

One examplewill suffice to illustrate the concept. Considerwhathappenswhena


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student has a test. The first step in the reflective writing process is to describe what

happened.Certainlythereistheobviousexperienceoftakingthetest.But,theactoftaking

thetestistheculminationofalearningprocessthatstartedmuchearlierinthesemester‐

allofwhichneeds tobedescribed.Thisprocess includesattendanceandparticipation in

class,thestyleofnotesthestudenttakes,andtheattentions/hegivestothem,thefrequency

withwhichthestudentreviewedtheinformation,themethodsofstudyingthatthestudent

used during these review periods, the extent to which the student read the reading

assignments,andthemethods/heusedtorecordthatinformation,theirabilitytoidentify

whichcontentwillbecoveredonthetest,themethodstheyusetoprepareforthetest,the

attentiontheywereabletogivetothetestwhiletakingit.Thelistcouldgoon.Tothispoint

wehaveonlyconsideredacademictasks,butalargevarietyofnon‐academictasksalsoaffect

studentperformanceonexams;forexample,howmanyhourstheyworked,howmanyhours

theyspentwithfriends,thepresenceofconflictintheirfriendgrouporfamily,thestudents

emotionalstate,andmanyothers.Now,afterastudenthasdoneallofthis‐theytakethe

test, and it is graded. They now have a definitive point from which to reflect on their

performance.Gradingisameasure,imperfectthoughitis,ofthestudents’learning.

Thesecondpartofthereflectivethinkingprocessasksstudentstomakeconnections

toandfromtheirexperience.IntheFYEclassroom,theseconnectionsneedtogoacoupleof

directions. First, students can make connections to the theories about student success,

learning, and studying that are being taught in the class. Second, students can make

connectionsbetweenaspectsoftheirpreparationandtheirperformanceonthetest.Finally,

they can make connections between their effort, their result, and their long‐term goals


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(educationalandotherwise).

Eachoftheselevelsofconnectionisimportant.Whenstudentsmakeconnectionsto

student success theory, or memory research they are specifically reflecting on various

componentsoftheirprocess.Studentscanaskgeneralorevaluativequestionslike:“Didthe

way I take notes help or hurt me as I prepared for the exam?Were the specific study

strategiesIusedinpreparingforthistesthelpfulorharmful?”But,deeperquestionsthat

specifically connect to theoretical content are also appropriate ‐ clearly these questions

dependonwhattheorythestudentsknowalready‐butinanFYEclass,thesetheoriesform

thebulkofthecontentinthecourse.So,studentscouldask,“HowthechoicesImadeinthe

weekleadinguptothisexamreflecttheEisenhowerdecisionmatrix?Or,howcouldIhave

incorporatedinterleavingintomystudystrategy?”

Beyond the theoretical connections, studentsmustalsomakeconnections to their

longertermgoals.SomestudentswhomakeaC+onaBiologyMidtermareperfectlyhappy

‐becausethatisapassinggradeintheirprogram.Butifthestudentintendedtobecomea

doctor,thegradewouldberatheralarming,andwouldindicatethatdramaticchangestothe

studentsapproachtotheclasswouldbe inorder.Theskillofprocessreflectionbecomes

evenmoresignificantwhenwerecognizethattheworkisdifferentinmanyclasses,andthat

differentprofessorshavevastlydifferentexpectations.

Finally, reflectivewritingandthinkingconcludeswithadescriptionof thespecific

changes the student needs to make to develop their processes going forward. Simply,

studentsneedtoask,“whatshouldIdoagain,andwhatshouldIchangeforthenexttest?”

Leavingthereflectiveprocesswithoutthisessentialstepstripsitofitsbenefit.


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Dweckoutlinesseveralmethodsbywhichstudentscandevelopgrowthmindset.The

mostimportantstrategyshesuggestsisteachingstudentsdirectlyaboutneuralplasticity,or

thefactthatthemindchangesandgrows.Herargumentisthatstudenthaveahardtime

understandingthatintelligenceisfixedandinborniftheyunderstandthatthebrainchanges

asaresultofexperiences.Inaddition,Dwecksuggeststhatgrowthmindsetcanbegainedby

havingauthorityfigurespraisetheprocessstudentsengageinwhilelearningratherthanthe

resultoflearning.Shesays:“Myresearchhasshownthatpraisingstudentsfortheprocess

theyhaveengaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies theyused, the choices they

made,thepersistencetheydisplayed,andsoon—yieldsmorelong‐termbenefitsthantelling

themtheyare"smart"whentheysucceed”(Dweck,2010:18).

Recently,Dweckhasclarifiedthatsheisconcernedthathertheoryofgrowthmindset

hasbeenmisunderstoodandmisapplied.Shecautionsthateffort isnottheonlypartofa

growthmindset,butthatwhile“effortiskeyforstudents’achievement,butit’snottheonly

thing.Studentsneedtotrynewstrategiesandseekinputfromotherswhenthey’restuck.

They need this repertoire of approaches—not just sheer effort—to learn and improve”

(Dweck2015).This is a verypertinentobservation, andoneworthbearing inmind. For

reflectivewritingtohelpstudentsacquiregrowthmindset, itmustnot justpushthemto

effort, itmustcausethemtoexaminetheireffort,andto figureouthowto improvetheir

process.

InDweck’ssystemtheseprocessevaluationshappenwhenparentsorteachershelp

studentsthinkthroughtheireffort,andbyselectivelypraisingthethingsworthrepeating,

studentsareencouragedtorepeatusefulskills,anddiscontinuethelesseffectiveorefficient


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practices.However,bytrainingstudentstoreflectontheirownpracticeinadeliberateway,

they develop the skills to identify the weaknesses of their process, and correct those

weaknesses on their own. This is an essential skill for success generally, and for college

successinparticular.Studentsdonotalwayshaveteacherswhocaretohelpthemfigureout

differentways of studying, or taking notes ‐ and so the studentmust become their own

advocate. Learning to think reflectively about their academic processes enables them to

make strides towards growth mindset, and towards academic success, without the

assistanceofothers,andsoitisanincrediblyimportantskill.

AssessmentofReflectiveWriting:

If designing reflective writing assignments that promote reflective thinking is

challenging,assessingthemisevenmoredifficult.Assessmentofstudentwritingisalways

tricky,butgradingreflectivewritingassignmentspresentsanadditionalchallengebecause

it is imperative that theassessmentnot cutoffor stop theprocessof reflective thinking.

CharonandHermann(2012)havepointedoutthattransposingreflectionfromalearning

model toanassessmentstrategyfundamentallychangesthetypeofreflectivethinking in

whichlearnersengage.Thechallengeofprovidingfeedbackonthesereflectiveassignments

istoencouragetheprocessofreflectivethinking,andtonotreducetheseassignmentstoa

productstudentsfeeltheymustproduce.

The first step towards assessing reflectivewritingwell is clearly describingwhat

studentsareexpectedtoaccomplish.Therelationshipofreflectivewritingassignmentsto

reflective thinkingcanbeconceived in twoways,aseitherallowingstudentsachance to

representtheirreflectivethinking,ortoguidestudentstowardsmorethoroughreflective


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thinking.Roth(1989),inspeakingabouttrainingproductiveteachers,observes24practices

ofwhathetermsthe“reflectivepractitioner,”theyare:

1) Questionwhat,why,andhowonedoesthings;askwhat,why,andhowothersdothings.

2) Emphasizeinquiryasatooloflearning.3) Suspendjudgment,waitforsufficientdate,orself‐validate.4) Seekalternatives.5) Keepanopenmind.6) Compareandcontrast.7) Seek the framework, theoretical basis, underlying rationale (of behaviors,

methods,techniques,programs)8) Viewfromvariousperspectives.9) Identifyandtestassumptions.10)Putintodifferent/variedcontexts.11)Ask“whatif...?”12)Asforothersideasandviewpoints.13)Adaptandadjusttoinstabilityandchange.14)Functionwithinuncertainty,complexity,andvariety.15)Hypothesize.16)Considerconsequences.17)Validatewhatisgivenorbelieved.18)Synthesizeandtest.19)Seek,identify,andresolveproblems(“problemsetting,”“problemsolving”).20)Initiate after thinking through (alternatives, consequences) or putting into

context.21)Analyze–whatmakesitwork;inwhatcontextwoulditnot?22)Evaluate–whatworked,whatdidn’t,andwhy?23)Useprescriptivemodels(behavioralmodels,protocols)onlywhenadaptedtothe

situation.24)Makedecisionsinpracticeoftheprofession(knowledgecreatedinuse)(pg.32).

Thesearetheabilitiesthatgoodreflectivethinkershavelearnedandcandemonstrate,and

sotheyarealsotheabilitiesthatmustbemeasuredintheassessmentofreflectivewriting.

AssessmentofthesemeasurescanbeaidedbytheuseofcarefullydesignedRubrics.

Rubricsarehelpfulinthattheyclarifyexpectationsandidentifyforstudentswhatshouldbe

emphasized.(Milleretal.,2012).However,theusefulnessofrubricsasagradingtoolisnot

uniformlyagreedupon(Wilson2006).Asitrelatestoreflectivewritingspecifically,aswe


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haveseen,Reflectivethinkingandreflectivewritingarenotnecessarilythesameprocess.

Rubrics, while clarifying expectations, also limit student work in some ways, and could

contributetotheseparationofreflectivethinkingfromreflectivewritingthatCharonand

Hermann(2012)haveidentified.

Nevertheless,acoupleofgeneralrubrics forassessmentof reflectivewritinghave

beenpopularized.TheREFLECTrubric,madeforuseinMedicalEducation,butwithsome

transferabilityintootherreflectivewritingassignments(Waldet.al.2012)assesseswriting

in six areas:Writing spectrum,presence, descriptionof conflict ordisorientingdilemma,

attendingtoemotions,analysisandmeaningmaking,andtheoptionalcriteria,attendance

to the assignment, and categorizes the student work as either Habitual action (non‐

reflective),thoughtfulactionorintrospection,reflection,orcriticalreflection.TheREFLECT

assessment has been evaluated byMoniz and her colleagues (2015), who conclude that

individualuseoftherubricvarieswidely,andthattheassessmenttooldoesnotprovidethe

standardizationitpromises.ThoughitisthecasethatMonitzandhercolleaguesusedthe

REFLECTrubricforsummativeassessment,whenitwasdesignedforformativeassessment,

andthisundoubtedlyhassomebearingontheirresults.

Amore extensive rubric has been createdBarbara Larrivee (2008) for use in the

evaluation of teachers as reflective practitioners. Larrivee identifies sixty‐three elements

thatreflectiveteachersaccomplishwhicharebrokenupintofouroverarchingcategories:

pre‐reflection,surfacereflection,pedagogicalreflection,andcriticalreflection.Therubric

attemptstomeasurethefrequencybywhicheachteacherbeingevaluateduseseachofthe

sixty‐threeelements,andtheyareratedonasimplescale:always,frequently,infrequently.


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Importantly,Larriveealsoadvocates that therubricbegivento theevaluator,andto the

personbeingevaluatedandadministeredasaself‐evaluation.

At this point, it is helpful to return to Dweck’s idea of growth mindset, and in

particularherthoughtsabouthowgrowthmindsetcanbeencouragedbyteachers.Inher

view,feedbackthatpromotesgrowthmindsetcannotprimarilyaddressthecorrectnessor

incorrectnessoftheresultsofthethinking.Rather,itmustpraisethosethingsstudentsare

doingwell,andencouragestudentstothinkdifferentlyaboutthoseskillsandabilitiesthey

haveyettoacquire(Dweck,2006).Ofcourse,effortandprocessaredifficulttoassesswhen

what you have to measure is whatever the student managed to write and submit. The

realities of grading require that objective, often judgmental statements be imposed onto

studentwork.

One further complication is the reality that each student interprets instructor

comments differently. Devers (2015: 3) observes “studentswith a fixedmindset usually

either ignore criticism or take it as an insult to their intelligence. Because they believe

intelligencecannotbechanged,thecriticismofintelligenceisperceivedasacriticismofthe

student.” Ironically perhaps, this interpretation has both a detrimental effect on the

acquisitionofgrowthmindset,andprofoundimpactsonthestudent’sabilitytomakegains

intheirunderstandingofthetopicathand.Thisdiscontinuity ismorepronouncedinthe

assessmentofreflectivewritingbecauseassoonasastudentfeelstheirintelligencehasbeen

insulted,theircapacitytothinkreflectivelyisdramaticallydiminished.

Dweck addresses both student interpretation of instructor comments, and the

necessitiesofgradingwhatisonthepagebywhatshetermsthe“powerofyet”(2010:29).


19

Herargumentisthatbyspeakingtostudentsintermsofskillstheyhavedevelopedalready

andskillstheyhaveyettodevelop,wedonotaccidentallystiflegrowthmindsetaswegrade.

In a later piece, Dweck (2015) contrasts feedback that encourages growthmindsetwith

feedbackthatencouragesafixedmindsetinthefollowingtable:

Thedifferencesbetweenthesefeedbackexamplesshowclearlythetypeofencouragement


20

required to develop growthmindset: Effort is in focus, but it is effort directed towards

learning. Continuously learning is the goal. To encourage growth mindset, instructor

feedbackmustencouragestudents toset theireffort,progress,andchallengeswithinthe

contextoflifelonglearning‐notjustpassingaclass,notjustgraduatingfromcollege.The

most effective comments push the students to think deeper about the issues they are

discussingandtoseelearningasaprocess.Inthisway,theregularfeedbackisessentialin

forcingthestudentstobecomebetterreflectiveandintegrativethinkers.

Practically,forreflectivewritingassignmentstoremainhelpfulforlearningIbelieve

thatthetypeofcommentsanddirectionsmadebytheinstructorneedtoberatherdifferent

fromotherformsofwriting.First,Ithinkthatthegoaloftheinteractionoughttobetoask

questionsmorethantogiveanswers.Wesawabovethe24skillsofthereflectivepractitioner

thatRoth(1989),identified.Iftheseskillsarethegoal‐andIsuggestthattheyare‐thenmy

commentsonstudentwritingneedtoforcethemtomorewholeheartedlyandthoroughly

demonstratethesereflectivepractices.

I suggest a two‐stage assessment process. Stage one, after the work has been

submitted,gothroughitquickly,andaskquestions.That’sit‐justquestions.Atthispoint

thegoal is todemonstrateto thestudentareaswheretheycould,andshouldthinkmore

deeply,ormorereflectively.Roth’slistof24practicesofreflectivepractitionerscanformthe

conceptualbackdropforthetypeofquestionsthatcanbeasked.Alsointhefirststageofthe

assessmentprocessbelongsfeedbackonthemechanicsofwriting‐sentencestructure,word

choice, grammar, punctuation, etc, and organization. Again, I think that couching these

commentsintermsofquestionsisappropriate.WhatIwanttodoistohelpstudentsfigure


21

outwaysofexpressingthemselvesmoreclearly,nottosimplyedittheirtextforthem.After

thefirststageofassessment,thestudentsaregivenanopportunitytoreviseandresubmit

theirwork.

Then,thesecondstagehastoallowthestudenttoamendandaltertheirassignment.

Essentiallytoanswerthequestionsaninstructoraskedthem,andfixthemistakestheymade

inwriting.Thisisnodoubtcumbersome,andrequiresacertainamountofextraworkonthe

partofthestudentandtheinstructor.However,alotcanbegained.1)Weforcestudentsto

reflectmoredeeply,tocorrecttheirmistakesandinsodoing,subtlypromotethebenefitof

athoroughgoingrevisionprocess.2)Weallowstudentstoproactivelyaddress individual

pointsatwhichtheyfailed(beitgrammatical,orconceptual)andinsodoing,allowthemto

engageintheprocessnaturaltoindividualspossessingDweck’sgrowthmindset.

4.Conclusion

TherearesubstantialadvantagesinhelpingstudentsdevelopwhatCarolDweckcalls

growthmindset. In this article, I have argued that students candevelop growthmindset

when they are required to think and write reflectively about their academic and non‐

academicprocesses.Constructingreflectivewritingassignmentsinsuchawayastoallow

studentstostartbydescribing“theefforttheyapplied,thestrategiestheyused,thechoices

thattheymade,andthepersistencetheydisplayed”(Dweck2010:18)‐theverycategories

thatDwecksuggestsweuseinourassessmentofstudentlearning‐willallowstudentsto


22

makegainstowardsthedevelopmentoftheirowngrowthmindset,andthuswillenabletheir

continuedsuccessbothincollege,andbeyond.


23

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