1

June 30, 2010

Developing Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change

in the New York City Infrastructure-shed:

Process, Approach, Tools, and Strategies1

Cynthia Rosenzweiga,g

,William D. Soleckib,c

Reginald Blaked, Malcolm Bowman

e, Craig Faris

f, Vivien Gornitz

g, Radley Horton

g, Klaus

Jacobh, Alice LeBlanc, Robin Leichenko

i, Megan Linkin

j, David Major

g, Megan O’Grady

g,

Lesley Patrickc, Edna Sussman

k, Gary Yohe

l, Rae Zimmerman

m

aNASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies

bCity University of New York

cCUNY Institute for Sustainable Cities

dCity University of New York, New York City College of Technology

eSUNY, Stony Brook

fAccenture

gColumbia University Earth Institute, Center for Climate Systems Research

hColumbia University Earth Institute

iRutgers University

jSwiss Reinsurance America Corporation

kSussman ADR, LLC

lWesleyan University

mNew York University

1Some material in this article has been previously published in Climate Change and A Global City (Rosenzweig and

Solecki, 2001), the Climate Risk Information (Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010), and Climate Change Adaptation in

New York City: Building a Risk-Management Response (NPCC, 2010). We acknowledge the contributions made by

the Boston Consulting Group in the formulation of the adaptation process and tools described herein.

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20110011236 2020-06-09T12:59:51+00:00Z

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Abstract

While current rates of sea level rise and associated coastal flooding in the New York City region

appear to be manageable by stakeholders responsible for communications, energy,

transportation, and water infrastructure, projections for sea level rise and associated flooding in

the future, especially those associated with rapid icemelt of the Greenland and West Antarctic

Icesheets, may be beyond the range of current capacity because an extreme event might cause

flooding and inundation beyond the planning and preparedness regimes. This paper describes

the comprehensive process, approach, and tools developed by the New York City Panel on

Climate Change (NPCC) in conjunction with the region‘s stakeholders who manage its critical

infrastructure, much of which lies near the coast. It presents the adaptation approach and the sea-

level rise and storm projections related to coastal risks developed through the stakeholder

process. Climate change adaptation planning in New York City is characterized by a multi-

jurisdictional stakeholder-scientist process, state-of-the-art scientific projections and mapping,

and development of adaptation strategies based on a risk-management approach.

Introduction

Since the publication of Climate Change and a Global City: The Potential Consequences of

Climate Variability and Change, part of the U.S. National Assessment of Climate Variability and

Change (Rosenzweig and Solecki, 2001) and other early reports (e.g. Hill, 1996) accelerated sea

level rise and exacerbated coastal flooding associated with climate change have been issues of

critical concern for New York City and its surrounding region. With over 600 miles of coastline,

this densely populated complex urban environment is already prone to losses from weather-

related natural catastrophes, being in the top ten in terms of population vulnerable to coastal

flooding worldwide and second only to Miami in assets exposed to coastal flooding. It is

estimated that a direct hit by a major hurricane could cause $100s of billion in damages, with

economic losses accounting for roughly two times the insured losses (LeBlanc and Linkin,

2010).

As part of PlaNYC (NYC Office of the Mayor, 2007), New York City‘s sustainability plan,

Mayor Michael Bloomberg convened a panel of experts in 2008 to advise the government of

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New York City on issues related to climate change and adaptation of critical infrastructure2

(Rosenzweig and Solecki, 2010). The designated infrastructure systems included

communications, energy, transportation, water, and waste. Since these critical infrastructure

systems extend well beyond the boundaries of the five boroughs of New York City, the domain

of the New York City Panel on Climate Change‘s work was thus the ‗infrastructure-shed‘ of the

region, with the water system encompassing the largest spatial area (Figure 1).

Figure 1. New York City water supply distribution system and third water tunnel planned

locations. Sources: PlaNYC, 2007; NPCC, 2010

2 Critical infrastructure is defined as systems and assets (excluding residential and commercial buildings, which are

addressed by other efforts) that support activities that are vital to the city and for which the diminished functioning

or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on public safety and/or economic security

(NPCC CRI, 2009).

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The New York City Panel on Climate Change (NPCC)3 consisted of academic experts covering a

broad range of disciplines including physical climatology, geology, oceanography, as well as

social science and economics, and private sector experts representing the fields of the law,

insurance, and risk management. The aim of the NPCC was to achieve, at the local level, some

of the scientific objectives that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working

Groups I and II achieve with their reports that focus on climate observations, projections, and

adaptation assessment at the global and continental scales. The NPCC provided the stakeholders

with both a broad range of information on climate change and adaptation approaches relevant to

the critical infrastructure systems and a set of specific ‗tools‘ that included developed down-

scaled climate change projections for New York City and its surrounding region in order to help

the region both understand and prepare for a changing climate. The cross-connection between

significant coastal hazards and the fact that much of New York City‘s infrastructure is in the

coastal zone made the water‘s edge a central focus of the NPCC‘s overall work on future climate

risks and adaptation strategy development.

The development of adaptation to climate change in the New York City region is occurring in the

context of other coastal cities in the U.S. and abroad that are taking up similar challenges (see

e.g., Titus et al. 2009). For cities at the forefront of these efforts, it appears that strong input from

scientists plays a role in that comprehensive impacts and adaptation assessments by scientists

have contributed to building eventual policy outcomes. For example, the CLIMB and other

impacts and adaptation assessments in Boston (Kirshen et al., 2008a,b) led to the development of

the City of Boston‘s Climate Adaptation Work Group‘s formal recommendations in April 2010,

which include a primary focus on preparing for sea level rise. Recommendations of the Boston

group included supporting efforts to ensure that laws, codes, and regulations incorporate

forward-looking climate change concerns and encouraging each city agency should conduct a

formal review of potential effects and responses from sea level rise and other climate change

effects (http://www.cityofboston.gov/Images_Documents/BCA_full_rprt_f2.pdf).

3 New York City Panel on Climate Change Members: Cynthia Rosenzweig (Co-Chair), William Solecki (Co-Chair),

Reginald Blake, Malcolm Bowman, Craig Faris, Vivien Gornitz, Klaus Jacob, Alice LeBlanc, Robin Leichenko,

Edna Sussman, Gary Yohe, Rae Zimmerman. NPCC Science Planning Team Members: Megan O‘Grady, Lesley

Patrick, David C. Major, Radley Horton, Daniel Bader, Richard Goldberg, Michael Brady.

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Abroad, Lonsdale et al. (2008) have studied responses to the threat of rapid sea-level rise in the

Thames Estuary, while the City of London Mayor‘s Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (2010)

emphasizes both the current flooding hazard and that flood risk is projected to increase with

climate change. Steps relevant to coastal adaptation presented in the City of London‘s strategy

include obtaining better scientific understanding of flood risks, how climate change will affect

the City‘s ability to manage the flood risks, identifying the most critical assets and vulnerable

communities in London and concentrating flood management strategies in these areas, and

increasing public awareness of flooding risks and enhancing individual and community recovery

capacity

(http://www.london.gov.uk/climatechange/sites/climatechange/staticdocs/Climiate_change_adap

tation.pdf).

New York City‘s climate change adaptation efforts are similar to the efforts in other cities, but

they offer a comprehensive set of specific contributions including the design of a multi-

jurisdictional stakeholder-scientist process, the development of state-of-the-art scientific

projections and mapping targeted to the needs of managers of critical infrastructure, and the

development of a region-wide risk management approach to adaptation. While the full

documentation of the NPCC‘s work can be found in Rosenzweig and Solecki 2010; the

objectives of this paper are to bring together those parts of the NPCC work relevant to coastal

adaptation and to describe NYC‘s contributions to climate change adaptation in urbanized areas.

While the stakeholder process, approach, information and tools presented in the paper are

specific to the management of critical infrastructure systems of the New York City region, we

believe that the work can contribute to the development of climate change adaptation planning in

cities more generally, and for coastal cities in particular.

Scientist-Stakeholder Process

The NPCC acted as a scientific advisory group to both the Mayor Bloomberg‘s Office of Long-

term Planning and Sustainability and the New York City Climate Change Adaptation Task Force

(Task Force), a stakeholder group of approximately 40 public agencies and private-sector

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organizations that manage the critical infrastructure of the region. The Task Force was organized

in to five Work Groups: Energy, Communication, Transportation, Water and Waste, and Policy.

Key elements to emphasize in this scientist/multi-stakeholder process for climate change

adaptation planning in a complex urban environment were: separation of functions between

scientists and stakeholders; inclusion of public sector stakeholders from multiple jurisdictions as

well as from the private sector; ‗buy-in from the top;‘ a coordinating body; regular stakeholder-

scientist interactions that engendered interactive tool-development; targeted sessions for specific

issues; and communication of uncertainties.

Separation of functions between scientists and stakeholders. The formation of the NPCC as the

scientific body advising the City and the Task Force separated the functions of knowledge

provision and adaptation planning and action. Since the accomplishment of the latter depends on

many social, economic, and political factors, the separation of the provision of science and

information helped to clarify the roles and functions.

Inclusive and multi-jurisdictional participation: Because the critical infrastructure of the region

is managed by a complex set of actors, an inclusive and multi-jurisdictional approach was

undertaken in the creation of the Task Force by the City. Thus, public-sector representation on

the Task Force included City, State, bi-state, and regional offices of federal agencies.

Representatives from the energy and communications sectors were primarily from private

corporations and utilities. The presence of such a wide range of actors facilitated discussion of

infrastructure interdependencies and overlapping jurisdictions.

Buy-in from the top. Mayor Bloomberg convened both the Task Force and the NPCC in August

of 2008, fulfilling the role of ‗climate change champion‘ (NYC Office of the Mayor, 2008). The

Task Force kick-off meeting was attended by the Mayor, Deputy Mayor, and Commissioners of

the relevant agencies, which provided a clear signal of ‗buy-in from the top‘ for the Task Force‘s

activities. The working members of the Task Force were from operations-focused divisions of

the agencies and organizations.

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Coordinating body. The Mayor‘s Office of Long-term Planning and Sustainability played a key

role in coordinating the Task Force activities and in facilitating the communication between the

Task Force and the NPCC. For the first six months of the joint activities, the Boston Consulting

Group also contributed to coordinating the effort by helping to develop the structure of the Task

Force activities and the NPCC adaptation products.

Regular stakeholder-scientist interactions. Over the period from August, 2008 to May, 2010,

Task Force meetings were held on a quarterly basis and were attended by the NPCC Co-Chairs,

who presented updates on the development of the climate risk information and other NPCC

information products. This provided the opportunity for regular feedback from the Task Force as

a whole on the NPCC work. The five working groups of the Task Force met on a monthly basis

and at least one member of the NPCC attended each of the Working Group meetings, in order to

share progress on the NPCC products and to get feedback from the stakeholders.

Targeted sessions. At various times during the one and a half years of the NPCC‘s work, special

sessions were held with specific stakeholders regarding targeted issues. Examples of such

targeted issues include the rapid ice melt sea level rise scenario of interest to the NYS

Department of Environmental Conservation, legal issues with the NYC Legal Department, and

coastal flood maps of interest to the NYC Office of Emergency Management.

Communication of uncertainties. The NPCC explicitly communicated with the stakeholders

about a broad range of uncertainties related to climate change. Uncertainties discussed included

reasons why future climate changes may not fall within the model-based range projected by the

NPCC, due either to differing emission pathways or different sensitivity of the climate system to

the greenhouse forcing. It was also discussed that observed greenhouse gas emissions to-date lie

near the upper range of the emissions scenarios used, and that this could lead to an interpretation

that the high-emission climate change scenarios may be more likely. The uncertainty related to

icesheet melting in Greenland and West Antarctica was also included explicitly in the scenarios

developed with and for the stakeholders. The potential for long-term climate change extending

into the 22nd

century was presented even though this timeframe is beyond most current

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infrastructure planning horizons, since some infrastructure intended to have a useful lifespan

within the 21st century may remain operational beyond their planned lifetimes.

Framing a Risk Management Approach to Adaptation Planning

While current rates of sea level rise and associated coastal flooding in the region appear to be

manageable, the projections for sea level rise and associated flooding in the future, especially

those associated with rapid ice melt of the Greenland and West Antarctic Icesheets, may be

beyond the range of current capacity because an extreme event might cause flooding and

inundation beyond the planning and preparedness regimes. Thus, there is a need for

establishment of an adaptation planning process. From ongoing discussions with the New York

City Climate Change Adaptation Task Force over the year and a half of the NPCC‘s work, it

emerged that a risk-management framework would be a useful approach, since such an approach

is already taken within the stakeholder agencies in regard to current climate hazards and many

other types of risks.

The risk-management approach developed by the NPCC is called Flexible Adaptation Pathways

(Figure 2), based in part on climate change adaptation planning for the updating of the Thames

Barrier in London (Lowe et al., n.d.). The goal of the Flexible Adaptation Pathways approach is

to foster climate change responses that evolve over time as understanding of climate change and

impacts improves and that concurrently reflect local, national and global economic and social

conditions.

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Figure 2. Flexible Adaptation Pathways. Source: NPCC, 2010.

Because climate change poses uncertain risks, the adaptation process should be characterized by

a dynamic sequence of analysis and action followed by evaluation, further analysis, and

refinement (i.e., learn, then act, then learn some more) (Yohe and Leichenko, 2010), an approach

practiced by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and a wide set of city and regional

agencies and organizations.

To guide the development of flexible adaptations through time, the NPCC, with inputs from the

New York City Office of Long-term Planning and Sustainability, the Boston Consulting Group,

and the New York City Climate Change Adaptation Task Force, developed an eight-step process

designed explicitly to help stakeholders create an inventory of their at-risk infrastructure and to

develop adaptation strategies with which they could address those risks (Figure 3) (Major and

O‘Grady, 2010). The steps outlined are intended to become integral parts of ongoing risk

management, maintenance and operation, and capital planning processes of the agencies and

organizations that manage and operate critical infrastructure.

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Figure 3. Eight steps for adaptation assessment. Source: NPCC, 2010.

Sea level rise and coastal flooding

In order to identify current and future climate hazards for that coastal areas of the New York City

infrastructure-shed, the NPCC documented observed sea level rise and historical coastal storms,

and developed a coordinated set of sea level rise and coastal storm projections. These were then

used by all the stakeholders in the Task Force to conduct risk assessment inventories of

infrastructure and assets, to characterize the risk of climate change on infrastructure, and to

develop adaptation strategies.

Observed Sea Level Rise in the New York City Region

Prior to the industrial revolution, sea level had been rising along the East Cost of the United

States at rates of 0.34 to 0.43 inches per decade, primarily because of regional subsidence as the

Earth‘s crust still slowly re-adjusts to the melting of the ice sheets since the end of the last ice

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age. Within the past 100 to 150 years however, as global temperatures have increased, regional

sea level has been rising more rapidly than over the last thousand years (Gehrels, et al., 2005;

Donnelly et al., 2004; Holgate and Woodworth, 2004).

Currently, rates of sea level rise in New York City range between 0.86 and 1.5 inches per

decade, with a long-term rate since 1900 averaging 1.2 inches/decade, as seen in Figure 4. The

sea level rise rates shown in Figure 4, measured by tide gauges, include both the effects of recent

global warming and the residual crustal adjustments to the removal of the ice sheets.

Most of the observed current climate-related rise in sea level over the past century can be

attributed to expansion of the oceans as they warm, although melting of land-based ice may

become the dominant contributor to sea level rise during the 21st century (Church et al., 2008).

Figure 4. Observed sea level at the Battery, New York City. *Trend is significant at the 95%

level. Source: Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010.

Coastal Storms in the New York City Region

The two types of storms with the largest influence on the region are hurricanes and nor‘easters.

Hurricanes strike New York very infrequently and can produce large storm surges and wind

damage. Nor‘easters are generally associated with smaller surges and weaker winds than those

hurricanes that strike the region. Nevertheless, nor‘easter effects can be large, in part because

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their long duration means an extended period of high winds and high water, often coinciding

with high tides.

A large fraction of New York City and the surrounding infrastructure lies less than 10 feet above

mean sea level; the infrastructure in these areas is vulnerable to coastal flooding during major

storm events, both from inland flooding and from coastal storm surges4. The current 1-in-100

year flood produces a water level approximately 8.6 ft above designated vertical datum of New

York City (Horton et al., 2010). Hurricanes, because they can be more intense, are more likely

than nor‘easters to cause 1-in-100 year and 1-in-500 year floods (10.7 ft above normal levels).

Nor‘easters are the main source of the 1-in-10 year coastal floods (6.3 ft above normal levels).

Because the most extreme storms are by definition rare, documenting their occurrence over New

York‘s longer-term history is challenging given reporting gaps and inconsistencies. Although no

trend in observed storms is evident, characterizing historical storms is a critical first step in

understanding future storms and their impacts, especially because rising sea levels will result in

more severe coastal flooding when storm surges occur.

Sea Level Rise Projections

The NPCC climate projections focus on changes in both means and extremes in temperature,

precipitation and sea level rise (for full description of methods of sea level rise projection

development see Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010; Horton et al., 2010). The NPCC used two

different sea level rise methods; both incorporating observed rates of local land subsidence, as

well as global and regional projections from global climate models. The first method, referred to

as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)-based method (adapted from IPCC,

2007), projects (using the central range, or middle 67% of the model distribution) mean annual

sea level rise in New York City as 2 to 5 inches by the 2020s; 7 to 12 inches by the 2050s; and

4 Surge is usually defined as the water level above that of the astronomical tide generated by a storm; flood level is

the sum of the tide and the surge. NOAA tide gauges collect water level data at 6 min. intervals and results are

usually averaged hourly. For this study, the highest surge and flood levels per 24 hrs (i.e. ,daily) were used to

calculate 1-in-100 year floods.

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12 to 23 inches by the 2080s. We report the central range because the Task Force stakeholders

requested that this be calculated. (Both the full and the central range of the IPCC-based

projections are shown in Figure 5; these are used to calculate the flooding recurrence intervals

presented in Table 1).

Figure 5. Observed and projected sea level rise for New York City. Projections are based on

global climate model simulations used in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group I

(2007). Projected changes through time are calculated on a yearly timescale and then displayed

using a 10-yr filter. Source: Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010.

Within the scientific community, there has been extensive discussion of the possibility that the

IPCC (2007) approach to sea level rise may underestimate the range of possible increases, in

large part because it does not fully consider the potential for land-based ice sheets to melt due to

dynamical processes (e.g., Hansen et al., 2007, Horton et al., 2008). To address this possibility,

an alternative method that incorporates observed and longer-term historical ice-melt rates is also

included in the NPCC projections. The ―rapid ice-melt‖ approach suggests sea level could rise by

approximately 37 to 59 inches (with a central range of 41 to 55 inches) by the 2080s (Figure 6).

The range in the rapid ice-melt scenario represents a combination of GCM model results and

paleoclimatic uncertainties related to timing of deglaciation. The IPCC-based projections in

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Figure 6 differ from those presented in Figure 5 because the former shows the average of the

changes over the decade of the 2080s, while the latter was calculated on a yearly timescale with

results presented with a 10-yr filter).

Figure 6. Comparison of IPCC-based and rapid ice-melt sea level rise scenarios for New York

City for the 2080s. Model-based probability refers to the suite of 7 GCMs and 3 emissions

scenarios used to create the histogram. Note that the full range of projections, rather than solely

the central range, is shown. Rapid ice-melt scenario does not have probabilities attached due to

the high level of uncertainty. Source: Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010.

Future Coastal Floods and Storms

As sea levels rise, coastal flooding associated with storms will very likely increase in intensity,

frequency, and duration. The changes in coastal flood intensity shown here, however, are solely

due to changes in sea level through time. Any increase in the frequency or intensity of storms

themselves would result in even more frequent future flood occurrences relative to the current 1-

in-10 and 1-in-100 year coastal flood events. By the end of the 21st century, sea level rise alone

suggests that coastal flood levels which currently occur on average once per decade may occur

once every one to three years (see Table 2).

The more severe current 1-in-100 year flood is less well characterized that than 1-in-10 year

event due to the lack of long-term flood height data; thus there is the possibility that flood height

may vary on century timescales or that storm behavior (intensity, frequency, storm tracks) may

differ in the future from that experienced until now, but lack of data makes this hard to verify.

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Assuming no change in storm characteristics, the NPCC estimates that due to sea level rise

alone the 1-in-100 year flood may occur approximately four times as often by the end of the

century. The current 1-in-500 year flood height is extremely uncertain since the historical record

is much shorter than 500 years, but by extrapolation of current data we estimate that by the end

of the century, the 1-in-500 year flood event may occur approximately once every 200 years.

The combination of intense storms (regardless of whether these change in frequency or intensity)

and higher sea levels also increases the likelihood of coastal flooding. Projections with the

current 1-in-100 year flood level under conditions of increasing ocean heights indicate a

recurrence approximately once every 65 to 80 years by the 2020s on average, once every 35 to

55 years by the 2050s, and once every 15 to 35 years by the 2080s. These projections are based

on the IPCC-based methods; the rapid ice melt scenario yields more frequent coastal flood events

(Table 2). The flood heights associated with different flood frequencies vary from each other

because the less-severe storms occur more frequently, while severe storms that cause high

amounts of flooding are by definition rare. The flood heights shown in Table 2 correspond to the

Battery in lower Manhattan. Flood heights can differ substantially over small spatial scales, due

to a range of factors including coastal bathymetry and orientation of the coastline relative to

storm trajectories. Some parts of New York City, such as the northernmost points where the

Bronx and the Hudson River meet, currently experience lower flood heights than the Battery and

many other exposed coastal locations (distances of 15 to 30 miles). These relative differences are

expected to continue in the future.

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Table 1. Projections of coastal flood events in New York City Region.

Extreme Event Baseline

(1971- 2000)

2020s 2050s 2080s

Coast

al

Flo

od

s &

Sto

rms4

1-in-10 yr flood to

reoccur, on average

~once every

10 yrs

~once every

8 (8 to 10) 10 yrs

~once every

3 (3 to 6) 8

yrs

~once every

1 (1 to 3) 3

yrs

Flood heights (in ft)

associated with 1-in-10

yr flood

6.3 6.5 (6.5 to 6.8)

6.8

6.8 (7.0 to

7.3) 7.5

7.1 (7.4 to

8.2) 8.5

1-in-100 yr flood to

reoccur, on average

~once every

100 yrs

~once every

60 (65 to 80) 85

yrs

~once every

30 (35 to

55) 75 yrs

~once every

15 (15 to 35)

45 yrs

Flood heights (in ft)

associated with 1-in-100

yr flood

8.6 8.7 (8.8 to 9.0)

9.1

9.0 (9.2 to

9.6) 9.7

9.4 (9.6 to

10.5) 10.7

1-in-500 yr flood to

reoccur, on average

~once every

500 yrs

~once every

370 (380 to 450)

470 yrs

~once every

240 (250 to

330)

380 yrs

~once every

100 (120 to

250)

300 yrs

Flood heights (in ft)

associated with 1-in-500

yr flood

10.7

10.9 (10.9 to

11.2)

11.2

11.2 (11.4 to

11.7)

11.9

11.5 (11.8 to

12.6)

12.9 Note: Does not include the rapid ice-melt scenario. Numbers inside parentheses indicate central range (67% of

model-based distribution); numbers outside are full range. The sole source of variability, expressed by the range of

frequencies and flood heights for the different flood recurrence intervals, is the range of sea level rise projections

from the global climate models, which vary with emission scenario as well as sensitivity to greenhouse gas forcing.

Variability can be large locally on shorter (sub-decadal) timescales. Source: Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010.

Table 2 presents qualitative projections for coastal storms. For these variables, quantitative

projections are not possible due to insufficient information. This information was developed at

the explicit request of the stakeholders managing the critical infrastructure of the New York City

region, and is based on literature review and expert judgment (Horton et al., 2010).

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Table 2. Qualitative projections of changes in extreme events. Source: Horton and Rosenzweig,

2010.

Note: These qualitative projections were made using a combination of literature review and expert judgment. The

definitions of likelihood are based on IPCC (2007) to describe potential outcomes.

>99% Virtually certain

>95% Extremely likely

>90% Very likely

>66% Likely

>50% More likely than not

33 to 66% About as likely as not

Note: >50% is used when the likelihood can be estimated with reasonably good precision, and 33 to 66% is used

when there is not high confidence in the likelihood estimate.

Coastal impacts on infrastructure.

New York City houses one of the densest infrastructures in the world. Because of its age and

composition, some of this infrastructure and materials may not be able to withstand the projected

strains and stresses from a changing climate. Table 3 documents potential impacts of sea level

rise and coastal flooding for energy, transportation, water and waste, and communications

systems of the New York City region, four systems that comprise a large proportion of the

infrastructure of the region especially near the coast. Coastal storms can cause increased street,

basement, and sewer flooding in coastal areas; increased structural damage and impaired

operations of communications, energy, transportation, and water and waste infrastructure;

reduction of water quality through saltwater intrusion into aquifers; and inundation of low-lying

areas and wetlands. If extreme climate events become more frequent as projected, there will be

increased stress on all of these infrastructure systems as they play critical roles in emergency

management. Furthermore, interdependencies, multiple owners, and complicated jurisdictions

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make coordination of adaptation planning especially challenging in the region (Zimmerman and

Farris, 2010).

Energy. Presently, about two dozen power plants of varying sizes are operating within the

borders of New York City, and over a dozen more were proposed as of 2005 (Figure 7).5 These

facilities are owned and/or operated by a half-dozen entities. Traditionally power plants have

required shoreline or close to shoreline locations for water intake structures and cooling water

discharges thus a number of these existing production facilities are located at lower elevations

and potentially sensitive to flooding due to sea level rise.

Transmission lines service the city from relatively few directions providing little flexibility

should any one of these lines be compromised. The lines enter New York City primarily from

Westchester to the north and secondarily from Long Island to the east and New Jersey to the

west. Thus, any given disruption in one of these locations will have relatively widespread

impacts. The distribution system, distinct from transmission, is one of the densest in the world,

consisting of approximately 90,000 miles (145,000 kilometers) of underground distribution lines

and 55 distribution networks within the city, each of which can operate independently of the

other.6

5 K. Ascher, The Works, Penguin Press, 2005, p. 98

6 T.D. O‘Rourke, A. Lembo, and L. Nozick (2003) ―Lessons Learned from the World Trade Center Disaster About

Critical Utility Systems,‖ in Beyond September 11th: An Account of Post-Disaster Research. Natural Hazards

Research & Applications Information Center, Public Entity Risk Institute, and Institute for Civil Infrastructure

Systems. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, p. 275.

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Figure 7. Locations of New York City power plants relative to 10-foot elevation contour.

Source: NPCC, 2010

Transportation. The rail transit system serving New York City is the largest in the United States.

Seven local and regional transit systems serve the city with a number of systems sharing track

and other facilities. Three of them are managed by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority

(MTA). First, New York City Transit has 660 passenger miles of track (840 in total) and serves

1.5 billion passengers annually within the five boroughs (see Figures 8 and 9 for lines and

station locations). Second, the Metro-North has 775 miles of track and services more than 80

million passengers annually running mainly to and from locations north of the city. The third

MTA system is the Long Island Railroad that runs to and from Long Island east of the city and

has 594 miles of track and services 82 million passengers per year.

The Port Authority of NY and NJ manages two transit systems that run between New Jersey and

New York City. The Port Authority Trans Hudson system (PATH) has 43 miles of track and

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services 66.9 million passengers per year between locations within relatively close proximity to

the Hudson River. NJ Transit runs further into New Jersey, has 643 miles of track and services

241.1 million passengers per year.

Many components and facilities of rail systems can potentially become vulnerable due flooding

from increased precipitation and sea level rise. Although many rail components in New York

City are at low elevations, there is a dramatic variation in height above sea level. These locations

are well known for the New York area, which will help in identifying particularly vulnerable

areas (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995; and summarized in Jacob, Edelblum and Arnold

2001; Jacob et al. 2007; Zimmerman 2003a; and Zimmerman and Cusker 2001). For example,

within the New York City Transit system, the high point is the Smith and 9th

Street station in

Brooklyn, which is 91 feet high,7 and the low point is about 180 feet below sea level in upper

Manhattan. Subway stations also vary in the diversity and location of areas vulnerable to

flooding such as public entrances and exits, ventilation facilities, and manholes.

A recent incident of heavy precipitation of short duration gives an example of how extensive

flooding of the rail system can be. Massive area-wide flooding from the August 8, 2007 storm

resulted in a system-wide outage of the MTA subways during the morning rush hour. The event

also required the removal of 16,000 pounds of debris and the repair or replacement of induction

stop motors, track relays, resistors, track transformers, and electric switch motors.8 Such

phenomena have periodically halted transit in New York City over the years (MTA 2007)

necessitating the use of large and numerous pumps throughout the system. Storms such as these

lend themselves to analogies to flooding from climate change in the future (Rosenzweig et al.

2007).

The flexibility of transit users to shift from one system to another is an important adaptation

mechanism. An important factor influencing adaptation for rail transit facilities is the extent to

which the configuration of transit networks consist of single extended rail lines that are not

frequently interconnected with other lines, resulting in relatively little flexibility for shifting to

7 NYCSubway.org, June 24, 2005, http://www.nycsubway.org/perl/stations?207:2659, Accessed July 15, 2009.

8 Metropolitan Transportation Authority (2007) August 8, 2007 Storm Report, September 20. New York, NY, p. 34.

21

another rail line if any one area of the line is disabled. Shifting to bus lines is often an option

under such conditions. Portions of the New York City Transit and PATH systems are able to

bypass bottlenecks depending on location, which was the case in both systems immediately

following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center (Zimmerman and Simonoff

2009).

Although it is difficult to retrofit existing facilities, a number of very large new projects are

being planned or are underway in New York City that provide an opportunity to incorporate

climate change adaptations in the form of elevating, flood proofing, or providing heat resistant

materials for transportation structures. These projects include among others Access to the

Region‘s Core (ARC) for a new Hudson River commuter rail tunnel, the Second Avenue

Subway, and Number 7 line extensions.

Figure 8. Location and capacity constraints of New York City rail and subways. Sources:

PlaNYC, 2007; NPCC, 2010

22

Figure 9. Location and condition of New York City subway stations. Sources: PlaNYC, 2007;

NPCC, 2010

Water and waste. The New York City water supply system supplies about 1.1 billion gallons a

day from a 1,972 square mile watershed that extends to 125 miles from the city‘s borders. The

Catskill and Delaware watersheds provide 90% of this water.9 This flow to the city travels

through an extensive network consisting of aqueducts, dams, reservoirs, and distribution lines

along with pumping and other support facilities. To capture the supply, for example, there are 4

reservoirs and an aqueduct in the Delaware system; 4 reservoirs, an aqueduct and a tunnel in the

Catskill System; and 14 reservoirs including the Jerome and Central Park Reservoirs, three

controlled lakes, and an aqueduct in the Croton System. The construction of a treatment plant for

the Croton System is underway in the Bronx. The capital budget of the New York City

Department of Environmental Protection over the next ten years is $20 billion (NYC DEP, 2008,

p. 73).

9 NYC, Sustainable Stormwater Management, Main Report, 2008, p. 34.

23

Within the city‘s water distribution system there are two water tunnels and over 6,000 miles of

water distribution pipe.10

The city is planning to introduce redundancy into its in-city water

supply distribution system and also improve the ability for system maintenance through the

completion of a 60 mile-long water tunnel, Water Tunnel No. 3, in four stages.

The wastewater collection and distribution system consists of ―6,600 miles of sewer, 130,000

catch basins, almost 100 pumping stations, and 14 water pollution control plants (WPCPs)‖

(Figure 10).11

The wastewater treatment plants, by virtue of the way they are intended to operate

with discharges to waterways, are primarily located along the City‘s shorelines, where the lowest

elevations above sea level occur. During dry weather, the wastewater treatment plants are

designed to fully treat one and a half times their design capacity and can partially treat about two

times their design capacity. Where flows exceed that amount, for example, during wet weather

conditions, water is discharged through the City‘s wastewater collection system – through

combined sewer overflows (CSOs).

The City of New York currently ―recycles or disposes of 15,500 tons per day (tpd) or 4, 000,000

tons per year (tpy) of DSNY-managed waste generated in the City generated by its curbside and

containerized collection and recycling activity in FY2006.12

‖ It transports most of the solid

wastes that are not recycled outside of the City via marine transport stations for its treatment

and/or ultimate disposal rather than relying on disposal sites within the City (Figure 11). In the

past, New York City has used landfills within the City‘s borders for this purpose, but these have

now been closed, since efforts to convert solid wastes into usable materials within the City have

not succeeded.

Waste facilities sited in low-lying areas including closed landfills are also subject to flooding that

could result in increased contamination of water bodies. If inundated by sea level rise, these

facilities could create water quality problems, since many of them are located near shorelines and

10 NYC, PlaNYC, 2007, pp. 63-65.

11 New York City Department of Environmental Protection (2008) Climate Change Program. Assessment and Action Plan, May,

p. 39. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/climate/climate_complete.pdf.

12 New York City Department of Sanitation, Solid Waste Management Plan. September 2006, p. 1-2.

24

relied on closure technologies that did not take into account the current knowledge around

climate changes.

Figure 10. Locations of Water Pollution Control Plants, CSO Outfalls, and Drainage Areas in

the NYC area, 2008. Sources: PlaNYC, 2007; NPCC, 2010

25

Figure 11. Long-Term Export Facilities and Watersheds. Location of solid waste marine

transfer stations. Source: NPCC, 2010

Communications. The New York City communications infrastructure consists of a vast network

of fixed structures to support communication and computing, consisting of voice lines, data

circuits, fiber optic cable, switching stations, backbone structures, domain name servers, cell

towers, satellites, computers, telephones (landlines), televisions, radios, and many more

26

(Zimmerman 2003b). Numerous private communications providers serve New York City

including AT&T, Verizon, T-Mobile and many others.

Table 3. Impacts of sea level rise, coastal floods, and storms on critical coastal infrastructure by

sector. Sources: Horton and Rosenzweig, 2010; Zimmerman and Faris, 2010

Communications Energy Transportation Water and Waste

Higher average sea level

Increased salt water

encroachment and

damage to low-lying

communications

infrastructure not built to

withstand saltwater

exposure

Increased rates of

coastal erosion and/or

permanent inundation of

low-lying areas, causing

increased maintenance

costs and shortened

replacement cycles

Tower destruction or

loss of function

Increased rates of

coastal erosion and/or

permanent inundation of

low-lying areas,

threatening coastal

power plants

Increased equipment

damage from corrosive

effects of salt water

encroachment resulting

in higher maintenance

costs and shorter

replacement cycles

Increased salt water

encroachment and

damage to

infrastructure not built

to withstand saltwater

exposure

Increased rates of

coastal erosion and/or

permanent inundation

of low-lying areas,

resulting in increased

maintenance costs and

shorter replacement

cycles

Decrease clearance

levels under bridges

Increased salt water

encroachment and

damage to water and

waste infrastructure not

built to withstand

saltwater exposure

Increased release of

pollution and

contaminant runoff from

sewer systems, treatment

plants, brownsfields and

waste storage facilities

Permanent inundation of

low-lying areas,

wetlands, piers, and

marine transfer stations

Increased salt water

infiltration into

distribution systems

More frequent and intense coastal flooding

Increased need for

emergency management

actions with high

demand on

communications

infrastructure

Increased damage to

communications

equipment and

infrastructure in low-

lying areas

Increased need for

emergency management

actions

Exacerbated flooding of

low-lying power plants

and equipment, as well

as structural damage to

infrastructure due to

wave action

Increased use of energy

to control floodwaters

Increased number and

duration of local outages

Increased need for

emergency

management actions

Exacerbated flooding of

streets, subways, tunnel

and bridge entrances, as

well as structural

damage to

infrastructure due to

wave action

Decreased levels of

service from flooded

roadways; increased

Increased need for

emergency management

actions

Exacerbated street,

basement and sewer

flooding, leading to

structural damage to

infrastructure

Episodic inundation of

low-lying areas,

wetlands, piers, and

marine transfer stations

27

due to flooded and

corroded equipment

hours of delay from

congestion during street

flooding episodes

Increased energy use

for pumping

Adaptation Strategies

Adaptation strategies can involve operations and management, investments in infrastructure, and

policy solutions. Strategies can be at the sector or regional or citywide scales. Storm surge

barriers, adaptive land management, coastal zone policies, and revised standards and regulations

offer the potential for citywide protection against enhanced flooding associated with sea level

rise. Effective adaptation measures can bring near-term benefits such as increased resource use

efficiency.

Operations and Management

There is a great potential, at least in the near term, for adaptation measures related to current

operations and management to deal with sea level rise and storms. For the transportation sector

with assets and operations near the coast, adaptation strategies include improving pumping

capacity and increasing backup emergency equipment so that service can be maintained during

storms, while incorporating better storm information and forecasting can help managers prepare

personnel and riders for events before and as they occur. For the water sector, which in New

York City operates 14 wastewater pollution control plants (WPCPs) that discharge into the

Estuary, adaptation strategies related to operations and management include repairing leaks in

water supply pipes so that rising saltwater doesn‘t flow into the system and ensuring functioning

of tidegates so that they maintain the gravity-driven outflows as efficiently as possible until sea

levels rise beyond their elevations.

Investments in Infrastructure

28

Infrastructure adaptation strategies include both ‗hard‘ and ‗soft‘ measures.

Hard Measures In response to projected rates of sea-level rise, especially if rates follow the rapid

icemelt scenario, existing hard structures in the New York City region will need to be

strengthened and elevated over time (Gornitz, 2001). Shoreline armoring is typically applied

where substantial assets are at risk. Hard structures in the New York City region include

seawalls, groins, jetties, breakwaters, bulkheads, and piers. Seawalls and bulkheads, a common

form of shore protection in the region, often intercept wave energy, increasing erosion at their

bases, which eventually undermines them. Erosion can be reduced by placing rubble at the toe of

the seawall. Groins, often built in series, intercept littoral sand moved by longshore current, but

may enhance beach erosion further downdrift, if improperly placed. Similarly, jetties, designed

to stabilize inlets or to protect harbors, may lead to erosion. Individually engineered solutions

can also be achieved by raising individual structures and systems or critical system components

to higher elevations (Jacob et al., 2001). This may be done without moving them to higher

ground.

The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey at the La Guardia Airport has already

surrounded the exposed structures with local sea-walls and dykes (Jacob et al., 2001). Specific

measures described by the the New York City Department of Environmental Protection in their

Assessment and Action Plan (NYCDEP, 2008) include raising elevations of key infrastructure

components, constructing watertight containment for critical equipment and control rooms, using

submersible pumps, augmenting reserves of backup emergency management equipment; and

installing local protective barriers. The NYCDEP plans to consider estimates of the range of

future sea and tide levels in sewer design and siting of outlets (NYCDEP, 2008).

Storm-surge Barriers One possible long-term ‗hard measure‘ that has been suggested for New

York City would be barriers designed to protect against high water levels, which would increase

in height as sea-level rises (and possibly also through increasing intensity of storms)

(Zimmerman and Faris, 2010; Aerts et al., 2009). Such barriers are in place in the Thames in

London (UK Environment Agency, 2010) and Rotterdam (Aerts et al., 2009). The risk of future

casualties and damage from hurricanes and nor‘easters might be reduced by barriers placed

29

across vulnerable openings to the sea. Each barrier would require large open navigation channels

for ships and a porous cross section allowing sufficient tidal exchange and river discharge from

New York Harbor to maintain ship passage and water quality (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Conceptual Design of a Storm Surge Barrier in NYC. Source: Aerts et al., 2009

At present, storm surge barriers are under discussion as a possible way to deal with the

increasing risks of storm surge in New York City and the surrounding region in the era of

climate change (Aerts et al., 2009), but they have not been accepted by the City government as a

current response. Storm-surge barriers might be relevant as part of a long-term, staged response

to rising sea levels and flooding, especially if rising sea levels and enhanced flooding proceed at

the higher end of the projections. A key point is that those risks still need to be better

characterized in regard to the efficacy of citywide measures. Such options, which would entail

significant economic, environmental, and social costs, would require very extensive study before

being regarded as appropriate for implementation, especially as alternative robust approaches to

adaptation are available.

New York could protect against some levels of surge with a combination of local measures (such

as flood walls and reclaimed natural barriers), improved storm information and forecasting to

help managers of power plants, airports and stations, and wastewater treatment plants to prepare

for extreme events before they occur, and evacuation plans for at least the next several decades.

Moreover, barriers would not protect all neighborhoods, nor would they protect against other

30

substantial damages from wind and rain that often accompany hurricanes in the New York City

region. The surge barrier concept outlined here would at most protect part but not all of NYC

(e.g., Queens and Brooklyn) and possibly adjacent parts of New Jersey. Environmental effects on

the estuary would also need to be studied in detail.

Soft Measures Because the New York City coastline has extensive beaches and coastal wetlands

as well as built-up areas, and because erosion problems often associated with hard structures

along the coast, ‗softer‘ approaches involving wetland and dune restoration and beach

nourishment have emerged as a viable method of shoreline protection, where possible. Beaches,

including Coney Island, Brighton Beach, and the Far Rockaways, are maintained for public

recreational use, while the Gateway National Recreation Area is an important nature reserve and

bird migration stopover site. Beach nourishment or restoration consists of placing sand that has

usually been dredged from offshore or other locations onto the upper part of the beach. Beach

nourishment needs to be repeated over time since the erosional processes at work are continual.

Under sea level rise and associated enhanced coastal flooding, beaches will require additional

sand replenishment to be maintained (Gornitz, 2001).

Another ‗soft‘ approach is to enhance and expand the Staten Island Bluebelt (NYCDEP, 2008)

(Figure 13). The Bluebelt is a stormwater mangement system covering about one third of the

island. The program preserves natural drainage corridors, including streams, ponds, and other

wetland areas. By preserving these wetlands, they are able to perform ecosystem functions of

conveying, storing, and filtering stormwater, while providing open space and diverse wildlife

habitats.

31

Figure 13. Staten Island Bluebelt Source: NYCDEP, 2008

Policy Solutions

Adaptive land use management and changes in zoning, design standards, and regulations are

mechanisms by which coastal zone adaptation can proceed through policies. (Titus, 1998; Titus

et al., 2009) categorized policy options for dealing with sea level rise as ‗protect, retreat, or

abandon.‘ Adaptive Land Use Management could involve the development of erosion/flood

setbacks; limiting new high-density construction in high hazard zones; and rezoning for low

density and recreation uses. Creative land use, as is being considered in Rotterdam, could raise

buildings on stilts, use ground floors for communal activities and parking, and design parks or

open green spaces as water-absorbing areas.

Potential adaptations related to land use management being considered by The NYCDEP include

developing plans allowing for coastal inundation in defined areas; strengthen building codes for

construction of more «storm-proof» buildings (with the caveat that the public needs to know that

no building can be made ‗fail-safe‘ indefinitely); and gradually retreating from the most at-risk

areas or using these areas differently, such as for parkland that could provide food with minimal

damage (there are some community gardens in parks that provide food today) (NYCDEP, 2008).

This could entail obtaining vacant coastal land to act as buffers against flooding and storm

damage, and/or to allow for inland migration of coastal wetlands. At the time of this article, these

continue to be ‗potential‘ adaptation strategies.

32

To effectively adapt to climate change laws and regulations, as well as some basic legal

frameworks that govern infrastructure, must also adapt13

. Sussman and Major et al. (2010)

consider the potential for zoning changes, and limiting or even curtailing new construction in

high hazard zones. They examined a wide range of current environmental laws and regulations at

all levels relevant to New York City to determine their applicability to adaptation efforts. Laws

applicable to New York City are enacted by legislative bodies, the U.S. Congress, the New York

State Legislature and the New York City Council. Regulations are issued by governmental

agencies or authorities which often having the force of law and may be issued in many forms

including rules, orders, procedures and administrative codes (Table 4).

Table 4. Examples of Laws, Regulations and Standards relevant to land use in the New York City

region Source: Sussman and Major et al., 201014

Sector Sources of law and

regulation

Jurisdiction Examples

Lan

d U

se

Law Federal National Environmental

Policy Act (NEPA)

US Congress

Law State NYS Environmental Quality

Review Act (SEQRA)

NYS legislature

Regulation State DEC SEQRA Regulations NYS Department of

Environmental Conservation

Law and regulation Local City Environmental Quality

Review (CEQR)

NYC Office of Environmental

Coordination

Law Local NYC Zoning Resolution NYC Council

Sussman and Major et al. (2010) analyzed law and regulation related to land use—a body of law

and regulation that determines much of the how, where and what of the built environment and

can significantly influence the degree of vulnerability of infrastructure. Legal avenues can foster

adaptation by reducing vulnerability, increasing resilience, enabling effective preparation for

disasters and increasing capacity to respond to disasters. They suggested a broad range of

policies that can strengthen adaptation in the coastal zones of the New York City region. These

include: a mandate for evacuation plans that focus on surface mass transit in flood-prone areas; 13

Laws applicable to New York City are enacted by legislative bodies, the U.S. Congress, the New York State

Legislature and the New York City Council. Regulations, as the term is used in this paper, are issued by

governmental agencies or authorities which often having the force of law and may be issued in many forms

including rules, orders, procedures and administrative codes.

14 There are thousands of relevant laws, regulations, standards and policies. This table is only intended to illustrate

the multiplicity and multi-jurisdictional nature of the relevant legal provisions.

33

stricter rules for variances inconsistent with adaptation goals; zoning and special permitting

could include a finding discussing how adaptation to climate change is being addressed in that

project; regularly updated information on precipitation, flooding and stormwater to guide the

planners‘ decisions; incorporation into zoning best practices for on-site stormwater management;

as is already planned by New York City, all new developments and enlargements can be required

to have a program for on-site stormwater retention; restriction of the use of the basement and

ground floor space, and guidelines for the location of generation, mechanical and safety

equipment in flood-prone districts; barring of certain uses of vulnerable populations (such as

nursing homes) from lower floors; zoning revisions requiring on-site evacuation plans and

equipment; legislation for a comprehensive ―bluebelt program‖ such as Staten Island‘s Bluebelt

program, for other suitable areas within the city limits; revised coastal plans that take into

account climate change-related coastal flooding; modified zoning rules for a systematic retreat

from vulnerable areas, to allow for migration of beaches, and fostering natural wetlands in

undeveloped coastal areas; rolling easements to prevent property owners from holding back the

sea but otherwise do not alter what they can do with the property; an expanded coastal property

assessment form; and revision of the Technical Guidance for the city, the DEC, and the CEQR

Technical manuals to include climate change impacts upon the proposed project or action under

consideration.

Case Study: New York City 1-in-100-year Flood Zone Levels

Climate protection levels (CPLs) were defined by the NPCC as socially-determined measures to

protect critical infrastructure, particularly assets that are determined to be at risk to climate

change (Solecki et al., 2010). CPL measures are achieved through the application of design and

performance standards to which the infrastructure are managed and built in order to ensure that

these infrastructure elements remain viable and operational under specified conditions.

The NPCC identified key existing design and/or performance standards relevant to critical

infrastructure in the New York City region; reviewed these standards in light of the climate

change projections, and highlighted those standards that may be compromised by climate change

or need further study to determine whether Climate Protection Levels are necessary to facilitate

34

climate resiliency. The single most significant CPL recommendation for coastal flooding and sea

level rise is for FEMA to update the Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) to incorporate into the

current 1-in-100 year flood zone projections of rapid ice melt sea level rise through the 2080s as

an upper bound.

The primary design and performance standard for coastal flooding and storm surge is the Federal

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) defined 1-in-100 year flood, also known as the 1%

flood. The 1-in-100 yr flood is defined as a flood that has a 1% chance of being equaled or

exceeded in any given year. For nearly 40 years, the 1-in-100 year flood zone has been

considered a high risk flooding area and subject to special building codes, and insurance and

environmental regulations (ASFPM, 2004)

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is responsible for creating and

maintaining Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) that delineate the 1-in-100 year flood zone for

all communities that participate in the National Flood Insurance Program (LeBlanc and Linkin,

2010). The 1-in-100 year flood zone, also known as the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA), is

identified on these maps as well as site-specific base flood elevations (BFEs), also known as the

100-year flood elevation. These maps are used by federal agencies to determine if flood

insurance is required when banks provide federally insured loans or grants towards new

construction that is located within this zone. In New York State, compliance with the National

Flood Insurance Program is mandatory for all flood-prone jurisdictions. To participate in the

NFIP, a community agrees to adopt and submit flood plain management regulations that meet or

exceed the minimum federal floodplain management requirements. . As a result, many of the

flood-resistant construction codes of New York City are required to meet the state and federal

requirements, which have been standardized through the International Building Code (IBC).

State and federal requirements manifest as zoning and subdivision ordinance, building

requirements, sanitary regulations, and special-purpose floodplain ordinances, and are specified

for each community based on the flood hazard data provided by FEMA (FEMA, 2005).

35

Development activity within the FEMA 1-in-100 year flood zone is subject to special permitting

procedures due to the high flood risk. The 1-in-100 year flood zone for New York City is based

on peak stormwater discharge flow rates defined by NYSDEC extreme flood control criteria.

Figures 14 and 15 illustrate the potential impact of sea level rise on current FEMA 1-in-100 year

flood zone and the projected 1-in-100 year flood zone, based on the IPCC-derived and rapid

icemelt methods (see above). The projected 1-in-100 year flood zone was created by adding

projected SLR elevations to the FEMA 1-in-100 year base flood elevations to generate new base

flood elevations for a storm of equal magnitude in the 2080s. These projections add 23 inches of

SLR (method 1) and 53 inches of SLR (method 2) to the existing 1-in-100 year FEMA base

flood elevations.

The maps illustrate ever-expanding areas of flooding associated with increased amounts of sea

level rise; however it should be noted that they also include limitations of modeling, GIS

mapping, and data source that should be considered upon interpretation. For example, the FEMA

1-in-100 year floodplain for New York City was modeled over 25 years ago and has yet to be

revised. Many of the modeling methods FEMA originally used have since been replaced and

supplemented with more modern techniques that account for processes such as wave setup and

erosion. In addition, a huge assumption and source of error that all methodologies use is that

FEMA‘s base flood elevations roughly equate to topographic elevation. They do not, yet this is a

major approximation we have to use in order to translate between flood elevations and

topographic elevations. Finally, the vertical accuracy of the digital elevation model used as the

foundation of this map was in some cases less than the elevation intervals being mapped,

resulting in wide margins of vertical error. Therefore while the maps do not reflect specific

locations of flooding, they do illustrate areas currently outside the 1-in-100 year flood zone

likely to be included within it in the future.

After concerted expert deliberation, the NPCC decided that the 90th

percentile of rapid ice-melt

sea level rise elevation should be adopted as the climate protection level for the city. This

corresponds roughly to 4 ft of sea level rise for the region. The NPCC did not make this a formal

recommendation because further study and a more comprehensive social process are needed for

36

such a formal statement to be made. The NPCC chose this level because using the 90th

percentile

of sea level rise elevation based on the rapid ice melt scenario in the 2080s as an upper bound

provides a very high probability that critical infrastructure will be protected with respect to 90%

of the possible range of future climate risk defined under the model-based probability curve.

Furthermore, should sea level rise prove lower by the 2080s, the CPL would provide a buffer for

rare but larger storm surges than those defined by the 1-in-100 year flood. Should sea level rise

be lower than the CPL, and the 1-in-100 year flood prove lower than the currently defined 1-in-

100 year flood, the CPL can be thought of as providing: 1) protection for sea level rise beyond

the 2080s, and 2) protection against low probability yet high consequence storms up until the

time when sea level rise exceeds the CPL.

Figure 15 in particular highlights the dramatic landward progression of the 1-in-100 year flood

zone, specifically in the Greater Jamaica Bay area of Brooklyn and Queens, under a rapid ice

melt regime in the 2080s. The implications of including this update on future sea level trends

would be far reaching, highlighting new communities for potential inclusion in the National

Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) and changing the extent and base flood elevations of the New

York City Flood Insurance Rate Maps.

37

Figure 14. Citywide 1-in-100 year flood projections for the 2080s for IPCC-based sea level

rise of 22.8 inches. Source: Solecki et al., 2010.

Figure 15. Citywide 1-in-100 year flood projections for the 2080s for ‘Rapid Ice-Melt’ sea

level rise scenario of 53.0 inches. Source: Solecki et al., 2010.

The NPCC specifically encourages the updating of the 1-in-100 year flood zone to reflect rapid

ice melt sea level rise. More generally, it also encourages that other design standards be

38

examined so they can transition into benchmark CPLs by incorporating emerging projections of

climate risk thus allowing for the maintenance of current protection levels for the region‘s

critical infrastructure under future climate regimes. Stakeholders need to work together to

establish a process by which the region periodically updates the NYC 1-in-100 year flood zone

to reflect emerging climate change hazards and risks.

Indicators and Monitoring

A key recommendation of the NPCC is that climate change, impacts and adaptation strategies

should be regularly monitored and reassessed as part of any climate change adaptation strategy

(Jacob and Blake, 2010). These should be done taking into account changes in climate science,

impacts, and adaptation strategies, as well as other factors such as population growth rates and

technological advancements that will also influence infrastructure in the region.

In order to successfully monitor future climate and climate impacts related to developing New

York City‘s coastal adaptation strategy, specific indicators to be tracked must be identified in

advance. These indicators are of two types. First, climate indicators such as global and regional

sea level rise, can provide an indication of whether climate changes are occurring outside the

projected range.15

Given the large uncertainties in climate projections, monitoring of climate

indicators can play a critical role in refining future projections and reducing uncertainties.

Second, climate-related coastal impact indicators provide a way to identify consequences of sea

level rise and enhanced coastal flooding as they emerge. For example, transportation disruption

is a climate-related impact of coastal storms.

Sea level rise and coastal flood-related indicators include mean sea level, high water levels, and

extreme wind events. Additional larger-scale climate indicators should include tropical storms

over the entire North Atlantic basin, as well as climatic conditions (including upper ocean

temperatures) that support tropical cyclones and variability patterns that influence the region,

such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The

39

later indicators are needed not only to improve global and regional climate models, but to

provide perspective on changes in regional weather if and as they occur.

The possibility of rapid climate change in general, and sea level rise in particular, are two areas

where the importance of monitoring and reassessment has been well documented. Indicators of

rapid ice melt to monitor could include, but should not be limited to the status of the ice sheets;

the changes in sea ice area and volume; global and regional sea level; and polar upper-ocean

temperatures. Climate variables cause certain climate-related impacts, which will also need to be

monitored. These impacts include shoreline erosion and biological and chemical composition of

coastal waters.

Infrastructure can be impacted either directly by a climate risk factor (such as sea level rise) or

by a climate-related impact (such as shoreline erosion). Infrastructure-specific impacts which

may result from these climate indicators or climate-related impacts are likely to include but are

not limited to: infrastructure damage from climate-related factors; impacts on operations,

including transportation delays; communications disruptions; combined sewer overflow events

(CSOs); and coastal storm-related power outages.

In addition to monitoring climate and impacts, advances in scientific understanding, technology

and adaptation strategies should also be monitored. Technological advances, such as those in

materials science and engineering, could influence design and planning, and potentially result in

cost savings.

Monitoring adaptation plans in the region should be done both to determine if they are meeting

their intended objectives and to discern any unforeseen consequences of the adaptation

strategies. The NYC Office of Long-term Planning and Sustainability has been playing a

coordinating role and could usefully continue to ensure that the objectives and strategies of

separate plans or adaptation efforts of the 40 organizations involved in the New York City

Climate Change Task Force are consistent with, and not contradictory to, each other. Some

adaptation strategies will also have to be reassessed in the context of non-climatic factors that are

themselves based on uncertain projections. For example, by monitoring trends in population,

40

economic growth, technology, and material costs, infrastructure managers can tailor future

climate change adaptation strategies to ensure they remain consistent with broader citywide

objectives. Monitoring and reassessment of climate science, technology and adaptation strategies

will no doubt reveal additional indicators to track in the future.

One potential pitfall of monitoring over short timescales, especially for small regions, is that it is

easy to mistake natural variability for a long-term trend. Creating an effective climate-

monitoring program is a long-term commitment, and requires different methods over a much

longer timescale than more common short-term monitoring efforts. The NPCC has recommended

that such a monitoring program be established and maintained. To accomplish this, it could be

useful for federal and local partnerships to be established such as between New York City and

NOAA‘s RISA, Regional Climate Centers, and nascent Climate Services programs.

Adaptation Outcomes and Moving Forward

There is at least one specific adaptation outcome that has already emerged from the work of the

Task Force and the NPCC. The NYC Department of Environmental Protection (NYC DEP) is

raising the pumps and electrical equipment in its Far Rockaway Wastewater Treatment Plant

from below sea level to 14ft above sea level based on the NPCC projections (NYC Office of the

Mayor, 2009). The NYC DEP has also commissioned an in-depth analysis of how climate

change would affect its upstate watersheds, utilizing detailed hydrologic reservoir and planning

models (NYCDEP, 2008).

More generally, the Task Force is preparing a report that sets forth its approach to building a

‗climate-resilient‘ city, a concept that they are embracing because they believe that it sends a

useful signal to the citizens of the region that the impacts of climate hazards will not necessarily

be avoided but that the city as a whole will be working to improve its ability to respond.

For the long term, New York City Local Law 17 of 2008 (City of New York, 2008) establishes

an ongoing sustainability effort that will continue in subsequent administrations. Responding to

climate change in regard to both mitigation and adaptation is an integral part of PlaNYC. The

41

expectation is that climate change adaptation in the New York City will proceed in an effective

way based on the process, approach, and tools described in this paper.

Conclusions

As demonstrated by the interactions of climate change and the New York City region, climate

change presents significant challenges for coastal cities throughout the world. Coastal cities face

a specific set of challenges that require a unique set of adaptation strategies due to their

concentration of people and critical infrastructure in low-lying coastal zones, inability to easily

shift locales, overlapping regulatory jurisdictions, and especially the variety and complexity of

infrastructure and the population‘s dependence on it. While specifically designed for New York

City, the comprehensive approaches, methods, and tools developed here can be modified and

applied to many urban areas both coastal and non-coastal. These approaches, methods, and tools

include a multi-jurisdictional stakeholder-scientist process, state-of-the-art scientific projections

and mapping, and development of a range of types of adaptation strategies based on an

overarching risk-management approach.

Although climate change will exacerbate existing urban challenges and environmental stressors,

it also provides an opportunity for cities by encouraging infrastructure investments and

improving urban planning and regulation. While most U.S. cities are struggling to finance the

existing investments in infrastructure required in the absence of consideration of climate change,

climate change adaptation can provide additional incentives for funding from local, state, and

federal sources. If cities respond wisely, they will create better climate management for their

citizens and for the infrastructure that enables their comfort and movement. Effective adaptation

measures can also bring near-term benefits such as improved efficiency and reduced emergency

costs, through, for example increased subway station pumping capacity, better-functioning water

supply pipes and tidegates, and greater backup emergency equipment supplies.

Building on the work of the NPCC and efforts by other researchers, the First Assessment Report

on Climate Change in Cities (ARC3) was launched by the Urban Climate Change Research

Network (UCCRN) in November 2008 with the goal of building the scientific basis for city

42

action in both the mitigation of and adaptation to climate change. The first ARC3 report is due

out in 2010. Cities can thus share ‗best practices‘ on climate change adaptation throughout the

world.

43

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