Developing a Herb and Spice Industry

Developing a Herb and Spice Industry In Callide Valley, Queensland

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation By Jane C. Parker April 1999 RIRDC Publication No 99/45 RIRDC Project No DAQ-194A

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© 1999 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 0 642 57859 1 ISSN 1440-6845 Developing a Herb and Spice Industry in Callide Valley, Queensland Publication No. 99/45 Project No. DAQ-194A The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report. This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186. Researcher Contact Details Jane Parker 1 Sale Street EUMUNDI QLD 4562 Phone: 07 5442 7197 Fax: 07 5442 7198

RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6272 4539 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au Published in April, 1999 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

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Foreword The Callide Valley, Central Queensland has 11,000ha serviced by sub artesian irrigation. Due to a series of events irrigators have had to face up to the fact that their 45,000 megalitre licence allowance has been reduced to 17,000 megalitres and their reliance on high $ return, high water usage crops must change. Despite the reduction in available water, the Callide Valley is still in a position to have a major impact on Queensland economy, given a change in management of scarce resources and outlook. This report identifies some agronomic and business development steps taken to assist Callide Valley irrigators make this change. A desktop search, a market feasibility study and a screening trial indicated a demand for certain herbs and spices (69 species) and the Callide Valley’s ability to grow these. RIRDC’s involvement in this project is part of the Corporation’s new plant products R&D program which aims to facilitate the development of new industries based on plants or plant products that have commercial potential for Australia. This program assisted the Callide Valley research and development of a range of new crops and their value added components and put into place a business structure to ensure ongoing development. This report is a new addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of almost 300 research publications, most of which can be viewed or purchased online at www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/cat/contents.html Peter Core Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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Acknowledgements

The author wishes to acknowledge the particular assisstance of the following people: Alan Mactaggart QDPI Biloela Research Station Burnie Smith QDPI Biloela Research Station Dr Ian Titmarsh QDPI Parkhurst, Rockhampton The growers and businessmen of the Callide Valley who had the vision to run with this RIRDC project and without whom it would have never reached commercial reality in such a short time. The dedicated team of workers headed by Sue and Michelle who made all the hard work seem easy. Sasha Pakkiyaretnan of the University of Queensland, Gatton College who was responsible for the analysis of 2.3.7 and 2.3.8 and the writing up of 2.3.7. Abbreviations CDH Ltd. CD Herbs Ltd., the trading arm of CDH CDHAI Callide Dawson Herb Association Incorporated DEDT Queensland Department of Economic Development and Trade DEET Queensland Department of Employment, Education and Training DRD QDPI Drought and Regional Development branch QDPI Queensland Department of Primary Industries QWRC Queensland Water Resources Commission, formerly a section of QDPI

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Contents Foreword............................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. iv Executive Summary….………………………………………………………………………………………ivii 1. Background .......................................................................................................................................9

1.1 General Introduction ..................................................................................................................9 1.2 Project Objectives/Strategy......................................................................................................10

2. Technical Report .............................................................................................................................11

2.1 Preliminary species list ............................................................................................................11 2.2 Final Species List .....................................................................................................................14 2.3 Conducted trials........................................................................................................................15

2.3.1 Biloela Research Station Trial .........................................................................................16 2.3.2 On-farm replicated grower trials......................................................................................26 2.3.3 On-farm non replicated grower trials...............................................................................28 2.3.4 ‘Broadacre’ Research Station Trials...............................................................................29 2.3.5 Semi-commercial Coriander Trials non replicated..........................................................30 2.3.6 Semi-commercial Culinary Herb Trials non replicated....................................................31 2.3.7 Drying Trials ....................................................................................................................32 2.3.8. Basil Fertiliser Trials .........................................................................................................50

2.4. General Findings .......................................................................................................................53 2.5. Further Research Required .......................................................................................................53

3. Group Development........................................................................................................................54

3.1. The Callide Dawson Herb Association Inc. (CDHAI) members, committee and sub-committee ....................................................................................................................56 3.2. The grower group ......................................................................................................................57 3.3. The wider group of potential product buyers both domestic and international.........................59 3.4. The company, CD Herbs Ltd. ....................................................................................................59

4. Business Development. .................................................................................................................60

4.1.Communications Network...........................................................................................................60 4.2 Market feasibility studies ............................................................................................................60

4.2.1. Feasibility Study into the Herb/Spice Industry in the Callide Valley, Central Queensland .........................................................................................................60 4.2.2. Potential Herb and Spice Markets of Malaysia and Singapore..........................................61

4.3. Business development Plans ....................................................................................................61 5. Implications and Recommendations ............................................................................................63

5.1 Implications.................................................................................................................................63 5.2 Recommendations......................................................................................................................63

6. Appendices......................................................................................................................................64

6.1.1. Map of trial locations. .........................................................................................................64 6.1.2. Climatic graphs of Biloela, Central Queensland. ...............................................................65 6.1.3. Analysis of fertilised basil compounds. ..............................................................................67

8. References.......................................................................................................................................73

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List of Tables

Table 2.3.1. Results ...................................................................................................................18 Table 2.3.2 Raingrown ..............................................................................................................20 Table 2.3.3 Sprayline Irrigation .................................................................................................22 Table 2.3.4 Subsurface (trickle) Irrigation .................................................................................24 Table 2.3.5 Results ...................................................................................................................27 Table 2.3.6....................................................................................................................................29 Table 2.3.7....................................................................................................................................30 Table 2.3.8....................................................................................................................................35 Table 2.3.9. Hydrodistillation of Sweet Basil 1 ..........................................................................36 Table 2.3.10: Levels of Major Compounds (ML/g) Present in Sweet Basil 1..............................36 Table 2.3.11. Levels of Major compounds Present in Sweet Basil 2..........................................36 Table 2.3.12: Levels of Major Compounds Present in Sweet Basil 3. ........................................37 Table 2.3.13 Major compounds present in MasterFoods Sweet Basil.......................................37 Table 2.3.14 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Sweet Basil 1. ......................................................38 Table 2.3.15 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Sweet Basil 2 .......................................................38 Table 2.3.16 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Sweet Basil 3. ......................................................39 Table 2.3.17 Drying of Marjoram................................................................................................39 Table 2.3.18 Hydrodistillation of Marjoram.................................................................................40 Table 2.3.19 Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Marjoram. ...................................40 Table 2.3.20 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Marjoram. .............................................................41 Table 2.3.21. Drying of Parsley...................................................................................................42 Table 2.3.22 Yield of Oil from Fresh and Dried Parsley.............................................................42 Table 2.3.23. Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Parsley .......................................43 Table 2.3.24 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Parsley .................................................................44 Table 2.3.25. Drying of Lemongrass ...........................................................................................44 Table 2.3.26. Yield of oil from fresh and dried lemongrass..........................................................45 Table 2.3.27 Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Lemongrass. ..............................45 Table 2.3.28. Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Lemongrass .........................................................46 Table 2.3.29. Drying of Pesto Basil .............................................................................................47 Table 2.3.30. Yield of oil from fresh and dried pesto basil ..........................................................47 Table 2.3.31. Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Pesto Basil .................................48 Table 2.3.32. Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Pesto Basil ...........................................................49 Table 2.3.33. Basil Fertiliser Trial Layout....................................................................................50 Table 2.3.34. Levels of Major Compounds .................................................................................52

Graphs

Graph 2.3.1/2................................................................................................................................51 Graph 2.3.3...................................................................................................................................52

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Executive Summary The Callide Valley, Central Queensland has 11,000ha serviced by sub-artesian irrigation. Due to a series of events irrigators have had to face up to the fact that their usable water allocations have dropped from 45,000 megalitres to 17,000 megalitres, and their reliance on high $ return, high water usage crops must change. It has a sub tropical, sub humid climate and a summer and winter cropping season, which gives it the ability to grow a wide range of sub tropical and temperate crops. Past emphasis has been on high $ return, high water usage crops, such as cotton and lucerne. It is an area of young, fertile, well managed, alluvial soils with a reasonably progressive farming population. It lies on a major highway, is serviced by air and rail, and is 120 kms from a major container port. Despite the reduction in available water, the Callide Valley is still in a position to have a major impact on Queensland economy, given a change in management of scarce resources and outlook. This report identifies some agronomic and business development steps taken to assist Callide Valley irrigators make this change. A desktop search, a market feasibility study and a screening trial indicated a demand for certain herbs and spices (69 species) and the Callide Valley’s ability to grow these. The establishment of a community group (CDHAI)of potential growers and businessmen allowed the research and development of these initial findings to be taken up in full. The principles of the group development are outlined in this report. A series of agronomic trials, under differing irrigation regimes: raingrown, sprayline, trickle and drip, using gross margins as a benchmark and researching only those species/varieties with medium to high market demand, identified 26 species of herbs and spices suitable for commercial production in the Callide Valley. The establishment of a network of communications, both domestic and international, and a further market study/trip to Singapore and Malaysia, not only further determined market demand, but set up a client network and helped establish business contracts. A strategic business development plan has led to the formation of the trading arm of CDHAI, CD Herbs Ltd. As a result of the project five new industries have been targeted for initial development: 1. Broad acre coriander production. 2. Culinary herb (eg basil, parsley, coriander) for production and processing. 3. Chilli production. 4. Paprika production and processing. 5. Liquorice production and processing.

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Commercial production of 1-3 has commenced, and the establishment of a primary processing plant (for culinary herbs) is planned for late 1999. Growing areas are now underway for coriander (265 ha/1998, 1000 ha/1999), certain culinary herbs (42 ha) and chillis (10 ha). Further industries will be developed as market demand dictates. Recommendations Based on the results of the project, it is recommended that CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd.: • Continue development of the targeted new industries. • Continue monitoring of national/international markets and commit to move quickly into

other crops that have been researched as the market place dictates. • Continue updating of business plans to accommodate market dictated directions. • Continue to pay careful attention to grower management and dissemination of

information. • Continue building and maintaining networks. • Continue research and development of alternative crops and value adding opportunities.

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1. Background 1.1 General Introduction The Callide Valley, Central Queensland, with 11,000 ha serviced by sub-artesian irrigation, is centred on Biloela and lies at 24°S, 151°E, just south of the Tropic of Capricorn. It has a sub-tropical, sub-humid climate with warm to hot summers and mild dry winters with the occasional frost. Approximately 75% of its rainfall occurs during November to April. (Appendix 1)The rainfall is variable. Monthly evaporation is higher than average monthly rainfall. Spring to early summer is the period of greatest deficit, while January to April is the period of least deficit. Irrigation water, and its sustainable use, is therefore vital to the survival of a farming industry in this area. Irrigation water is accessed from a sub artesian aquifer which is replenished from rainfall in the surrounding mountain ranges. The area has been traditionally a cotton and lucerne growing area involving 120 irrigation farms. Cotton and lucerne are high $ return, high water usage crops. In 1969 Queensland Water Resources Commission (QWRC) allocated volume licences to each farming unit according to farmer’s estimated demand, based on past usage. Unfortunately human nature came into play, and on the establishment of a metered monitoring system in the late 1970’s the QWRC realised that estimations were inaccurate and that the recharge rate into the aquifer was much less than could service the present usage. Consequently, in 1989, volume licences were cut to all irrigators by approximately 30%. Pre 1989 the Valley grew 2700ha of lucerne and 2300ha of cotton with a gross value of production (GVP) of $14,000,000. Post 1989 production of lucerne fell to 1800ha lucerne and 630ha cotton with a GVP of $7,000,000. Due to 8 years of continual drought water availability has further decreased and only 17,000 megalitres of the original 45,000 megalitres allocated are now available for irrigation. QWRC however now see the use of underground water and its recharge as being in equilibrium. Since 21.8% of Banana Shire is involved in agriculture it is imperative for the viability of its farms and townships that water be used efficiently and that high $return, low water usage crops, able to be value added, are identified and adopted within the region. This research and development project builds on a preliminary agronomic and marketing trial which determined a potential 66 herb and spices suitable for commercial production in the Callide Valley.

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1.2 Project Objectives/Strategy 1. Objective: To determine herbs and spices suitable for commercial production in the

Callide Valley, Central Queensland to complement the traditional focus on high $ return, high water usage crops. Strategy: A series of agronomic trials plus market exploration and business development.

2. Objective: To rebuild the viability of existing farms severely threatened by reduced

allocations. Strategy: To create an awareness and understanding in the community (both business and farming) of the options available and to encourage the community to uptake these options thereby maximising it’s potential.

3. Objective: To halt decline of valley townships by developing a herb/spice processing

industry servicing both the domestic and overseas market Strategy: To create an awareness of the potential of the Callide Valley’s production possibilities, both in Australia and overseas by developing a network of contacts and utilising this network to establish new industry.

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2. Technical Report 2.1 Preliminary species list In a preliminary desk top investigation 3,000 herbs and spices were investigated for agronomic and marketing potential for the Callide Valley. The following List(1) was chosen for further investigation. LIST (1) COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME ALKANET ANCHUSA OFFICINALIS BERGAMOT MONARDA DIDYMA BETONY STACHYS OFFICINALIS BLACK COHOSH CIMICIFUGA RACEMOSA BLADDERWRACK FUCUS VESICULOSUS BLOODFLOWER ASCLEPIAS CURASSAVICA BLUE COHOSH CAULOPHYLLUM THALICTROIDES BO-TREE FICUS RELIGIOSA BUCHU AGATHOSMA BETULINA BUCHU, OVAL AGATHOSMA CRENULATA BUGLEWEED LYCOPUS VIRGINICUS BUGLEWEED AJUGA REPTANS BURDOCK ARCTIUM LAPPA CAMPHOR LAUREL CINNAMONUM CAMPHORA CAPER BUSH CAPPARIS SPINOSA INERMIS CARAWAY-ANNUAL CARUM CARVI CARDAMON ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUN CASCARA RHAMNUS PURISHIANA CHIA SALVIA HISPANICA CHINA BERRY MELIA AZEDARACH CHAPARRAL LOREA TRIDENTATA (MEXICAN) CHASTETREE VITEX AGNUS-CASTUS CHINESE CLOVER MEDICAGO ASTRAGALUS CHINESE LICORICE GLYCYRRHIZA URALENSIS CINQUEFOIL POTENTILLA RECTA CITRONELLA GRASS CYMBOPOGON NARDUS CLIVERS GALIUM APARINE CLOVE PINK DIANTHUS CARYOPHYLLUS CODONOPSIS CODONOPSIS TANGSHEN COMFREY SYMPHYTUM OFFICINALE COREOPSIS COREOPSIS TINCTORIA CORIANDER CORIANDRUM SATIVUM CULANTRO ERYNGIUM FOETIDUM CUMIN CUMINUM CYMINUM CUMIN, BLACK NIGELLA SATIVA (BLACK CARAWAY) DILL ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS ECHINACEA ECHINICEA AUGUSTIFOLIA ECHINACEA ECHINACEA PALLIDA ECLIPTA ECLIPTA ALBA EPAZOTE CHENOPODIUM AMBROSIOIDES EPHEDRA EPHEDRA NEVADENSIS EVENING PRIMROSE OENOTHERA BIENNIS FENNEL FOENICULUM VULGARE FENUGREEK TRIGONELLA FOENICUM-GRAECUM FEVERFEW CHRYSANTHEMUM PARTHENIUM FIGWORT SCROPHULARIA NODOSA

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FLEABANE CONYZA CANADENSIS FO-TI POLYGONUM MULTIFLORUM FRENCH TARRAGON ARTEMISIA DRACUNCULUS GAYFEATHER LIATRIS SPICATA GENTIAN,TIBETAN GENTIANA TIBETICA GERMAN CHAMOMILE MATRICARIA RECUTITA GERMANDER TEUCRIUM CHAMAEDRYS GINGER ZINZIBER OFFICINALE GINKO GINKO BILOBA GOLDEN ROD SOLIDAGA VIRGA AUREA GOLDENSEAL HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS GOTU KOLA HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA GRINDELIA GRINDELIA CAMPORUM GUAICUM GUAICUM OFFICINALE HEARTSEASE VIOLA TRICOLOR HENBANE HYOSCYAMUS NIGER HENNA LAWSONIA INERMIS HONESTY LUNARIA ANNUA HOREHOUND MARRUBIUM VULGARE HORSERADISH ARMORACIA RUSTICANA HYSSOP HYSSOPUS OFFICINALIS INDIAN DILL ANETHUM SOWA INDIGO INDIGOFERA TINCTORIA INDIGO, FALSE BAPTISIA AUSTRALIS JAMAICA DOGWOOD PISCIDIA ERYTHRINA JAMBUL SYZYGUIM JAMBOLATUM JOE-PYE WEED EUPATORIUM PURPEUM JOJOBA SIMMONDSIA CHINENSIS KANTIKARI SOLANUM XANTHHOCARPUM KAVA PIPER METHYSTICUM KHELLA AMMI VISNAGA LAVENDER LAVANDULA OFFICINALIS LEMON BALM MELISSA OFFICINALIS LEMON GRASS CYMBOPOGON CITRATUS LEMON VERBENA ALOYSIA CITRIODONA LEOPARD LILY BELAMCANDA CHINENSIS LICORICE GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA LOVAGE LEVISTICUM OFFICINALE LOVEAPPLE SOLANUM ACULEATISSIMUM LUFFA LUFFA AEGYPTICA MADAR CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA MADDER RUBIA TINCTORIUM MAHUANG EPHEDRA SINICA MAIKOA BRUGMANSIA (DATURA) SPP MALLOW, COMMON MALVA SYLVESTRIS MARJORAM ORIGANUM MAJORANA MASTERWORT PEUCEDANUM OSTRUTIUM MEXICAN VALERIAN VALERIANA EDULIS MILKVETCH, CHINESE ASTRAGALUS MEMBRANACEUS MILKWEED ASCLEPIAS SYRIACA MINTS MENTHAE MITSUBA CRYPTOTAENIA JAPONICA MOTHERWORT LEONORUS CARDIACA MOTHERWORT, SIBERIAN LEONORUS SIBIRICUS MUGWORT ARTEMISIA VULGARIS MULLEIN VERBASCUM THAPSUS NEEM AZADIRACHTA INDICA NIGELLA NIGELLA DAMASCENA

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NIGHTSHADE, TOBACCO SOLANUM ERIANTHUM OREGANO ORIGANUM VULGARE PAPRIKA CAPISICUM ANNUUM PARSLEY PETROSELINUM CRISPUM PASQUE FLOWER ANEMONE PULSATILLA PATCHOULI POGOSTEMON PATCHOULI PAU d'ARCO TABEBUIA IMPETIGINOSA PERILLA PERILLA FRUTESCENS PERIWINKLE,MADAGASCAR CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS PLAINTAIN PLANTAGO MAJOR PLEURISY ROOT ASCPEPIAS TUBEROSA POKE ROOT PHYTOLACEA AMERICANA PYGEUM PYGEUM AFRICANUM PYRETHRUM CRYSANTHEMUM CINERIIFOLIUM QUININE, WILD PARTHENIUM INTEGRIFOLIUM RAMSONS ALLIUM URSINUM RHUBARB, CHINESE RHEUM PALMATICUM TANGUTICUM ROSEMARY ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS RUE RUTA GRAVEOLENS SADADHATURA DATURA METEL SAGE SALVIA OFFICINALIS SANDALWOOD SANTALUM SPICATUM SAVOURY, WINTER SATUREJA MONTANA SAVOURY,SUMMER SATUREJA HORTENSIS SCHISANDRA SCHISANDRA CHINENSIS SCULLCAP SCUTELLARIA LATERIFLORA SCULLCAP, BAIKAL SCUTELLARIA BAICALENSIS SENNA, CHINESE CASSIA TORA SNAKEROOT RAUWOLFIA SERPENTINA SOUTHERNWOOD ARTEMISIA ARBROTANUM SQUILL DRIMIA MARITIMA ST. JOHN’S WORT HYPERICUM PERFORATUM SUNDEW DROSERA LONGIFOLIA SWEET SUMACH RHUS AROMATICA SWEET WORMWOOD ARTEMISIA ANNUAS TANSY TANACETUM VULGARE TEASEL, FULLER'S DIPSACUS SATIVUS THYME THYMUS VULGARIS VALERIAN VALERIANA OFFICINALIS VERVAIN VERBENA OFFICINALIS VITEX VITEX NEGUNDO HETEROPHYLL WAHOO EUNONYMUS ATROPURPUREUS WATERPEPPER POLYGONUM HYDROPIPER WELD RESEDA LUTEOLA WOAD ISATIS TINCTORIA WOLFBERRY,CHINESE LYCIUM BARBARUM WOODRUFF GALIUM ODORATA WORMWOOD ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM

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2.2 Final Species List A screening trial and a major market study conducted by IHM Pty.Ltd refined and added to List(1) to produce List(2) which was the basis for this research and development trial.

LIST 2 COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME ANISE (2) PIMPINELLA ANISUM BASIL PESTO (30) OCIMUM BASILICUM BASIL SACRED (50) OCIMUM SANCTUM BASIL SELECT (3) OCIMUM BASILICUM BASIL SWEET (5,6) OCIMUM BASILICUM BASIL THAI (29) OCIMUM BASILICUM BORAGE (7) BORAGO OFFICINALIS BUSH TOMATO (57) SOLANUM CENTRALE CARAWAY (8) CARUM CARVI CARDAMON (9) ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUN CHERVIL (10) ANTHRISCUS CEREFOLIUM CHIA (11) SALVIA HISPANICA CHILLI ANCHO (65) CAPSICUM ANUUM CHILLI CAYENNE (33) CAPSICUM ANUUM CHILLI HABANERO (66) CAPSICUM CHINENSIS CHILLI JALAPENO (4) CAPSICUM ANUUM CHILLI SERRANO (24) CAPSICUM ANUUM CHILLI THAI (64) CAPSICUM ANUUM CHINESE MILKVETCH (12) ASTRAGALUS MEMBRANACEUS CHINESE SENNA (13) CASSIA TORA CILANTRO (44) CORIANDRUM SATIVUM CITRONELLA GRASS (15) CYMBOPOGON NARDUS CORIANDER (16) CORIANDRUM SATIVUM CUMIN (17) CUMINUM CYMINUM DILL (DUKAT) (45) ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS DILL INDIAN (27) ANETHUM SOWA DILL LEAF (18) ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS ECHINACEA (20) ECHINACEA ANGUSTIFOLIA ECHINACEA (19) ECHINACEA PURPUREA FENNEL (21) FOENICULUM VULGARE FENUGREEK (22) TRIGONELLA FOENUM-GRAECUM HYSSOP (26) HYSSOPUS OFFICINALIS INDIGO (28) INDIGOFERA TINCTORIA KANGAROO APPLE (46) SOLANUM AVICULARE LAVENDER SPIKE (31) LAVENDULA LATIFOLIA LEMON GRASS (32) CYMBOPOGON CITRATUS LEMON GRASS EAST INDIAN ((47) CYMBOPOGON FLEXUOSUS LEMON VERBENA (34) ALOYSIA TRIPHYLLA LICORICE (35) GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA MADDER (36) RUBIA TINCTORIUM MARJORAM AUSTRALIAN (37) OREGANUM MAJORANA MARJORAM CANADIAN (38) OREGANUM MAJORANA OREGANO AUSTRALIAN(39) OREGANUM VULGARE OREGANO CANADIAN (40) OREGANUM VULGARE PALMAROSA ((48) CYMBOPOGON MARINII MOTIA PAPRIKA (41) CAPSICUM ANUUM PARSLEY AUSTRALIAN (42) PETROSELINUM CRISPUM PARSLEY CANADIAN (43) PETROSELINUM CRISPUM PATCHOULI (54) POGOSTEMON PATCHOULI PLEURISY ROOT (61) ASCLEPIAS AMERICANA ROSEMARY (49) ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS SAGE AUSTRALIAN (52) SALVIA OFFICINALIS SAGE CANADIAN (53) SALVIA OFFICINALIS SAVORY SUMMER (58) SATUREJA HORTENSIS SAVORY WINTER (62) SATUREJA MONTANA SIBERIAN MOTHERWORT (56) LEONURUS SIBIRICUS TARRAGON FRENCH (23) ATEMISIA DRANUNCULUS THYME AUSTRALIAN (59) THYMUS VULGARIS

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THYME CANADIAN (60) THYMUS VULGARIS VETIVER GRASS (63) VETIVERIA ZIZANIOIDES

(123*) Indicates trial plot numbers in Biloela Research Station Trial 2.3 Conducted trials The agronomic trials were primarily aimed at encouraging commercial production of alternative water efficient crops within the Callide Valley, therefore, wherever possible, they are reported in a format that reflects their business development application. They should be understood in conjunction with the group and business development section which follows. The relevance of the reported agronomic results is not in the statistical differences between yields and treatments, but in the comparison of the gross margins, water use and production risk factor of each species. This coupled with market demand is the basis for grower choice. The trials have evolved over the period of the project as market research and demand have dictated, and can be subdivided into: ◊ Biloela Research Station Trial ◊ On-farm Trials replicated ◊ On-farm Trials non replicated ◊ ‘Broad acre’ Research Station Trials ◊ Semi-commercial Coriander Trials non replicated ◊ Semi-commercial Culinary Herb Trials non replicated ◊ Drying Trials ◊ Basil Fertiliser Trials

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2.3.1 Biloela Research Station Trial Methods and Methodology A sample of the randomised block design used on Research Station Trials with 66 species/varieties shown in List (2)

RAINGROWN Rep 1 Rep 2

15 48 7 22 7 19 55 35 63 66 59 23 8 13 18 35 1 50 64 46 56 6 20 48 19 62 1 65 11 17 59 43 4 44 5 34 2 30 47 24 14 3 12 29 26 8 54 55 23 17 53 30 39 40 25 28 51 64 29 33 20 40 5 25 21 32 60 32 57 58 26 36 34 10 33 37 45 60 45 65 49 52 62 12 16 36 31 9 41 56 66 3 21 38 31 10 42 39 38 27 57 46 52 41 61 15 63 2 11 58 22 18 61 53 44 27 24 49 51 16 50 6 14 42 28 4 37 54 9 47 43 13

• Biloela Research Station trials were of a replicated randomised block design: • 66 plots*3 irrigations*2 replications • It had been intended to have fertiliser trials incorporated, but the large number of the final

species, which needed to be investigated, made this impossible. • Plots were 4*5 metres square, with plants on metre rows, at spacing suitable to their

species. • The 3 irrigation regimes were: raingrown, sprayline and trickle (sub surface drip) • Irrigation requirements were 2 megalitres/ha for winter crops, 4 megalitres/ha for summer

crops and 5 megalitres/ha for perennials. • The trials were organically grown. • Plot management was difficult, particularly with weed problems in empty plots which

were being irrigated because of trial layout. • Some species/varieties were difficult to obtain in amounts suitable for the trial, and had to

be dropped or only planted in part of the trial. • Some seed proved to be of extremely low vigour, so seed was pregerminated and planted

out.

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• Certain temperate biennials/perennials eg parsley were treated as annuals for this trial, as they could not produce commercially during the hot summer months.

• Plots were pre-plant fertilised with 2.5 bags NPK/ha, then multiple cut plots were post-harvest fertilised with 1 bag UREA/ha.

• Sub plots were hand harvested (2m*1m) and harvesting was synchronised as much as possible, the softer fast growing plants eg basil, being harvested on a twice to once basis with the woodier plants eg thyme.

• Samples were oven dried at 70°C to 10% moisture, then weighed and yields calculated. • Risk factor: 1 low 5 high indicates the risk involved in growing the crop through to

harvest. It may mean for example, that the crop requires special expertise at planting, may be particularly prone to rain damage or have harvest problems.

• Plots yields were statistically analysed using ANOVA, but results are deliberately reported in a format that may be used commercially ie using a format that a grower may use to make a commercial decision by taking into account variables like gross margins, irrigation requirements, the risk factor and the potential returns/ha/megalitre of water.

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Table 2.3.1. Results

YIELDS KG/HA (dry material)

Irrigation type

Raingrown

Sprayline

Sub surface drip

Species and varieties

Culinary

Anise 5600 5600 11000 Basil: Australian sweet 5338 6091 7300 Canadian pesto # # # Canadian select 5105 5814 7888 Canadian sacred 7556 8793 5511 Canadian sweet 5173 5814 9440 Canadian thai # # 7035 Caraway 742 682 680 Cardamon * * # Chervil * * 1200 Chia * * * Chilli: ancho * 6000 # cayenne 10726 12849 # habenero 6957 10653 # jalapeno 17312 18125 # serrano 21430 15954 # Coriander: leaf 294 1517 # seed 1514 9315 9315 Cumin * * * Dill: leaf 3347 3183 # seed 416 7264 4321 Fennel * * * Fenugreek 884 772 # French Tarragon 530 1319 2100 Hyssop 4949 5396 3249 Indian Dill * 3783 5900 Lemon grass 10779 37005 42000 Lemon Verbena 3801 5331 # Licorice 20700 22000 # Marjoram: Australian * 3934 4625 Canadian # # 3697 Oregano:

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Australian 702 486 638 Canadian 796 928 # Paprika 3405 13101 9503 Parsley : Australian * 2238 3300 Canadian * 1939 3650 Rosemary 1478 1630 3000 Sage: Australian * * * Canadian * * * Solanum centrale # ant damage ant damage Summer Savory 5387 6396 3090 Thyme: Australian 1785 2036 1953 Canadian # 1889 # Winter Savory * 3425 * Medicinal

Borage * heliothis * heliothis * heliothis Chinese Milkvetch * * * Chinese Senna * * # Echinacea purpurea * * * Kangaroo Apple * heliothis * heliothis # Motherwort Siberian 3356 3749 # Pleurisy root * * * Dye

False Indigo * Indigo * 4123 Madder * * * Essential oil

Lavender spike * * * Citronella grass 13112 18225 19357 Lemon Grass 10022 9313 12011 Palmarosa grass 16034 18210 28170 Vetiver grass # Patchouli * * *

# not planted * died due to climatic conditions unless otherwise stated

20

Table 2.3.2 Raingrown Irrigation Species and varieties Yields

kgs/ha Dry product

Price/tonne$

Gross margins

$

Price to cover

variable costs $/tonne

Yield to cover

variable costs

tonnes/ha

Risk factor

(1= low, 5=high)

Culinary

Anise 5600 2300 10147 488 1.03 4 Basil: Australian sweet 5338 3150 12721 599 0.94 5 Canadian select 5105 3150 8132 1405 2.32 4 Canadian sacred 7556 3150 18815 491 1.06 4 Canadian sweet 5107 3150 12365 575 0.87 4 Caraway 742 1940 -848 3085 1.2 4 Chervil * 5 Chilli: ancho * 5 cayenne 10726 3020 30466 652 1.79 4 habenero 6957 3500 17850 913 1.68 4 jalapeno 17312 3500 50402 506 2.56 2 serrano 21430 3500 65744 427 2.18 2 Chinese Senna * 5 Coriander: leaf 294 3000 -590 4967 0.5 4 seed 1514 1000 672 552 0.77 3 Cumin * 5 Dill: leaf 3347 3000 7720 660 0.66 4 seed 416 1300 -848 3720 1.1 4 Fennel * 5 Fenugreek 884 580 -57 643 1.01 4 French Tarragon 530 15000 5785 4084 0.14 4 Hyssop 4949 7500 33430 677 0.39 2 Indian Dill * 5 Lemon grass 10779 2000 18301 305 1.27 2 Lemon Verbena 3801 7500 26770 455 0.19 2 Licorice 20700 1200 16708 392 5.78 1 Marjoram Australian * 5 Oregano: Australian 702 2940 -4213 8959 2.17 4* Canadian 796 2940 -3942 7868 2.18 4* Paprika 3405 3500 5644 1840 1.75 5

21

Parsley Australian * 5 Canadian * 5 Rosemary 1478 2810 3014 800 0.4 2 Sage: Australian * 5 Canadian * 5 Summer Savory 5387 2000 8067 506 1.2 5 Thyme Australian 1785 2200 2690 705 0.53 3 Winter Savory * 5 Medicinal

Borage * heliothis 5 Echinacea purpurea * overwintering 5 Kangaroo Apple * heliothis 1 Motherwort Siberian 3356 2 Pleurisy root * 5 Dye

False Indigo * 5 Indigo * 5 Madder * 5 Essential oil

Lavender spike * 5 Citronella grass 13112 4 Lemon Grass 10022 1 Palmarosa grass 16034 4 Vetiver grass 2 Patchouli * 5

22

Table 2.3.3 Sprayline Irrigation Species and varieties Yields

kgs/ha Dry product

Price/tonne$

Gross margins

$

Price to cover

variable costs

$/tonne

Yield to cover

variable costs

tonnes/ha

Risk factor

(1= low, 5=high)

Culinary

Anise 5600 2300 10147 488 1.03 2 Basil: Australian sweet 6091 3150 14660 556 0.98 3 Canadian select 5814 3150 10071 1263 2.35 2 Canadian sacred 8793 3150 22416 452 1.12 2 Canadian sweet 5814 3150 10071 1263 2.35 3 Caraway 682 1940 -111 2130 0.74 2 Chervil * 2940 Chilli: ancho 6000 3500 11077 1653 2.76 4 cayenne 12849 3020 30880 1087 3.77 2 habenero 10653 3500 23742 1270 3.71 2 jalapeno 18125 3500 49847 745 3.42 3 serrano 15954 3500 44363 709 2.93 3 Chinese Senna * Coriander: leaf 1517 3000 2711 1192 0.57 3 seed 9315 1000 6951 252 1.74 3 Cumin * Dill: leaf 3183 3000 7195 679 0.64 2 seed 7264 1300 6644 389 1.85 3 Fennel * Fenugreek 772 580 -1001 1879 2.77 3 French Tarragon 1319 15000 11203 6382 0.55 4* Hyssop 5396 7500 36655 712 0.46 1 Indian Dill 3783 1300 1817 808 2.21 3 Lemon grass 37005 2000 63345 260 3.49 1 Lemon Verbena 5331 7500 61478 1400 0.54 1 Licorice 22000 1200 17573 401 6.31 1 Marjoram Australian 3934 2570 2884 1830 2.74 2 Oregano: Australian 486 2940 -1093 5218 0.86 4* Canadian 928 2940 126 2804 0.89 4* Paprika 13101 3500 36358 703 2.37 3

23

Parsley Australian 2238 5120 -702 5319 2.34 3 Canadian 1939 5120 -2133 6122 2.33 3 Rosemary 1630 2810 3201 836 0.45 1 Sage: Australian * 4 Canadian * 4 Solanum centrale *fruit eaten by ants 4 Summer Savory 6396 2000 9375 535 1.52 1 Thyme Australian 2036 2200 2952 723 0.61 3 Canadian 1889 2200 2854 736 0.6 3 Winter Savory 3425 2000 180 1879 1.41 1 Medicinal

Borage * heliothis 5 Echinacea purpurea * 5 Kangaroo Apple * heliothis 1 Motherwort Siberian 3749 2 Pleurisy root * 5 Dye



24

Table 2.3.4 Subsurface (trickle) Irrigation Species and varieties Yields

kgs/ha Dry product

Price/tonne$

Gross margins

$

Price to cover


Yield to cover

variable costs

tonnes/ha

Risk factor

(1= low, 5=high)

Culinary

Anise 11000 2300 21514 344 1.31 2 Basil: Australian sweet 7300 3150 18261 498 1.05 3 Canadian select 7888 3150 15888 988 2.46 2 Canadian sacred 5511 3150 13275 586 0.95 2 Canadian sweet 9440 3150 20043 867 2.54 3 Canadian thai 7035 3150 13395 1086 2.41 2 Caraway 680 1940 -111 2103 0.74 2 Chervil 1200 2940 1860 1390 0.55 Coriander seed 9315 1000 3328 306 1.18 3 Cumin * Dill seed 4321 1300 3329 525 1.57 3 Fennel * French Tarragon 2100 15000 22979 4057 0.56 4* Hyssop 3249 7500 20661 1043 0.42 1 Indian Dill 5900 1300 4248 579 2.42 3 Lemon grass 42000 2000 73195 257 3.88 1 Marjoram Australian 4625 2570 4522 1587 2.78 2 Canadian 3697 2570 2416 1917 2.73 2 Oregano Australian 638 2940 -660 3971 0.87 4* Parsley Australian 3300 5120 4545 3622 2.38 3 Canadian 3650 5120 6214 3297 2.39 3 Rosemary 3000 2810 6722 559 0.53 1 Sage: Australian * 2910 4 Canadian * 2910 4 Solanum centrale * 4 Summer Savory 3090 2000 3357 881 1.25 1 Thyme Australian 1953 2200 2854 736 0.6 3 Winter Savory * 2000 1 Medicinal

Borage *heliothis 5

25

Echinacea purpurea * 5 Pleurisy root * 5 Dye



26

2.3.2 On-farm replicated grower trials Methods and Methodology • All seed/plants were from same stock as Research Station trials • Plots were 4*5 metres square, with plants on metre rows, at spacing suitable to their

species. • Irrigation was above-ground drip • Irrigation requirements were 2 megalitres/ha for winter crops, 4 megalitres/ha for summer

crops and 5 megalitres/ha for perennials. • Plot management was difficult, particularly with weed problems in empty plots which

were being irrigated because of trial layout. • Certain temperate biennials/perennials eg parsley were treated as annuals for this trial, as

they could not produce commercially during the hot summer months. • Plots were pre-plant fertilised with 2.5 bags NPK/ha, then multiple cut plots were post-

harvest fertilised with 1 bag urea/ha. • Sub plots were hand harvested and harvesting was synchronised as much as possible, the

softer fast growing plants eg basil being harvested on a twice to once basis with the woodier plants eg thyme

• Samples were oven dried at 70°C to 10% moisture, then weighed and yields calculated.

27

Table 2.3.5 Above Ground Drip Irrigation Species and varieties Yields

kgs/ha Dry product

Price/tonne$

Gross margins

$

Price to cover

variable costs

$/tonne

Yield to cover

variable costs

tonnes/ha

Risk factor

(1= low, 5=high)

Culinary

Anise 8631 2300 16462 385 1.18 2 Basil Australian sweet 5860 3150 14106 568 0.97 3 Canadian select 7296 3150 14226 1051 2.43 2 Canadian sweet 9641 3150 20597 854 2.55 3 Canadian thai 5476 3150 21705 829 2.51 2 Chervil 1324 2940 2131 1300 0.55 Coriander seed 4875 1000 3328 306 1.18 3 Cumin * Fenugreek 732 580 -1016 1972 2.76 3 Hyssop 2300 7500 14118 1361 0.4 1 Lemon grass 10490 2000 17440 339 1.42 1 Lemon Verbena 10184 7500 122774 844 0.6 1 Marjoram Australian 3302 2570 1480 2121 2.71 2 Canadian 3300 2570 1480 2121 2.71 2 Parsley Australian 4222 5120 8838 2895 2.4 3 Sage Australian 1130 2910 950 2046 0.76 4 Canadian * 2910 4 Summer Savory 2690 2000 2826 953 1.23 1 Thyme Australian 1834 2200 2617 769 0.6 3 Winter Savory 1512 2000 3366 979 1.55 1 Medicinal

Echinacea purpurea * 5 Dye Madder * 5 Essential oil

Lavender spike * 5 Palmarosa grass 17420 4 Patchouli * 5

28

2.3.3 On-farm non replicated grower trials Methods and Methodology These trials were a major factor in the grower group development, and covered a wide area of the Callide Dawson Valleys, (Appendix 2) and thereby a range of soil types and minor climatic variations. (The group develop aspect is discussed in the group and business development section.) 35 growers were involved. All seed/plants were from same stock as Research Station trials The main agronomic aims were to: ◊ Develop a central core of growers who had experience in broad acre herb growing. ◊ Encourage research and recording of information ◊ Encourage self-reliance. Growers were introduced to the concept of trial work at a one day workshop (Appendix 4). Here they were encouraged to choose one or more selections of herb/spice species on a first come first serve basis. This ensures that all species were covered in various trials throughout the district. They were given a basic starter kit of available information, with the understanding that very little was relevant to Callide Valley conditions. This was accompanied by a trial diary in which growers were encouraged to record specific information on: planting, rainfall, irrigation, pests and diseases, plant stress, plant death, harvest yields. Trial areas ranged from .05 to .5 ha Results Although not statistically relevant, trial information, particularly from the six trials closest to Biloela which were harvested along with Research Station trials, gave a general overview of how plant species behaved over a wider area, and confirmed plant and insect behaviour observations from replicated trials. The trial diary system was reasonably successful, with growers recording cultural practices readily, but less conscientious about recording measurables like water application and labour hours. The structure of the group of growers changed quite dramatically after the first year, with two thirds of the original growers dropping out. However by year three grower numbers were again in excess of twenty as the Callide Valley was continually exposed to the results of the trials. The main objective was achieved: to keep up grower interest and maintain momentum within the community.

29

2.3.4 ‘Broadacre’ Research Station Trials Methods and Methodology • Replicated plots, 100*20 metres square. • Chillies planted in metre rows with plants @ 50cm spacings. • Parsley planted in 33cm rows with plants @ 15cm spacings. • Marjoram planted in 33cm rows with plants @ 30cm spacings. • Oregano planted in 33cm rows with plants @ 50cm spacings. • Anise, coriander, cumin, dill and fennel seed machine planted @15kg/ha. • Irrigation was sub-surface drip (trickle). • Irrigation requirements were 2 megalitres/ha for winter crops, 4 megalitres/ha for summer

crops and 5 megalitres/ha for perennials. • Plots were pre-plant fertilised with 2.5 bags NPK/ha, then multiple cut plots were post-

harvest fertilised with 1 bag urea/ha. • Plots were machine harvested except for chillies and oregano Results Table 2.3.6 Trickle Broad Acre Irrigation

Species and varieties

Yields kgs/ha

Dry product

Price/tonne$

Gross margins

$

Price to cover


Yield to cover

variable costs

tonnes/ha

Risk factor

(1= low, 5=high)

Culinary Anise 1.2 2300 885 1562 .8 3 Chilli: ancho 26.9 3500 78375 586 3.98 2 cayenne 15.6 3020 40176 924 3.85 2 habenero 10.6 3500 23700 1270 3.71 3 jalapeno 30.1 3500 88497 559 4.22 3 serrano 10.3 3500 25771 997 2.76 2 Coriander 1.2 1000 672 552 .77 2 Cumin * Dill 1 1300 788 906 1.35 2 Fennel * Marjoram Australian

6711 2570 9436 1161 2.91 2

Oregano Australian 918 2940 72 2861 0.88 4* Paprika 9503 3500 25088 859 2.16 3 Parsley Australian 4857 5120 11938 2538 2.42 3

30

2.3.5 Semi-commercial Coriander Trials non replicated Methods and Methodology • 21 growers planted 265 ha semi-commercial coriander. • 160 ha semi irrigated (1 megalitre/ha). • 105 ha raingrown. • Planted mid April until end of June, 1998, predominantly mid May. • Planting rates 7kg/ha.. • Soil nutrition samples taken before planting and after harvest. • Fertilised according to individual grower’s paddock requirements. • Growers given trial diaries. Preliminary Yield Results Table 2.3.7

Grower Irrigated Raingrown Yield ungraded Tonnes

B 16 11.7 CO 11 14.7 CR 11 3 DG 12 10.5 G 8 10.5 H 8 11 J 7 7.8 MN 22 36 MU 16 12.5 MS 3 2.6 MI 4 1 Q 8 5.5 R 5 5.7 SE 10 7 SH 12 21.8 SI 12 12 11.8 W 40 76.3

• Harvested end of October - mid November. • Oil yields range from 37-72%. • Samples have been sent to potential buyers. There is a large variation between yields and oil yields, and at present grower diaries are being collated to determine the differences. Some suggestions are: Erratic plant population due to inadequate planting moisture. Irrigation at incorrect plant growth stage (Growers used to growing cotton and lucerne and growing coriander for the first time had difficulty with the concept that a crop could perform well on a full moisture profile only).

31

2.3.6 Semi-commercial Culinary Herb Trials non replicated • Notes (This section is extra sensitive commercially at this moment, a confidentiality

agreement has been signed, therefore minimum information is available for this report.) • 42 ha of a range of culinary herbs are being planted for delivery to a potential long term

client for 1999. • The first delivery is scheduled for March. • Contracts are presently being negotiated. • Potential estimated gross returns to growers of $1,000,000 (years 1-2), thereafter

$5,000,000/annum. • A preliminary processing plant (washing, drying, packing) is being established in Biloela

to handle this contract.

32

2.3.7 Drying Trials Methods and Methodology • Herbs were harvested as follows, shipped by overnight freight in coolboxes, and stored at

approximately 4°C until required (maximum of 2 to 3 days from time of harvest). Seven herb samples were obtained. They are as follows: • Sweet Basil1 – October 1997 • Sweet Basil 2 – February 1998-12,17 • Sweet Basil 3 – April 1998-12,17 • Marjoram – August 1997 • Parsley – October 1997 • Lemongrass – February 1998 –12,17 • Pesto Basil – April 1998-12,17

• The moisture content of both fresh and dried herbs was determined using the AOAC vacuum

oven method and the water activity was determined using the Novasina water activity meter at a temperature of 25°C. Samples of 2-3 grams were used in both cases.

• Accuracy was maintained by calibrating the Novasin every 10 samples.

Hydrodistillation • The essential oil from the herb was extracted by using the method of hydrodistillation. This

involved placing approximately 50 grams of material (dry weight) into a flask with deionised water and the essential oil was extracted by water distillation for approximately 90 minutes and the oil collected in a Dean and Stark trap. Anhydrous sodium sulfate was then added to the solution in order to remove residues of moisture.

• The oil was further diluted with hexane (as required) prior to analysis. The yield of oil from the herb was calculated by dividing the volume of oil obtained by the dry weight of the sample that was hydrodistilled. The oil was then stored at – 18°C in order to maintain quality prior to analysis.

Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)

• GC/MS was used as a means of identification of the volatiles present in the herb. This included

a Hewlett Packard GC coupled with a mass spectrometer detector. The conditions used were as follows: • Carrier Gas = Helium • Linear Flow Velocity = 25 cm/s • Pressure =25psi • Column – 50m x 0.25mm (i.d) fused silica capillary column • Film Thickness – 0.25mm • Injection Volume- 1.0μL • Split Ratio =30:1 • Column oven programmed to rise from 50°C to 250°C at 3°C/min • Injection Temperature = 240°C • Detector Temperature =300°C

33

• Each of the samples were analysed twice in order to maintain consistency and eliminate any variation. The retention times of the volatiles obtained were then used in a Kovat’s formula to identify the compounds.

Gas Chromatography (GC)

GC was used as a means of quantification of the volatiles present in the herb. This included a Perkin Elmer autosystem. The conditions used were as follows: • Carrier Gas – Helium • Linear Flow Velocity = 25cm/s • Pressure – 38 psi • Column = 50m x0.25mm (i.d) fused silica capillary column • Film Thickness – 0.25mm • Injection Volume – 1.0μL • Column oven programmed to rise from 50°C to 250°C at 3°C/min • Injection Temperature = 240°C • Detector Temperature – 290°C

Drying of Herbs The fresh herbs were prepared and dried using the Heat Pump and Hot Air Dryers until a final moisture content of 10% or less was attained. Approximately 500 grams of herb was dried with a constant depth of product maintained throughout. Each drying temperature contained 5 trays of the same product as a means of replication.

Heat Pump Dryer • Temperatures = 30°C, 40°C, 50°C • Air Velocities – 0.4-0.5 m/s

Hot Air Dryer • Temperatures = 65°C • Air Velocities = 0.4-0.5 m/s The air velocity was measured using a anemometer at the beginning and end of the drying cycle. After drying, the product was placed into thick plastic bags, sealed and stored in a dry area. The final moisture content of the dried product was determined prior to hydrodistillation and extraction of the essential oil. GC and GC/MS analysis of the oil was then performed. The amounts of the major compounds present in the herb (mL/g) was calculated on a dry weight basis. The levels of major compounds present was compared for the fresh and dried samples.

34

Commercial Samples Commercially available dried herbs were obtained from certain companies so as to provide a comparison of quality with respect to those dried at the University. These samples were hydrodistilled, the oil extracted and chemical analysis performed, they were primarily used as a comparison for colour. The main commercial samples used were from Masterfoods.

Colour Analysis The colour of the dried herb samples was analysed using the Hunter Lab Colour Analyser. The commercial samples were used as the standard and compared to the dried herb. The results from the Hunter Lab are given in three parts as L*, a*, and b* values. L* represents light/dark, a* represents green and b* represents yellow. In the case of the herbs dried in this project, the a* value is the most important. • The experimental design used in this study was a randomised block design. The fresh

herb was used as the control with four different drying temperatures and 5 replications for each temperature. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there was a significant difference in the levels of the major compounds between the four different temperatures, at the 5% level.

35

2.3.7.1 The effects of drying conditions on the quality of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Effect of Drying on Moisture Content ◊ Due to its availability, sweet basil was obtained and dried at three different times of the year.

Table 2.3.8. shows the conditions used in the drying of each of the three sweet basils. Table 2.3.8

Final Moisture Content (%) Drying Times (hrs) Relative Humidity (%)

Basil 1 Basil 2 Basil 3 Basil 1 Basil 2 Basil 3 Basil 1 Basil 2 Basil 3

Fresh 87.1 86.1 87.2 - - - - - -

30°C 10.1 9.5 9.7 16 17 18 21.6 21.8 20.7

40°C 10.3 10.9 9.9 15 12 9 18.5 19.2 18.8

50°C 10.4 10.8 9.9 8 8 8 16.4 15.9 15.3

65°C 8.5 8.3 9.0 5 5 6 15.1 14.7 14.2

On drying, the final moisture contents of all three basil samples were very close to the required 10%. However, the drying time for certain temperatures did vary slightly.

Effect of Drying on Oil Content Table 2.3.9. shows the yield of oil extracted from each of the three sweet basils. Generally the yields are quite consistent, with the greatest difference seen in the fresh product. In sweet basil 1, 2, and 3, the yield of oil from the fresh herb was 0.007, 0.014 and 0.011 mL/g respectively. This may have been due to the time of year that the plants were harvested. On drying, the yield of oil decreases, however, this loss is not consistent throughout the three basils. In basils 1 and 3, the decrease in the yield of oil is only slight and this remains relatively the same as drying temperature increases. Basil 2, on the other hand, shows a greater decrease in the yield of oil on drying, but consistency is not maintained as the temperature increases. At 40°C and 50°C, the yield of oil is higher than at 30°C. There appears to be no logical explanation for this occurrence.

36

Table 2.3.9. Hydrodistillation of Sweet Basil 1

Yield (mL/g)* Relative Std. Deviation

Basil 1 Basil 2 Basil 3 Basil 1 Basil 2 Basil 3

Fresh 0.007a 0/014a 0.011a - - -

30°C 0.005ab 0.007bc 0.009ab 18 6 8

40°C 0.004b 0.009b 0.009ab 23 12 6

50°C 0.004b 0.008bc 0.007bc 38 5 6

65°C 0.004b 0.005c 0.006c 23 25 7

Tables 2.3.10-12 show the levels of major compounds present in sweet basils 1, 2, & 3. Values with different letters are significantly different for that compound at a specific temperature.

Table 2.3.10: Levels of Major Compounds (ML/g) Present in Sweet Basil 1.

Compound Fresh 30ºC 40°C 50°C 65ºC

1,8-Cineole 0.0007a 0.0005ab 0.0004b 0.0004b 0.0004b

Linalool 0.0032a 0.0021b 0.0021b 0.0020b 0.0020b

Methyl chavico 0.0020a 0.0010b 0.0009b 0.0010b 0.0012c

Eugenol 0.0004a 0.0002b 0.0002b 0.0001b 0.0002b

B-Caryophyllene 0.0001a 0.0001a 0.0001a 0.0002a 0.0001a

Table 2.3.11. Levels of Major compounds Present in Sweet Basil 2


1,8-Cineole 0.0023a 0.0008bc 0.0009b 0.0009b 0.0006c

Linalool 0.0036a 0.0021b 0.0020b 0.0021b 0.0013c

Methyl chavicol 0.0050a 0.0041b 0.0040bc 0.0038c 0.0021e

Eugenol 0.0003a 0.0003a 0.0002a 0.0002a 0.0002a

Germacrene B 0.0010a 0.0004b 0.0004b 0.0004b 0.0003b

B-Caryophyllene 0.0005a 0.0004ab 0.0004ab 0.0003bc 0.0002c

37

Table 2.3.12: Levels of Major Compounds Present in Sweet Basil 3.


1,8-Cineole 0.0007a 0.0009b 0.0007a 0.0007a 0.0005c

Linalool 0.0053a 0.0036b 0.0032cd 0.0032cd 0.0029d

Methyl chavicol 0.0022a 0.0032b 0.0020a 0.0020a 0.0020a

Eugenol 0.0020a 0.0003b 0.0004b 0.0004b 0.0003b

Methyl Eugenol 0.0001a 0.0002a 0.0002a 0.0002a 0.0002a

Effect of Drying on Colour Looking at the changes in the levels of the major compounds only provides data concerning the flavour of the dried herb. The colour of dried herbs is of primary importance to its acceptance by consumers. A chemical analysis was also performed on the MasterFoods basil as a reference point for comparison and the major compounds were found to be different in levels from the basil in this report. A list of the major compounds in the MasterFoods basil can be found in table 2.3.13.

Table 2.3.13 Major compounds present in MasterFoods Sweet Basil.

Compound Level (ml/g)

1,8-Cineole 0.0004

Linalool 0.0020

Methyl Chavicol 0.0054

Eugenol 0.0003

Methyl Eugenol 0.0005

Eugenol Acetate 0.0003

Tables 2.3.14-16 show the data from the Hunter Lab colour analysis of each of the three sweet basils. For the purposes of this discussion, the main focus will be on the a* value which is the most important as it signifies the colour green. The lower the a* value, the greener the product being analysed. Table 2.3.14 looks at the colour analysis of sweet basil 1. Looking at the a. value it can be seen that the standard is not significantly different from the 30°C and the 65°C, but different from the others. From this it can be assumed that drying basil 1 at either 30°C or 65°C would produce a product similar to the commercial sample. The ideal drying temperature that was recommended earlier was 65°C, hence the colour of the basil is consistent with the loss of volatiles at that drying temperature.

38

Table 2.3.14 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Sweet Basil 1.

L a b

Standard 52.60ac 0.64a 7.40a

30°C 60.40b 0.58a 6.51b

40°C 51.10ab 1.10b 9.62c

50°C 49.20b 1.10b 7.40a

65°C 55.34c 0.65a 7.50a

Table 2.3.15. show the colour analysis of sweet basil 2. Looking at the a* value it can seen that the standard is significantly different from all the drying temperatures with the closest being the 30°C. The fact that none of the drying temperatures were able to produce a product similar to the commercial herb could be due to the variety of sweet basil 2. The ideal drying temperature that was recommended earlier was 50°C, however, there is no point considering this if the beneficials to colour are minimal.

Table 2.3.15 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Sweet Basil 2

L a b

Standard 49.02a 0.62a 8.21a

30°C 51.52ab 1.39b 7.82ac

40°C 44.86d 2.37c 11.07b

50°C 51.25ab 1.62d 6.62c

65°C 53.93b 2.35c 8.36a

Table 2.3.16 looks at the colour analysis of sweet basil 3. Looking at the a* value, it can be seen that the standard is not significantly different from the 50°C, but is different from the others. From this it can be assumed that drying basil 3 at either 50°C would produce a product similar to the commercial sample. The ideal drying temperature that was recommended earlier for basil 3 was 40°C, hence the colour of the basil is not consistent with the loss of volatiles at that drying temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to find a way to better retain the 50°C volatile or try to improve the colour of the 40°C drying treatment.

39

Table 2.3.16 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Sweet Basil 3.

L a b


30°C 54.34b 0.56b 7.80b

40°C 42.60c 0.57bc 10.60c

50°C 53.68b 0.61ac 8.80a

65°C 53.03b 0.54b 8.20a

The hot air dryer was used to obtain the higher drying temperature which could not be gained by the heat pump dryer. However, the quality of the final product is affected quite substantially in terms of volatile retention as 65°C proves too detrimental. 2.3.7.2. The effects of drying conditions on the quality of marjoram (Marjorana hortensis)

Effect of Drying on Moisture Content Table 2.3.17 shows the conditions used in the drying of marjoram. Included are the final moisture contents, drying times and relative humidity with respect to the herb.

Table 2.3.17 Drying of Marjoram

Final Moisture Content

(%)

Drying Time (hrs)

Relative Humidity

(%)

Fresh 79.3 0 0

30°C 8.2 22 21.9

40°C 8.5 17 19.6

50°C 8.5 8 15.8

65°C 9.1 7 14.2

As is evident in table 2.3.17. the final moisture contents of the dried marjoram reached a level below the necessary 10%. However, as expected, the drying time required for the 30°C and 40°C marjoram was substantially longer than the 50°C and 65°C.

40

Effect Drying on Oil Content Table 2.3.18 shows results for the yield of oil extracted from the fresh and dried marjoram. In general they were quite consistent, with the greatest discrepancy being lower yields obtained from two samples dried at 30°C. It is important to note there is a substantial decrease in the yield of oil from the product dried at 65°C. This demonstrates that the high temperature of drying has a significant effect on the yield of oil from the herb. Table 2.3.18 Hydrodistillation of Marjoram.

Marjoram Yield (mL/g)* Rel.Std.Dev.

Fresh 0.29a

30°C 0.023b 34

40°C 0.026ab 7

50°C 0.25b 8

65°C 0.008d 21

Table 2.3.19 show the levels of the major compounds present in marjoram as well as the effect of the different drying temperatures on those compounds.

Table 2.3.19 Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Marjoram.

Compound Fresh 30°C 40°C 50°C 65°C

Sabinene 0.0018 0.0013b 0.0016ab 0.0017a 0.0004c

a-Terpinene 0/0024a 0.0013b 0.0014b 0.0015b 0.00bc

g-Terpinene 0.0039a 0.0020b 0.0023bc 0.0024c 0.0010d

Dihydromyrcenol 0.0007a 0.0010ab 0.0012b 0.0010ab 0.0003c

a-Thujone 0.0024a 0.0054b 0.0053b 0.0037c 0.0008d

Terpinen-4-ol 0.0099a 0.0046b 0.0053c 0.0052c 0.0019d

a-Terpineol 0.0012a 0.0010ab 0.0008b 0.0010ab 0.0003c

Geraniol 0.0009a 0.0014b 0.0031c 0.0025d 0.0007a

Terpinen-4-ol is considered to be the most important in affecting the flavour of marjoram, then any changes in the level of that compound are also likely to affect the final quality of the dried herb. Therefore, it is essential to use a drying temperature that minimises the deterioration of terpinen-4-ol within marjoram.

41

This can best be determined by looking at figure 2.3.1. Terpinene 4-ol is by far the most prominent compound in the fresh herb with its level being almost halved on drying at 30°C, 40°C and 50°C. There is a loss of over 75% of the compound when dried at 65°C. Even though the 65°C drying temperature appears to have been quite detrimental to the level of volatiles in marjoram it still has the closest flavour profile to the fresh herb, only less intense. There is no significant difference between drying at 40°C and 50°C. Since drying at 50°C takes 9 hours less than at 40°C, 50°C is more attractive. An important factor to look at is the chemical relationship between terpinen-4-ol and a-thujone. It appears that on drying, a decrease in the level of terpinenkol corresponds with an increase in the level of a-thujone. However, this is not the case for the 65°C drying treatment as the high temperature was overly detrimental to the volatiles present.

Effect of Drying on Colour Table 2.3.20 show the results of the colour analysis of marjoram. Visual comparison of the samples revealed that there was not a great deal of difference between the commercial product(standard) and those that were dried at the four temperatures. However, the Hunter Lab Colour Meter revealed that in terms of the a* value the samples at 30°C and 50°C were the only two that were not significantly different from the standard. The ideal drying temperature that was recommended earlier was the 50°C, therefore, since this temperature has a fairly ideal colour, its choice seems most appropriate for marjoram. Table 2.3.20 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Marjoram

L a b

Standard 59.06a 1.14a 10.21a

30°C 55.97b 1.06a 6.93b

40°C 53.57bc 1.36b 5.46cd

50°C 51.06c 1.01a 4.39d

65°C 53.97bc 1.81c 6.45b

42

2.3.7.3 The effects of drying conditions on the quality of parsley (Petroselinum crispum)

Effect Drying on Moisture Content Table 2.3.21 shows the conditions used in the drying of parsley.

Table 2.3.21. Drying of Parsley


(%)

Drying Time (hrs)

Relative Humidity

(%)

Fresh 80.3 0 0

30°C 8.1 18 20.5

40°C 8.1 15 18.6

50°C 7.8 6 16.2

65°C 8.6 5 15.1

It can be seen that the final moisture contents of the four dried parsley samples reached a level below the required 10%. However, as expected, the drying time required for the 30°C and 40°C was substantially longer than the 50°C and 65°C.

Effect of Drying on Oil Content Table 2.3.22. shows results for the yield of oil from the fresh and dried parsley. In general, the yields were quite consistent with a steady decrease in oil yield as the drying temperature increased. Table 2.3.22 Yield of Oil from Fresh and Dried Parsley

Parsley Yield (mL/g)* Rel.Std.Dev

Fresh 0.016a

30°C 0.012b 6

40°C 0.010bc 7

50°C 0.008cd 6

65°C 0.006d 8

Table 2.3.23. show the levels of the major compounds present in parsley as well as the effect of the different drying temperatures on those compounds.

43

Table 2.3.23. Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Parsley


p-Cymene 0.0003a 0.0002a 0.0002a 0.0002a 0.0001a

Limonene 0.0011a 0.0014b 0.0007c 0.0006c 0.0005c

Terpinolene 0.0009a 0.0005bc 0.0007ba 0.0006bc 0.0004c

p-Mentha-1,3,8-Triene 0.0050a 0.0030b 0.0012c 0.0006d 0.0008d

Myristicin 0.0061a 0.0053b 0.0060a 0.0060a 0.0030c

It can be seen that in parsley, as a fresh herb and at all drying temperatures, myristicin and P-Mentha-1,3,8-triene are quite prominent, with the former having the greater presence. On drying, there is a gradual decrease in the level of p~entha-1,3,8-triene, with the 30°C retaining the highest level of this compound. On drying, there is a slightly greater decrease in the level of myristicin at 30°C than at 40°C or 50°C. The level of myristicin in the 40°C and 50°C is not significantly different from the fresh, with 40°C having a slightly greater level of p-mentha1 ,3,8-triene. Its level in 30°C however, is significantly different from the fresh and from the other temperatures. Therefore, a choice of drying temperature for parsley should come from either the 40°C or 50°C. The 50°C appears to be a more logical choice due to the shorter drying time.

The 65°C drying temperature is too detrimental to the volatiles with over 50% myristicin being lost. Therefore 65°C should not be considered as a standard drying temperature for parsley.

Effect of Drying on Colour

Table 2.3.24 shows the results of the colour analysis of parsley. In terms of the a* value the standard is significantly different from all the drying temperatures. It should be remembered that the lower the a* value, the greener the product being analysed. It is therefore evident that going by the results, from table 2.3.24. the parsley dried at 40°C had a greener colour than the standard. However, the other three temperatures had a higher a*value. Therefore, considering that colour is of primary importance in dried herbs, a drying temperature of 40°C may be the most ideal, but the effect of this temperature on the volatiles present in the herb also needs to be considered as discussed previously.

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Table 2.3.24 Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Parsley

. L a b


30°C 51.69a 0.62b 10.83b

40°C 52.46a 0.36b 10.39ab

50°C 49.28b 0.65b 10.81b

65°C 47.48c 0.68b 12.20c

2.3.7.4. The effect of drying conditions on the quality of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)

Effects of Drying on Moisture Content Table 2.3.25. shows the conditions used in the drying of lemongrass.

Table 2.3.25. Drying of Lemongrass


(%)

Drying Time (hrs)

Relative Humidity

(%)

Fresh 65.9 - -

30°C 8.0 15 19.2

40°C 8.0 11 17.5

50°C 8.4 8 16.9

65°C 8.8 4 15.2

The final moisture contents of all four of the drying treatments reached well below the necessary 10%. As expected the drying times decreased as the temperature increased. Overall, however, the drying times for lemongrass were quite substantially lower than for other herbs over all four temperatures. This is most likely due to the lower initial moisture content of the lemongrass which was up to 20% lower in moisture than basil.

Effect of Drying on Oil Content

Table 2.3.26. shows the yield of oil extracted from the lemongrass. It is evident that on drying there is very little change in the level of oil present. The fresh lemongrass is significantly different from all the drying treatments, but only slightly. This shows that the volatiles present in lemongrass are able to withstand the drying process more readily than volatiles that are present in some other herbs, ie. basil, marjoram and parsley.

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Table 2.3.26. Yield of oil from fresh and dried lemongrass

Lemongrass Yield (mL/g)* Rel.Std.Dev.

Fresh 0.023a

30°C 0.021b 5

40°C 0.020bc 2

50°C 0.019c 4

65°C 0.019c 5

Table 2.3.27. shows the levels of major compounds present in lemongrass. Table 2.3.27 Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Lemongrass.


Borneol 0.0010a 0.0010a 0.0011a 0.0010a 0.0010a

Hotrienol 0.0015a 0.0014a 0.0013ab 0.0014a 0.0011b

a-Terpineol 0.0014ab 0.0012bc 0.0012bc 0.0010cd 0.0010cd

Neral 0.0080a 0.0060b 0.0055bc 0.0051cd 0.0030e

Geraniol 0.0020a 0.0014b 0.0014b 0.0015b 0.0013b

Geranial 0.0103a 0.0100a 0.0095b 0.0102a 0.0055c

a-Terpinyl Acetate 0.0011a 0.0010a 0.0008ab 0.0005b 0.0005b

B-Cyclocitral 0/0009a 0.0007ab 0.0005bc 0.0005bc 0.0004cd

It is obvious that the 65°C treatment was too detrimental to the levels of major compounds in the lemongrass. The levels of geranial remains fairly constant between the fresh and the 30, 40 and 50°C treatments. Neral on the other hand, decreases as the drying temperature increases. The most ideal drying temperature for lemongrass would be the one that retains the most neral and geranial. With this in mind, the 30°C has a higher level of neral than the others while the 50°C retains the geranial better. When the total of the levels of geranial and neral are added, then the 30°C has the highest level of citral, (citral is the total level of neral + geranial) followed by the 50°C, then the 40°C treatment. Therefore, the 30°C treatment seems the most obvious choice for the drying of the lemongrass.

46

Effect of Drying on Colour

Table 2.3.28 show the results of the hunter lab colour analysis of lemongrass. Because of difficulty in sourcing dried lemongrass the standard used in the hunter lab colour analysis was a fresh lemongrass, which gave a biased result as it does not take into account the affect of the drying. Looking at the a* value, it can be seen that the standard is significantly different from all the drying treatments, with the 30 and 40°C having a similar colour as well as the 50 and 65°C. Unless a commercially available sample of lemongrass can be found, then an accurate comparison of colour cannot be made. Table 2.3.28. Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Lemongrass

L a b

Standard 63.06a 0.11a 14.61a

30°C 57.01b 0.52b 15.01ab

40°C 58.87b 0.43b 13.89ac

50°C 56.12b 0.72c 13.93ac

65°C 53.72c 0.74c 16.36bd

2.3.7.5 Effects of Drying Conditions on the quality of Pesto Basil

Effects of Drying on Moisture Content Pesto basil, even though considered to be a part of the basil family, cannot be compared completely to the sweet basil that is reported previously due to the fact that it has smaller leaves and thus the drying conditions are likely to be different, especially drying time. It will therefore be referred to as a separate herb. However, a tentative comparison of the yield of oil can take place between the two. Table 2.3.29. shows the conditions used in the drying of pesto basil.

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Table 2.3.29. Drying of Pesto Basil


(%)

Drying Time (hrs)

Relative Humidity

(%)

Fresh 84.3 - -

30°C 9.4 20 19.2

40°C 9.8 9 17.7

50°C 9.6 8 15.8

65°C 9.8 4 14.1

The drying time for the 30°C treatment was 20 hours while the 40°C treatment took half the time. This shows that the drying rate at the 30°C was substantially slower than at each of the other temperatures

Effect of Drying on Oil Content Table 2.3.30. shows the yield of oil extracted from the pesto basil. On drying there is only a slight change in the yield of oil from the fresh pesto basil. There is no significant difference between the fresh herb, the 30C and the 40°C treatments. However, the fresh pesto basil is significant different from the 50°C and 65°C. At 50°C, the yield of oil drops slightly before picking up at 65°C, which may be attributed to the drying rate at that temperature. Table 2.3.30. Yield of oil from fresh and dried pesto basil

Pesto Basil Yield (mL/g)* Rel.Std.Dev

Fresh 0.011a

30°C 0.010ab 4

40°C 0.009ac 4

50°C 0.007c 19

65°C 0.008bc 5

The yield of oil that was obtained from the sweet basil samples was quite similar to those of the pesto basil. The level of volatile oil present in sweet basil is very low (0.004 - 0.014 mL/g) and this is also the case with the pesto basil (0.007-0.011 mL/g). Table 2.3.31. show the levels of major compounds present in pesto basil.

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Table 2.3.31 Levels of Major Compounds (mL/g) Present in Pesto Basil


1,8-Cineole 0.007a 0.0004b 0.0004b 0.0002b 0.0003b

Linalool 0.0054ab 0.0057b 0.0051ac 0.0036d 0.0050c

Methyl Chavicol 0.0013a 0.0007b 0.0006b 0.0003c 0.0002c

Eugenol 0.0024a 0.0010b 0.0010b 0.0005c 0.0009b

Methyl Eugenol 0.0001a 0..0009b 0.0009b 0.0005c 0.0004c

Methyl Carvacrol 0.0001a 0.0001a 0.0001a 0.0001a 0.0015b

In sweet basil, linalool and methyl chavicol were found to be the two major compounds contributing to flavour. With the pesto basil, methyl chavicol plays quite a minor part in the flavour of the herb, with eugenol being more prominent. Linalool was by far the most distinguishable compound as it was present at greater than or equal to 50% in all cases except the 50°C treatment. The level of linalool remains fairly steady between the fresh, 30°C, 40°C, and the 65°C treatments. The sudden drop in its level at 50°C is most likely due to the intensity of the drying process along with the drying time. The 40°C sample took 9 hours to dry while the 50°C took 8 hours. For an increase of 10°C in drying temperature, a shorter drying time was expected. The drying rate at this temperature may have been uneven and thus caused the sudden drop in the level of linalool. This is further emphasised by the significant increase of linalool at 65°C, which may have been due to a higher drying rate, and only four hours drying time was required, therefore, the volatiles did not have substantial time to be affected. The extremely low level of methyl chavicol in pesto basil strengthens the argument against comparing the herb to the sweet basil due to the chemical differences between the two. The sweet basil tended to contain greater levels of methyl chavicol and in one case, it was the major compound. An ideal drying temperature for pesto basil could be chosen from either 40°C or 50°C. Due to the time taken at 30°C, it was not considered, and the 50°C was eliminated because of the detrimental effect on the volatiles. Since the level of methyl chavicol is extremely low and hence its contribution to flavour would be virtually minimal, the 65°C drying treatment could be an obvious choice at this stage over the 40°C due to the short drying time.

Effect of Drying on Colour Since pesto basil is not available commercially dried there was no immediate way to compare the colour of the herb. However, the most obvious choice was to compare it with the MasterFoods basil that was used for comparison with the sweet basil.. Table 2.3.32 show the results of the hunter lab colour analysis of pesto basil.

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Looking at the a* value, the standard is significantly different from all the drying temperatures except the 65°C. However, the sample with the best colour in terms of greenness is the 50°C, followed by the 30°C. Earlier it was recommended that 65°C be used as the drying temperature for pesto basil. From the colour analysis, the 65°C actually has the worst colour of each of the samples. Therefore, the ideal drying temperature with respect to retaining volatiles is not consistent with the retention of colour. Looking at the next best sample for retention of colour it is evident that the 30°C drying temperature produced a good colour. Since 30°C drying also had least effect on volatiles it is to be recommended, although it will be less cost effective..

Table 2.3.32. Hunter Lab Colour Analysis of Pesto Basil

L a b

Standard 47.06a 1.70a 10.81a

30°C 53.67b 0.68c 5.97b

40°C 46.64a 1.14b 6.71c

50°C 50.29c 0.59c 5.75b

65°C 42.13d 1.82a 6.91c

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2.3.8. Basil Fertiliser Trials Methods and Methodology (This experiment used the same methods and methodology for oil analysis as 2.3.7.) Table 2.3.33. Basil Fertiliser Trial Layout

Bed 1 No

fertiliser

Bed 2 Urea

Bed 3 DAP

Bed 4 Cu

special

Bed 5 Q5

Bed 6 55

Bed 7 Urea+Q5

20 metres down block 1 block 2 block 3 block 4 block 5 block 6 block 7

50 metres down

block 8 block 9 block 10 block 11 block 12 block 13 block 14

block 15 block 16 block 17 block 18 block 19 block 20 block 21 20 metres up

Bed 1 Bed 2 Bed 3 Bed 4 Bed 5 Bed 6 Bed 7 • The ‘Crop King’ brand of fertiliser was used preplant, at a rate of 2.5 bags/ha. • Additional urea was used at the rate of 1 bag/ha with each post harvest irrigation. • Seeding rate 15 kg/ha, machine planted • Plots were hand harvested in the block formation as shown and samples were packed in cool

boxes and overnight freighted for oil analysis. • For further information on levels of major compounds see appendix 3. • Graphs 2.3.1-3 • Beds 1-4 were comparable, being sweet basil and having bed 1 as control (no fertiliser). • Beds 5-7 are useful for observation only, being pesto basil. (This was caused by grower

misunderstanding at planting) • Oil yields and therefore ‘aroma’ were looked at alongside plant dry matter yields and a best

choice scenario picked ie. what fertiliser gave the biggest yield increase, yet retained the most aroma given that previous research indicates that linalool and methyl chavicol produce the “best aroma?

51

Graph 2.3.1 and 2.3.2

Average oil yield/cut/ha

00.5

11.5

22.5

3

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7

Litr

es/h

a

Cineole

Linalool

MChavicol

Eugenol

Average oil yield/cut/ha

00.5

11.5

22.5

3

Cineole Linalool MChavicol Eugenol

Litr

es/h

a

B1 B2

B3 B4

B5 B6

B7

52

Graph 2.3.3

Table 2.3.34. Levels of Major Compounds

Plant Compound 18,-Cineole Linalool Methyl Chavicol Eugenol Fertiliser Sweet Basil % 6.59 44.25 40.34 5.98 No Fertiliser mL/g 0.0011 0.0057 0.0069 0.001 Sweet Basil % 8.91 35.22 40.74 6.12 Urea mL/g 0.0017 0.0067 0.0077 0.0012 Sweet Basil % 9.8 40.25 40.79 9.99 DAP mL/g 0.0015 0.0063 0.0061 0.0015 Sweet Basil % 7.33 40.25 32.45 4.53 CU Special mL/g 0.0008 0.0044 0.0036 0.0005 Pesto Basil % 6.48 13.33 18.89 12.93 Q5 mL/g 0.0005 0.0009 0.0013 0.0009 Pesto Basil % 4.55 51.56 1.72 13.89 CK 55 mL/g 0.0006 0.0072 0.0022 0.0019 Pesto Basil % 3.35 53.26 0.23 24.7 Urea+Q5 mL/g 0.0003 0.0043 0.00002 0.002

Results Preliminary results indicate, looking at treatments 1-4 and taking into account that Methyl Chavicol and Linalool are the main ‘aroma’ components of sweet basil, that, given adequate soil nutrition, Urea fertiliser would give an optimum balance of yield and aroma. It is also the most cost effective option. Further exploration needs to be done in the area of fertiliser addition, but it is interesting to look at treatments 5-7 and the very different results produced by the three different fertilisers.

Crop dry matter yield (Kg/ha/cut)

0100200300400500600700

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7

Plots

Kilo

gram

s

Series1

53

2.4. General Findings (These findings were general across all trials)

• The difficulty in accessing quality seed and rootstock in adequate amounts to enable replicated trials, and in particular Chinese herbs, had a major effect in what was trialed.

• The difficulty in planting extremely small seeded species eg thyme, which leads to the need to use seedlings, therefore greater establishment costs.

• The difficulty in growing commercial areas organically from a weed control viewpoint. • The difficulty in determining individual irrigation requirements because of trial layouts. • The difficulty in determining individual nutrition requirements because of trial layouts.

(except for ‘broad acre’ trials) • Although the dry matter yield from the essential oil crops looks very encouraging, the oil

yield and market prices mean that commercial production is not feasibile. • Harvesting difficulty of vetiver grass makes it commercially unviable. • Herb/spice plants generally more sensitive to overwatering stress than underwatering

stress eg susceptibility of Sage and Echinacea to waterlogging, especially in winter. • Summer Plants - best aroma (oil yield) to be found at times of greatest water stress

(deficit), which gives a very useful management tool. • General lack of disease problems in all species. Exceptions: • ‘Sudden death’ in chillies on crusting soils with sprayline irrigation, rust in

lemongrass, altenaria and alfalfa mosaic virus in coriander. • General lack of insect pressure in all species Exceptions: • Heliothis on borage and sacred basil, fruit fly on chillies, ants on bush tomatoes, army

worm on broad acre coriander • Large labour component (300-600 hours/ha) in chilli harvesting by hand. 2.5. Further Research Required • Genetic material base required. Difficulty in seed/rootstock sourcing means that to create

a sustainable viable industry, Australia must acquire a more reliable genetic resource base.

• Individual herb nutrition/water requirements. • Further mechanical harvesting investigation. • The potential of borage (Borago officinalis) as an insect control crop in heliothis

susceptible crops eg cotton. • In all trials borage was a definite heliothis punctiger and armiger attractant, with a

feeding population of up to 160/metre row, while surrounding crops had nil populations.

• The potential of Sacred basil (Ocimum sanctum) to control heliothis, possibly in spray form:

• Sacred basil was also an heliothis attractant, similar to borage, however heliothis that fed on this crop exhibited a slow down in feeding activity, then death.

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3. Group Development For the project to be a successful business development project it had to move beyond agronomic research and encompass the community. The development of the group has been the most critical factor in the development of the new industries. The group can be subdivided into: • The Callide Dawson Herb Association Inc. (CDHAI) members, committee and sub committees. • The grower group. • The company, CD Herbs Ltd • The wider group of potential product buyers both domestic and international. Methods and Methodology • As far as possible all groups, their set up and operation, operate with the following principles of

adult learning in mind: 1. Adults usually have a specific purpose for their learning. 2. Adults are more strongly motivated by internal pressures than external rewards. 3. Adults have a lot of experience to draw on. 4. Adults are proud of their independence. 5. Adults have firmly established attitudes. 6. Adults have set habits and strongly established tastes. 7. Adults have strong feelings about the learning situation. 8. Adults are afraid of participation. 9. Adults are afraid that they might lose their dignity. 10. Adults often resent authority. 11. Adults worry about keeping pace with the demands set on them 12. Adults have many preoccupations. 13. Learners must feel a need to learn. 14. The learning environment must be mentally and socially safe. 15. Learners must set their own learning goals. 16. Learners must participate actively in the learning process. 17. Learners must build on and use the learner's skills. 18. Learners must see that their learning has been successful. 19. Learning must involve effective two-way communication. 20. Adults have selective filters

55

• Action learning is practiced with CDHAI committee and grower groups. Action learning is one of the most successful tools to assist in the adoption of new techniques and the improvement of old ones. Action learning participants learn to move from one ‘action’ to the next in a manner that makes the best use of their action.

Act carry out group discussed action. Reflect think on action, firstly as an individual, then in a small group situation. Generalise draw conclusions from reflections and take back to main group. Plan draw up next course of action. • The group encouraged transparency, in order to encourage communication with other

groups and networks.

REFLECTPLAN

ACT

GENERALISE

56

3.1. The Callide Dawson Herb Association Inc. (CDHAI) members, committee and sub-committee

‘An association unites the energies of divergent minds and vigorously directs them towards a clearly indicated goal’ Tocqueville The Callide Dawson Herb Association Inc. was formed after a public meeting to facilitate the establishment of a herb and spice processing industry in the Callide Valley. It has a membership of 35 growers and businessmen and is managed by a committee of six. In order for the establishment of the industry to be effective, it was important to build a cohesive team and encapture a shared vision. It was important to start with the committee. The tool used to achieve this was action learning, but at all times the principles of adult learning were observed. The group was ‘bonded’ via a series of team building meetings which developed a set of ground rules (these are revisited and revamped as necessary every time there is a new member) and a shared vision*. However the real cementing has occurred through everyone taking on a task and reporting back to fellow members (action learning). Each committee member has an equal role and the traditional chairman etc roles are for executive purposes only. (*the shared vision although grasped as a CDHAI vision, was actually still my (project leader’s) vision and in reality did not become CDHAI owned for another 18 months) CDHAI has also several sub-committees, each involving one main committee member, to deal with issues such as harvesting, grower management, marketing, research and development. Although not all are active at any one time, the sub-committees act in an action learning mode, their charter being to facilitate the gathering of information for the main committee, who in turn use it to make management decisions, or transfer it to the rest of the group through a quarterly newsletter or group information days Another important function of CDHAI is a community body able to attract public funding. An example of this is DEETYA funding support for CDHAI co-ordinating officer. The formation of CDHAI has meant that there is a viable active group within the Callide Valley whose charter is to develop and value add to: 1. Any herb and spice crop proven commercially viable by this RIRDC project 2. Any new crop that is researched at the local QDPI Research Station. 3. Any new crop introduced to the area by private companies.

57

3.2. The grower group Grower groups and grower group management were a critical part of the product marketing strategy. To supply any product, particularly overseas, CDHAI had to have a body of growers able to produce a critical mass of product and a continuity of supply. It was essential that these growers should produce a marketable product, therefore growers became involved in the project on the understanding that: 1). They would sell no product outside the association (this would allow QA guidelines to be set in motion) . 2). They could expect no financial gain for at least 3 years. The following grower management principles were adhered to: • Growers encouraged to feel safe in new learning environment • Growers build on and use previous experience • Growers set own goals and be reasonably independent • Effective interaction between project leader and growers. • Growers see that their experiences/learnings were useful to themselves and others • Growers use same seed/plantstock as Research Station • Each grower had a selection of species that fitted in with their present farming systems. Managing 35 growers within a 120 km radius of Biloela provided quite a challenge. Initially the groups were established according to geographic location (4 in all), and held shed/paddock meetings on a regular two monthly basis. Ground rules were set in place to cover the management principles above and at all times growers were kept informed of activities, either by newsletter or by other written/verbal communication. Grower group members took it in turns to relay information back to project leader or committee member. Growers took along their trial diaries to shed meetings and shared their experiences with other members of their group. (Oft times they shared their experiences without the diaries) This worked well, but as group structure changed and other items of interest came up within other groups, the groups began to work across each other, thus achieving an even bigger exchange of information. After two years the group became one and autonomous, (usually being organised by a CDHAI committee grower member) with project leader input for technical reasons only. The group then met generally as something of interest eg coriander harvesting came up, but there were also organised workshops/open days as follows, aimed at increasing their knowledge and keeping up their enthusiasm: • Trial establishment workshop on how to layout and manage trials • Open day at Biloela Research Station - visitors were taken on group tours (10-12) of the

trials by the project leader. Each session lasted 1 hour and covered the agronomic, processing and marketing issues concerning each crop. Waiting visitors were able to look at a static display and chat with other people, including CDHAI committee members over a cup of coffee. Over 70 people attended.

58

• Open days at grower replicated trials. These were informal discussion sessions with the

grower leading wherever possible, but other growers input/experience encouraged. • Workshops (3) to brainstorm future CDHAI direction given more up to date information

eg marketing study. • 2 day bus tour of vegetable processing plants in SE Queensland, primarily aimed at

introducing growers to the specific quality requirements of the food industry. • Overseas trading information workshop. (Austrade) • Options 97, a two day marketing and business planning event aimed at facilitating the

adoption of new crops into existing farm management regimes. Over 300 growers and businessmen attended.

• Workshop to establish trading arm of CDHAI (CD Herbs Ltd.) and its structure • Information session to harness new growers of specific crops eg coriander • Coriander growers workshop session. • Interested parties bus tour around coriander trial plots, with growers doing the presenting.

Again transparency and maximum learning was encouraged and the bus tour visited not only the good crops, but the bad.

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3.3. The wider group of potential product buyers both domestic and international. A policy iniated in the beginning of the project encouraged communication and transparency of actions with potential buyers identified in market feasibility studies, other herb groups, and other useful contacts in the industry. Communication was via quarterly newsletter or personal communication (telephone/email) to inform others of who CDHAI were, what they were doing and where they intended to go and their progress up to this point in time. (Note the importance of it being CDHAI driven, not QDPI or RIRDC.) Latterly CDHAI has developed a comprehensive web page and has a link to ‘Focus on Herbs’. Potential buyers, in particular those of international standing, were given ‘special treatment’ - a six monthly progress report. The whole policy has proven particularly effective. 80% of CDHerbs Ltd trade contacts have come about because of this constructed network, and CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd have this year for the first year received Christmas greetings from some potential Asian trading partners. Effective communication has been established. The network partner policy has led to other companies contacting CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd.: • 5 potential coriander buyers • Exposure at a UK food fair and a potential coriander buyer. • A chilli contract with a processing company (the in-laws of a network partner) • The ‘commercial in confidence’ contract discussed in section 2.3.6. 3.4. The company, CD Herbs Ltd. The trading company, CD Herbs Ltd. has been set up in 1998 as the trading arm of CDHAI. It is a registered company, with two classes of shares: • ‘G’ shares which are grower shares and not subject to dividends, but growers must own a

minimum of 100 to trade under CD Herbs Ltd. • ‘A’ shares which may be bought by anyone.

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4. Business Development Business development was implemented at the beginning of the project, as an extension of the group development, and included some basic developments such as company logo, web page and logo for bags/packaging. Some major developments are now underway eg. company code of practice and implementation of QA guidlines. (These are being developed with group consultation). During the project the following have been undertaken: • Communications Network • Market Feasibility Studies. • Business Plans 4.1. Communications Network As section 3.3 above 4.2 Market Feasibility Studies Two separate feasibility studies were undertaken as part of this project, one in the initial stages, June 1995, by IHM Pty. Ltd. ‘Feasibility Study into the Herb/Spice Industry in the Callide Valley, Central Queensland’ and the second one in late 1997, which include a visit to Singapore and Malaysia, by the Agribusiness Market and Research Group, University of Queensland, Gatton College ‘Potential Herb and Spice Markets of Malaysia and Singapore’ These feasibility studies were used by CDHAI as basis for further continuing development. 4.2.1. Feasibility Study into the Herb/Spice Industry in the Callide Valley, Central Queensland Extracts from the executive summary: The strengths and opportunities presented in the Callide Valley more than compensate for the weaknesses and our assessment is very supportive of further development. There exists the threat in Australia that common interest groups will against each other rather than together. Unified efforts in several areas are recommended. Strong potential markets exist in Asia. Markets also exist in USA and Europe. The study clearly indicates market opportunities. (Species/varieties are shown in section 2.2) Realisation of opportunities will depend on: 1. Continued agronomic trials couple with gross margin analysis. 2. Value adding: research of techniques, packaging and labelling 3. Compliance with national and international standards and law concerning standards. 4. Continual monitoring of world markets .

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5. Be very proactive at forging networks within Australia and certainly within Queensland. 4.2.2. Potential Herb and Spice Markets of Malaysia and Singapore An extract from the executive summary: There are no significant spice growing industries in Singapore and Malaysia. Dried spice products are sourced from international suppliers dependant on quality and price suitability. Local Malaysian production is adequate for fresh western style herbs. The dried products exhibiting most marketable potential were chillies, coriander seed, dill seed and cumin. Opportunities for these products depend upon the ability to produce high quality products at a competitive price. Opportunities exist for CD Herbs Ltd. to supply product to an importing trader and a food manufacturer in Singapore, and a food manufacturer in Malaysia. Realisation of opportunities will depend on: 1. Establishing follow up contact with the organisations identified as opportunities to

determine future relationships. Provide these potential customers with product samples, etc.

2. Ensure the importance of grower commitment, towards overcoming the aspects which determine the overall success of the operation, is fully understood.

3. Undertaking relationship development with customers. 4. Establishing total commitment to quality management systems in all areas of production,

harvesting and processing to enable the supply of high quality product to consumers. 5. Explore packaging/branding of product to enable product recognition within existing

market. 6. Establish the production potential for different varieties commonly found in Asian

markets. 7. Appoint someone with necessary skills to facilitate the operation of quality and

relationship management. 4.3. Business Development Plans The business development plans started as a progression of mini plans as the project developed from agronomic exploration through market exploration to actual marketing. Part one of a major commissioned plan was undertaken in mid 1998 to look at how CDHAI were going to commercially uptake the recommendations of the agronomic and feasibility studies, in particular the management of the coriander and the ‘commercial in confidence’ project which were imminent. This has led to the formation of CD Herbs Ltd., the company code of practice and the implementation of QA guidelines. Part two of this plan will provide individual detailed guidlines for the development of:

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The following new industries for the Callide Valley 1. Coriander * 2. ‘Commercial in confidence’ industry * 3. Chilli industry 4. Paprika industry 5. Licorice industry * Industries 1, 2 & 3 are already underway. • A primary processing plant for 2 above.

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5. Implications and Recommendations 5.1 Implications • The establishment of the new herb and spice industries have allowed farmers to break out

of their traditional farming paradigm. • The formation of CDHAI means that farmers and businessmen in the Callide Valley have

a vehicle which facilitates the adoption of alternative crops and their value added components.

• The establishment of the new industries (1&2) leads to a projected 5 year minimum

increase in Callide Valley income of $6,000,000. • The establishment of the new industries, and in particular the primary processing plant,

will lead to an employment increase in the Callide Valley of 10 full time and 10 part time positions. (The project has already generated 2.5 positions.)

5.2 Recommendations • CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd. continue development of the targeted new industries. • CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd. continue monitoring of national/international markets and commit

to move quickly into other crops that have been researched as the market place dictates. • CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd. continue careful attention to grower management and

dissemination of information. • CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd. continue building and maintaining networks. • CDHAI/CD Herbs Ltd. continue research and development of alternative crops and value

adding opportunities.

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6. Appendices 6.1.1. Map of trial locations.

Geographic location of h b/ i t i l

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6.1.2. Climatic graphs of Biloela, Central Queensland.

Sample of yearly soil temperatures in Callide Valley

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Sample of yearly evaporation in Callide Valley

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6.1.3. Analysis of fertilised basil compounds.

FERTILIZER TRIALS: GC OF PLOT 2 Yield= 0.019 mL/g

Compound RT KOVATS AREA AREA% ML/g a-Pinene 12.751 934 26435 0.31 0.0001 Sabinene 14.485 975 35683 0.42 0.0001 B-Pinene 14.823 983 64432 0.76 0.0001 B-Myrcene 15.008 987 86676 1.03 0.0002 Limonene 17.14 1035 24970 0.30 0.0001 1,8-Cineole 17.408 1041 750865 8.91 0.0017 Unkown 18.009 1054 93593 1.11 0.0002 Linalool 20.579 1107 2969076 35.22 0.0067 (-)-Menthone 24.045 1175 29402 0.35 0.0001 Terpinen-4-01 25.458 1202 40553 0.48 0.0001 Methyl Chavicol 26.532 1222 3434545 40.74 0.0077 Neral 28.439 1257 42363 0.50 0.0001 Geraniol 28.874 1265 20551 0.24 0.0000 Unknown 29.699 1280 39071 0.46 0.0001 Citronellyl Formate 29.968 1285 76222 0.90 0.0002 Eugenol 35.041 1376 516337 6.12 0.0012 Methyl Anthranilate 35.495 1384 33243 0.39 0.0001 Unknown 37.131 1414 58620 0.70 0.0001 a-Sinensal 39.712 1462 24514 0.29 0.0001 a-Caryophyllene 40.789 1482 26029 0.31 0.0001 Unknown 46.72 1601 37178 0.44 0.0001 8430358 100

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FERTILIZER TRIALS: GC OF PLOT 3 Yield= 0.015 mL/g

Compound RT KOVATS AREA AREA% ML/g a-Pinene 12.745 934 13021 0.30 0.0000 Sabinene 14.487 957 18112 0.41 0.0001 B-Pinene 14.839 983 33666 0.76 0.0001 B-Myrcene 15.006 987 47357 1.07 0.0002 Limonene 17.146 1035 12650 0.29 0.0000 1,8-Cineole 17.444 1041 432152 9.80 0.0015 Unkown 17.979 1053 46140 1.05 0.0002 m-Cresol 19.486 1085 12433 0.28 0.0000 Linalool 20.574 1107 1863197 42.26 0.0063 (-)-Methone 24.042 1175 20441 0.46 0.0001 Methyl Ethyl Ethanoate 25.03 1194 7987 0.18 0.0000 Terpinen-4-o1 25.476 1202 29026 0.66 0.0001 Methyl Chavicol 26.531 1222 1798365 40.79 0.0061 Neral 28.426 1257 10776 0.24 0.0000 Unknown 29.625 1279 30900 0.70 0.0001 Citronellyl Formate 29.953 1285 18214 0.41 0.0001 Eugenol 35.045 1376 440477 9.99 0.0015 Methyl Anthranilate 35.488 1384 26030 0.59 0.0001 Unknown 37.149 1414 58361 1.32 0.0002 B-Caryophyllene 38.74 1444 8057 0.18 0.0000 a-Sinensal 39.682 1461 20554 0.47 0.0001 Unknown 40.309 1473 12175 0.28 0.0000` a-Caryophyllene 40.771 1482 23712 0.54 0.0001` Unknown 46.756 1602 40181 0.91 0.0001 4408453 100

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FERTILIZER TRIALS: GC OF PLOT 4 Yield= 0.11mL/g

Compound RT KOVATS AREA AREA% ML/g a-Pinene 12.762 934 5541 0.20 0.0000 Sabinene 14.468 975 7543 0.27 0.0000 B-Pinene 14.825 983 15401 0.54 0.0001 B-Myrcene 14.997 987 18131 0.64 0.0001 Limonene 17.142 1035 5796 0.20 0.0000 1,8-Cineole 17.443 1041 207198 7.33 0.0008 Hexyl Acetate 17.848 1050 15078 0.53 0.0001 Linalool 20.553 1107 1138301 40.25 0.0044 (-)-Menthone 24.01 1175 12499 0.44 0.0000 Methyl Ethyl Ethanoate 25.057 1194 6385 0.23 0.0000 Terpinen-4-o1 25.454 1202 14946 0.53 0.0001 Mrthyl Chavicol 26.547 1222 917594 32.45 0.0036 Neral 28.447 1257 6765 0.24 0.0000 Geraniol 28.878 1265 5163 0.18 0.0000 Chavicol 29.563 1277 14769 0.52 0.0001 Unknown 29.748 1281 10596 0.37 0.0000 Neryl Formate 30.389 1292 6781 0.24 0.0000 Terpinen-4-yl Acetate 32.413 1329 4977 0.18 0.0000 Citronellyl Acetate 34.006 1357 73086 2.58 0.0003 Eugenol 35.049 1376 128039 4.53 0.0005 Methyl Anthranilate 35.494 1384 22931 0.81 0.0001 Unknown 37.15 1414 62691 2.22 0.0002 Methyl Eugenol 37.436 1420 6366 0.23 0.0000 Dodecanal 37.735 1425 8178 0.29 0.0000 Unknown 38.543 1440 5531 0.20 0.0000 B-Caryophyllene 38.786 1444 18987 0.67 0.0001 a-Sinensal 39.724 1462 12757 0.45 0.0000 E-Cadinene 40.278 1472 7208 0.25 0.0000 Unknown 40.438 1475 24237 0.86 0.0001 a-Caryophyllene 40.764 1482 5665 0.20 0.0000 Unknown 45.581 1577 38684 1.37 0.0002 2827824 100

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Compound RT KOVATS AREA AREA% ML/g a-Pinene 12.75 934 26510 0.20 0.0000 Sabinene 14.491 975 33145 0.25 0.0000 B-Pinene 14.843 983 67480 0.51 0.0000 B-Myrcene 15.021 987 83599 0.64 0.0000 Limonene 17.152 1035 32673 0.25 0.0000 1,8-Cineole 17.441 1041 850536 6.48 0.0005 Unknown 18.064 1055 121260 0.92 0.0001 Linalool 20.589 1107 1749420 13.33 0.0009 B-Thujone 22.015 1136 2036754 15.52 0.0011 a-Campholenic Aldehyde 22.292 1141 1904436 14.51 0.0010 Unknown 24.347 1181 65251 0.50 0.0000 Terpinen-4-o1 25.469 1202 25227 0.19 0.0000 Ethyl Octanoate 25.579 1204 49392 0.38 0.0000 Unknown 25.866 1210 78680 0.60 0.0000 Methyl Chavicol 26.519 1222 2478890 18.89 0.0013 Geraniol 28.872 1265 76900 0.59 0.0000 Unknown 29.744 1281 62292 0.47 0.0000 Neryl Formate 30.357 1292 39205 0.30 0.0000 a-Terpinyl Acetate 34.432 1365 390620 2.98 0.0002 Eugenol 35.038 1376 1696797 12.93 0.0009 Methyl Anthranilate 35.487 1384 79543 0.61 0.0000 Methyl Eugenol 37.443 1420 180876 1.38 0.0001 B-Caryophyllene 38.778 1444 64849 0.49 0.0000 a-Sinensal 39.726 1462 42106 0.32 0.0000 cis-Isoeugenol 40.419 1475 27160 0.21 0.0000 a-Caryophyllene 40.794 1482 738963 5.63 0.0004 Unknown 41.183 1490 119495 0.91 0.0001 13122059 100

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Compound RT KOVATS AREA AREA% ML/g a-Pinene 12.758 934 18278 0.19 0.0000 Sabinene 14.498 975 17869 0.19 0.0000 B-Pinene 14.772 982 31547 0.33 0.0000 B-Myrcene 14.995 987 64880 0.68 0.0001 Limonene 17.136 10.35 29626 0.31 0.0000 1,8-Cineole 17.427 1041 435844 4.55 0.0006 Hexyl Acetate 17.849 1050 241116 2.52 0.0004 Unknown 18.816 1071 32182 0.34 0.0000 p-Cymenene 20.203 1099 21602 0.23 0.0000 Linalool 20.555 1107 493892

4 51.56 0.0072

Unknown 24.332 1181 45350 0.47 0.0001 Terpinen-4-o1 25.436 1202 149931 1.57 0.0002 Methyl Chavicol 26.549 1222 164975 1.72 0.0002 Methyl Salicylate 26.632 1224 280864 2.93 0.0004 Methyl Jasmonate 28.797 1264 27502. 0.29 0.0000 Geraniol 28.859 1265 79916 0.83 0.0001 Citronellyl Formate 29.98 1285 18349 0.19 0.0000 Ethyl Guaiacol 30.511 1295 29437 0.31 0.0000 Eugenol 35.054 1376 133044

8 13.89 0.0019

Methyl Anthranilate 35.476 1384 1333276

13.92 0.0019

Unknown 35.579 1386 67777 0.71 0.0001 Methyl Eugenol 37.479 1420 89416 0.93 0.0001 Unknown 39.813 1464 35812 0.37 0.0001 cis-Isoeugenol 40.424 1475 18580 0.19 0.0000 Geranyl Propanoate 40.475 1476 18237 0.19 0.0000 Unknown 41.157 1489 33023 0.34 0.0000 Unknown 46.861 1604 61139 0.64 0.0001 957975

3 100

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Compound RT KOVATS AREA AREA% ML/g a-Pinene 14.497 975 12738 0.25 0.0000 B-Myrcene 14.989 987 30707 0.59 0.0000 Limonene 17.163 1035 12307 0.24 0.0000 1,8-Cineole 17.421 1041 173824 3.35 0.0003 Hexyl Acetate 17.824 1050 115899 2.23 0.0002 Dihydrofuran 18.631 1067 13827 0.27 0.0000 Unknown 19.668 1088 12858 0.25 0.0000 Terpinolene 19.939 1094 12716 0.24 0.0000 Linalool 20.564 1107 267398 53.26 0.0043 (-)-Menthone 24.009 1175 24416 0.47 0.0000 Terpinen-4-o1 25.45 1202 72414 1.39 0.0001 Methyl Chavicol 26.549 1222 11969 0.23 0.000018 Methyl Carvacrol 28.224 1253 16522 0.32 0.0000 Geraniol 28.874 1265 60101 1.16 0.0001 Unknown 29.722 1280 20128 0.39 0.0000 Neryl Formate 30.345 1292 26756 0.51 0.0000 Citronellyl Acetate 34.003 1357 247563 4.76 0.0004 Eugenol 35.049 1376 1283468 24.70 0.0020 Methyl Anthranilate 35.472 1384 62559 1.20 0.0001 Unknown 37.116 1414 71977 1.39 0.0001 Unknown 39.639 1460 33127 0.64 0.0001 E-Cadinene 40.254 1472 15426 0.30 0.0000 Cinnamyl Acetate 40.383 1474 16889 0.33 0.0000 a-Caryophyllene 40.795 1482 28832 0.55 0.0000 Caryophyllenol 46.694 1600 51594 0.99 0.0001 5196015 100

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7. References McGill, I. & Beatty,L. 1992. Action Learning: a practitioner’s guide. Kogan Page. London Kolb, D.A. 1984. Experiential Learning. Prentice Hall. New Jersey Malouf D. Understanding Learning. REC 01 Course Notes 1995 Simon, J.E., Quinn, J & Murray, R. G. Basil: A Source of Essential Oils. Journal Paper No. 12,017, Purdue Uni. Ag. Expt. St., West Lafayette, IN 47907. Simon, J.E., & Quinn, J. Characterisation of Essential Oil of Parsley. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 1998, 36,467. CDHAI: Feasibility Study into the Herb/Spice Industry in the Callide Valley, Central Queensland. 1995 CDHAI: Potential Herb and Spice Markets of Singapore and Malaysia. 1997

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Total Funds and Other Contributions Year $ Amount Funding source Use Preliminary Project 1994 $ 2955 Banana Shire Council Market study 1994 $ 5000 DBIRD* Market study 1994 $ 5000 RIRDC R&D 1994 $ 5000 QDPI* R&D Total funding $17,955 Main Project 1994-8 $ 240000 QDPI R&D 1995-8 $ 265000 RIRDC R&D 1995-7 $ 120000 Grower cooperators Grower trials 1997 $ 9500 QDPI (DRD*) Market study 1997 $ 2500 QDPI Grower tour 1997 $ 5500 CDH*members Grower tour 1997 $ 10500 Business sponsors Options 97 1997 $ 15500 QDPI Options 97 1997/8 $ 40000 DEET* CDH* coordinator 1998 $ 68000 Grower cooperators Grower trials (semi- commercial) 1998 $ 13500 DEDT* Business plan 1 1998/9 $ 25000 Grower/businessmen Business plan 2 for company CDH Ltd.* 1998/9 $ 60000 DEET CDH coordinator 1999 $ 67000 Grower cooperators Grower trials (culinary semi- commercial) Total money invested in main project $942,000

Developing a Herb and Spice Industry

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