Dete C - Partial Replacement of Course Aggregate With Waste Glass

8/9/2019 Dete C - Partial Replacement of Course Aggregate With Waste Glass

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF

AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL, CONSTRUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

FINAL YEAR PROJECT PROPOSAL

PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE

AGGREGATES WITH WASTE GLASS

BY: CALVIN DETE

REG. NO: E25- 0709 /05

PROJECT SUPERVISOR:

MR.NJUKI

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering


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DECLARATION

I, Calvin Dete, do declare that this report is my original work and to the best of my knowledge, it has not

been submitted for any degree award in any University or Institution.

Signed______________________________________________ Date ____________

Calvin Dete


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CERTIFICATION

I have read this report and approve it for examination

Signed_______________________________________________Date_____________

Mr. Njuki


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to my lecturers, colleagues and friends who have assisted me in preparation of this project

by giving guidelines, advice and comments. My sincere thanks go to my supervisor Mr. Njuki for his

immense support, encouragement and positive criticism during the project and report writing without

whom this work couldn’t have been realized. Also I would like to thank the Civil Engineering staff

members and my colleagues who guided and assisted me in accomplishing this research work.

In addition, I would greatly like to thank my family and friends who stood by my side throughout my

studies, and anyone else whose input facilitated my life throughout college.


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DEDICATION

First, I would like to dedicate this research project to Almighty God who has blessed me and brought me

to this point.

Secondly, I dedicate this research work to my mum and my dad, and all my family members. Their

undying commitment to my education and unwavering support throughout this course has been a true

revelation. May the Lord bless abundantly bless you.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Declar ation ……………………………………………………………………..….…….ii

Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………...………....…iv

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….….v

Table of Contents.................................................................................................. vi

List of figures…………………………………………………………….……………...x

List of tables…………………………………………………………………………….xi


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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction...........................................................................................................1

1.1 Background……............................................................ ........................................1

1.2 Problem Justification..............................................................................................1

1.3 Problem Statement……………………………………………………………………..2

1.4 Research objectives................................................................................................2

1.4.1 Overall Objectives...............................................................................................2

1.4.2 Specific Objectives…………………………………………………………….….…..2

1.5 Research hypothesis..............................................................................................3

1.6 Scope of Study…………………………………………………………………………..3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Overview………......................................................................................................4

2.1 Literature Review.....................................................................................................4

2.2 Physical Properties of Glass…….................................................. ............................5

2.2.1 Appearance.…………………………………………………..…………………….5

2.2.2 Specific Gravity and Relative Density.............................................................5

2.2.3 Gradation……………………………………………………………………..…….6

2.2.4 Durability and Workability…………………………………………………..…….6

2.2.5 Shear Strength……………………………………………………………………..7

2.2.6 Compaction………………………………………………………………………..8

2.2.7 Permeability………………………………………………………….…………….9

2.2.8 Thermal Conductivity…………………………………………………….……….9

2.2.9 Filtration……………………………………………………………………………9

2.2.10 Leachability………………………………………………………………………10


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2.3 Safety and Handling…………………………………………………..……………11

CHAPTER THREE

3.0.0 Research methodology..............................................................................................12

3.1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................12

3.1.1 Sample Collection and Preparation……………………………………………………....12

3.1.2 Sampling of Aggregates……………………………………………….………………….12

3.2.3 Particle Size Distribution...........................................................................................13

3.3.0 Design of concrete mixes…………………………………………………………………14

3.3.1 Principles of design……………………………………………………………..………..14

3.3.2 Stages in Mix Design…………………………………………………………………….15

3.4.0 Batching of Concrete Materials…………………………………………………………15

3.5.0 Testing the Properties of Fresh Concrete……………………………………………….16

3.5.1 Workability………………………………………………………………………………16

3.5.2 Slump Test……………………………………………………………………………….17

3.6.0 Testing properties of hardened concrete……………………………………………….18

3.6.1 Determination of Compressive strength……………………………………………….18

3.6.1.2 Curing of Cubes………………………………………………………………..……..18

3.6.1.3 Compressive Test…………………………………………………………….……….18

3.7.0 Flexural tests........................................................................................................19

3.7.1 Objective…………………………………………………………………...……….19

3.8.0 Indirect Splitting Tensile test................................................................................20

3.8.1 Objective………………………………………………………………………….20


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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0.0 Results and Analysis and Discussion......................................................................21

4.1.0 Particle Size distribution …………..……………………………………..……...............21

4.1.1 Sieve Analysis of Aggregates...........………………………………………………….....21

4.1.1.0 Course Glass Cullet Sieve Analysis……………………………………….........21-22

4.1.1.1 Course Aggregate Sieve analysis………..……………………………....….....23-24

4.1.1.2 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis……………………………………………….25-26

4.2.0 Slump Test……….……………………………..……………………………………..27

4.3.0 Compressive Strength Test...............................................................................28-30

4.3.1 Modes of Failur e………………………………………………………………………30-34

4.4.0 Tensile Test………………….………………………………………………................35

4.5.0 Flexural Strength Test ……………………………………………………...............36-37

4.5.1 Testing Beams for Flexture………………………………………………………….39-39

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1.0 Conclusion and Recommendation...................................................................40

5.1.1 Conclusion...............................................................................................40

5.1.2 Recommendation.....................................................................................40

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………..41

APPENDIX………………………………………………..….…..……….42-54


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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1: Sieve arr angement…………………………………………………………… 14

Fig 2: 75% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure…………………..........31

Fig 3: 45% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure ………………………..32

Fig 4: 15% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure .…………………….....33

Fig 5: 30% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure……………………......34

Fig 6: 30% replacement after flexture ……………..............................................38

Fig 7: 30% replacement before flexture ..............................................................38

Fig 8: Slump Graph...........................................................................................27

Fig 9: Flextural Strength Graph..........................................................................37

Fig 10: Tensile Strength Graph………………………………………….…….…….35

Fig 11: Coarse Glass Aggregate Analysis Graph..................................................21

Fig 12 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis Graph..................................................24

Fig 13: Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis Graph.....................................................26


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Coarse Glass Aggregate Analysis …………………………………............19

Table 2: Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis..............................................................20

Table 3: Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis...................................................................21

Table 4.Slump Test Results……..............................................................................21

Table 5-6: Compressive Strength Results……………………………………………..22

Table 7: Summary of Splitting Tensile Test Result....................................................24

Table 6: Summary of average crushing results..................................................................19

Table 7: Summary of tensile strength results.....................................................................24

Table 8: Summary of flexural test results...........................................................................25

Table 9-20: Summary of Compressive test Results……………………………………42-54


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PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE AGGREGATE WITH WASTE GLASS IN

CONCRETE BLOCKS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Glass is a transparent material produced by melting a mixture of materials such as silica, soda ash, and

CaCO3 at high temperature followed by cooling during which solidification occurs without

crystallization. Glass is widely used in our lives through manufactured products such as sheet glass,

bottles, glassware, and vacuum tubing. Glass is an ideal material for recycling. The use of recycled glass

in new container helps save of energy. It helps in brick and ceramic manufacture, and it conserves raw

materials, reduces energy consumption, and the volume of waste sent to landfill.

Waste glass is a major component of the solid waste stream in many countries. It can be found in many

forms, including container glass, flat glass such as windows, bulb glass and cathode ray tube glass. At

present, although a small proportion of the post consumer glass has been recycled and reused, a

significant proportion of waste glass generated in Kenya is sent to landfill.

Glass is a 100% recyclable material with high performances and unique aesthetics properties which

makes it suitable for wide-spread uses. Besides, the current recycling states pose great pressures on glass

recycling and reusing. The use of glass as aggregates in concrete has great potential for future high quality

concrete development. This research will focus on the applicability of waste glass to civil engineering

applications. Glass cullet utilized as an aggregate can incorporate mixed glass that have been crushed and

screened to remove debris and oversized particles. This system provides a use for glass materials not

currently recycled.

1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION

Demands on building material have increased from time to time due to the increasing population and

urbanization. Among the material demanded is coarse aggregate and in the phase of sustainability in

construction, utilization of waste material has been encouraged because recycling of this material will

help in protecting the environment from land fill disposal of the broken waste and also the granitic

quarrying of the coarse aggregate will be significantly reduced.


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From engineering standpoint, broken glass or cullet appears to be an excellent supplement for

replacement for natural aggregate in many construction applications. The study will define the suitability

of waste glass as a construction aggregate in terms of its engineering performance and cost comparability

with natural aggregates.

1.3

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The study will aim at evaluating the use of waste glass as a possible replacement of course aggregate in

concrete blocks so as to reduce the amount of waste glass to be land filled and as well as any resulting

risk to human health and also come up with light-weight, low cost concrete blocks of normal concrete .

What is needed is an aggregate comprising material of low commercial value, which can be

complemented with natural aggregate to provide concrete of equivalent, or improved physical properties.

With respect to the construction industry and engineering profession, these new materials may not only be

more economically advantageous than traditional granular materials but may also outperform them.

Hence waste glass aggregates could be considered as a viable alternative. The factors to be considered

will be,

Natural aggregate locally available.

How cullet might supplement or complement the natural aggregate supply,

Supply and quantity of cullet,

Size of cullet demand for given applications; and

Applicable local specifications and environmental regulations.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1.4.1 OVERALL OBJECTIVE

To investigate the possibility of either partial or total replacement of conventional coarse aggregates with

waste glass in the manufacture of concrete blocks.

1.4.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

To determine the material properties of waste glass.

The study will

To investigate the availability and economic feasibility of the use for waste glass as

aggregates


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1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

This research aims at producing a concrete block which will be of low cost and having the same

engineering properties as conventional concrete. The positive impact on the environment will also be felt

as a large quantity of non-biodegradable waste glass will be recycled for use as opposed to being dumped

in landfills. Thus environmental conservation efforts will move in the right direction.

1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this project will be to evaluate the use of waste glasses as a possible partial or total

replacement of conventional concrete in the manufacture of concrete blocks.


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CHAPTER 2

2.0 OVERVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW.

The opportunity for using glass in construction application stems from the emergence of quantities of

materials remaining from recovery and recycling activities, due to inconsistencies between the quantities

of different colours of glass manufactured and the colour composition of glass waste streams.UK

produces over three million tonnes of waste glass annually, of which 71% comes from waste containers.

There is not much literature on the Kenyan solid waste management (SWM) sector. While poor

management of solid waste is a general problem in Kenya, it is probably worst in Nairobi because of the

lack of consistent data in other parts of the country.

The amount of waste glass has gradually increased over the recent years due to an ever-growing use of

glass products. Most waste glasses have been dumped into landfill sites. The land filling of waste glasses

is undesirable because they are not biodegradable, which makes them environmentally less friendly.

There is huge potential for using waste glass in the concrete construction sector. When waste glasses are

reused in making concrete products, the production cost of concrete will go down. When used in

construction applications, waste glass must be crushed and screened to produce an appropriate design

gradation.

Waste glasses are used as aggregates for concrete. However, the applications are limited due to the

damaging expansion in the concrete caused by ASR between high-alkali pore water in cement paste and

reactive silica in the waste glasses. The chemical reaction between the alkali in Portland cement and the

silica in aggregates forms silica gel that not only causes crack upon expansion, but also weakens the

concrete and shortens its life. Ground waste glass was used as aggregate for mortars and no reaction was

detected with fine particle size, thus indicating the feasibility of the waste glass reuse as fine aggregate in

mortars and concrete. In addition, waste glass seemed to positively contribute to the mortar micro-

structural properties resulting in an evident improvement of its mechanical performance. Recently, some

studies were carried out to suppress the ASR expansion in concrete and find method to recycle waste

glasses. The concrete containing 20% waste glass reduced the expansion ratio by 40%. Shayan and Xu

reported fine glass powder for incorporation into concrete up to 30% as a pozzolanic material suppressed

the ASR. Topcu and Canbaz reported the waste glass in size of 4-16 mm used as aggregate in the concrete

reduced the compressive strength of concrete. Tuncan showed the addition of waste glass powder (15%)

into concrete increased the compressive strength of concrete as much as 13%. Kısacık also reported the

compressive strength of concrete with waste glass decreased 19%. In the study of Park 30% of waste


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glass with size of 0-5 mm addition into concrete decreased the compressive strength of concrete as much

as 4%. Park, Topcu and Canbaz, Tuncan and Kısacık reported in their studies the addition of waste glass

into concrete in crushed forms decreased the flexural strength. Park, Topcu and Canbaz and Kısacık also

reported in their studies the addition of waste glass into concrete in crushed forms decreased the splitting

tensile strength, while Tuncan, reported an increase of 6%. Sangha, investigated the effect on concrete

strength of green glass as an aggregate replacement. They observed that increases in the compressive

strength values at the 10%, 40%, and 60% aggregate replacement by waste glass with 0-10 mm particle

size were 3%, 8% and 5% as compared with control sample without waste glass but decrease in the

compressive strength value was 2% at the 20% replacement.

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS

The technical feasibility of substituting glass waste or cullet blends for a given soil/aggregate component

should be based on demonstrating the equivalency of the cullet performance to that of the conventional

aggregate component. The use of conventional aggregate materials in civil engineering construction

applications is based on an evaluation of classification and engineering properties. Classification

properties are those properties which help identify a material and engineering properties are those used

for engineering design.

2.2.1 Appearance

The amount of debris in glass cullet can affect its engineering properties. Depending upon the glass

collection and sorting procedures, glass cullet may contain the following types of debris: paper, foil and

plastic labels, plastic and metal caps, cork, paper bags, wood debris, food residue, and grass.

Specifications should place a limit on the percentage of debris allowed in the cullet. Generally, debris

levels should not exceed a maximum of 10 percent and in many applications 5 percent.

The glass cullet particles are mostly angular with a small percentage flat or platy shape. The angular

shape indicates a potential to cut or puncture a synthetic liner (geomembrane) or similar material if placed

against this material. Applications should avoid this direct contact.

2.2.2 Specific Gravity and Relative Density

Specific gravity is a measure of a material’s density. This determines the amount of voids in the

aggregate. Specific gravity values for crushed natural aggregate range from 2.60 to 2.83. Based on test

results done by HBR Engineering in the US, the specific gravities for coarse glass cullet ranged from 1.96

to 2.41 and for fine cullet range from 2.49 to 2.52.


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ASTM D 653 (1) defines relative density as, " ... the ratio of the difference between the void ratio of a

cohesionless soil in the loosest state and any given void ratio, to the difference between the void ratios in

the loosest and in the densest states.” In other words, relative density is a measure of a soil’s mass density

relative to its possible range of density. Test data shows that the maximum relative densities for 100

percent cullet range from 90.9 to 109.3 pounds per cubic foot. With cullet-aggregate blends, the relative

density increases with decreasing cullet content.

The specific gravity and relative density of glass cullet are important baseline properties. They relate

directly to engineering properties such as compaction and shear strength.

2.2.3 Gradation

ASTM D 653 (1) defines gradation (grain-size distribution) as the “...proportions by mass of a soil or

fragmented rock distributed in specified particle-size ranges.” Gradation is a primary criterion for

roadway and engineering fill. It can affect engineering properties such as compaction, permeability,

filtration, and shear strength. The gradation of glass cullet is generally similar to crushed rock and gravely

sand and is controlled by the cullet processing method. Gradation is obtained by sieve analysis.

Specifications will dictate the gradation required for each application.

Gradation test results from Dames & Moore indicate that significant gradation change occurs when 100

percent cullet is subjected to heavy impact compaction. Therefore, fill applications that use this type of

compaction such as fluctuating or heavy stationary loads should not use 100 percent cullet.

2.2.4 Durability and Workability

Durability of a material is based on hardness and toughness. Durability was evaluated by Dames & Moore

from the Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion tests using standard method ASTM C 13 1. Durability is a material

classification property that affects its suitability for roadway base course and fills under fluctuating loads.

Glass cullet’s resistance to abrasion is lower than that of natural aggregate. The L.A. abrasion test

indicated that the percentage wear of glass cullet was 30 percent for 1/4-inch minus size and 42 percent of

3/4-inch minus size. This is almost two times greater than that of natural aggregate. The Nebraska

Department of Roads (NDOR) specifies limiting values for mineral aggregate used in roadway base

courses and foundation courses at 40 percent, and crushed rock used in base courses at 45 percent.

Workability is the ease with which an aggregate is handled and compacted. Glass cullet is generally

angular in shape, compared to crush rock (subangular) and gravely sand (subround) the ¾ inch minus

cullet has some potential to cut, puncture, or wedge into moving parts of construction equipment.

However, favourable compaction characteristics provide good workability of glass cullet and cullet-

aggregate mixture.


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2.2.5 Shear Strength

ASTM D 653 (1) defines shear strength as,.the maximum resistance of a soil or rock to shearing stresses.”

Shear strength is a design consideration that affects bearing capacity. This shear strength is expressed by

the angle of internal friction, measured in degrees. Typical granular soil have angle of friction ranging

from 27 degrees (for loose, silty sand) to 55 degrees (for dense, medium size gravel). Limited direct shear

test data on glass cullet indicate a friction angle at 55 degrees. This is slightly higher than the typical

natural aggregate. Dames and Moore suggested that this implied strength of glass cullet may not be

reliable and recommended five type’s tests to further define cullet shear strength. A summary of

subsequent test results is presented in the table.


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The R-value relates indirectly to the strength of the material. The value is commonly used to specify base

or sub- base aggregate. The resilient modulus is a measure of a material’s stiffness used in pavement

design. The resilient modulus of natural aggregate is typically about 30 ksi at a bulk stress of 25 psi.

Modulus for cullet does not appreciable change with repeated loading (e.g., repeated traffic loads).

Shear strength is a major design consideration for construction with glass cullet in embankments,

roadway base courses, and engineering fill under foundations. Test results indicate that the strength of

cullet is about the same as natural aggregate. However, for specific applications such as fills under

fluctuating loads and roadways, only cullet mixes up to 30 percent are recommended by Dames & Moore.

2.2.6 Compaction

ASTM D 653 (1) defines compaction as the “...densification of a soil by means of mechanical

manipulation.” Compaction is a design consideration that effects density control. Compaction

characteristics include relationship of density and moisture content, effect of compaction method on

density and potential gradation change, and sensitivity of material to weather conditions.

Cullet and cullet-aggregate mixtures have favorable compaction characteristics. Glass cullet aggregate

mixtures generally do not experience appreciable gradation changes with compaction. The maximumdensity values obtained from the Modified Proctor compaction and vibratory compaction tests are about

equivalent for cullet-added fill materials. Density slightly increases with decreasing cullet content.

However, heavy field compaction equipment can significantly effect density values for 100 percent cullet

fills because of the gradation changes, The compacted density of cullet is not sensitive to the moisture


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content, which means that cullet material can be placed and compacted during wet weather. As a result,

construction downtime may be kept to a minimum.

2.2.7 Permeability

ASTM D 653 (1) defines permeability as, “...the capacity of a rock to conduct liquid or gas.” Permeability

is a design consideration in civil drainage applications such as foundations drainage, drainage blankets,

and french drains, and in leachate collection and gas venting layers. For drainage fill material, high

permeability is usually more beneficial than low. Typical granular soils (washed gravel, sand or sand-

gravel mixtures) have permeabilities ranging from 0.01 to 0.001 cm/sec. The permeability of a granular

material depends on its gradation and density. Data reported on permeability tests of 100 percent glass

cullet have permeabilities ranging from 0.04 to 0.06 cm/sec for fine cullet and 0.18 to 0.26 cm/sec for

coarse cullet. The cullet-aggregate mixtures have permeabilities between 100 percent cullet and granular

soils. In general, permeability will increase with increasing cullet content, cullet size, and debris level but

will decrease with increasing compaction. This is comparable to natural sand and gravel. Therefore,

drainage applications can use 100 percent glass cullet for fill material. Cullet also appears to have

favorable characteristics for use as filtration media in such applications as septic fields, leachate treatment

and water purification. However, further study of the filtration capacity is warranted.

2.2.8 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity represents the ability of the material to conduct or resist heat flow. Thermal

conductivity is a design consideration that effects bedding and backfill for conduits or other heat sources.

Test data results indicate that glass cullet and cullet-aggregate mixtures have slightly lower thermal

conductivities than natural aggregate. In other words, cullet conducts heat more slowly. This slight

difference still allows cullet materials to be feasible for utility trench backfill.

2.2.9 Filtration

ASTM D 653 (1) defines a filter as, "... a layer or combination of layers of pervious materials designed

and installed in such a manner as to provide drainage, yet prevent the movement of soil particles due to

flowing water.” Filtration is a design consideration that effects clogging and plugging between adjacent

layers. The American Water Works Association Standard B 100 was applied to cullet properties

(gradation, specific gravity, shape, and hardness) to determine suitability as a filtering media. Typical

filtering media such as silica sand have required effective sizes ranging from 0.35 mm to 0.65 mm. The

gradation of fine glass cullet (%-inch minus) tested by Dames & Moore ranged from 0.5 mm to 6.5 mm.

With additional sieving, the fine cullet appears to be feasible as an intermediate filtering media. Coarse


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cullet provides high permeability, but is not effective as a graded filter. Dames & Moore recommended

further direct measurement and study of cullet filtration capacity.

Filtration is a major design consideration for all drainage type applications in direct contact with adjacent

soil layers. Filter fabrics may be used to provide the filtration function and prevent plugging and clogging

of the cullet layer. Thick non-woven geotextiles also offer puncture resistance.

2.2.10 Leachability

Glass is a relatively inert material; however, common contaminants from collection methods can

influence the chemical characteristics of glass feedstock. Only limited chemical test data is available for

recycled glass feedstocks. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) testing for metals, based

on analytical data provided by the Clean Washington Center indicates, “...all metals, except lead,

occurred at concentrations below the regulatory limit.” The lead levels in some samples may be

associated with the lead foil wrappers on wine bottles in various cullet feedstocks. TCLP organic

compounds were not detected, suggesting that organic compounds in cullet have a low leachability

potential. The semi-volatile organic analysis indicated the presence of phthalate compounds, a

biodegradation product of plastics. The variability in presence and concentration of lead and phthalates in

cullet samples can be attributed to whether cullet is screened for debris, the color of the cullet, and the

sorting and collection procedure for each cullet source.

Laboratory test results have been conducted for total lead and leachable lead by BFI using EPA Method

3010/6010 and EPA Method 13 11/6010 (8). The test results for all samples showed that total lead

concentrations were undetectable or at low concentrations similar to levels in natural aggregate. Most

cullet source samples showed TCLP lead results below the federal regulatory limit of 5 mg/l or

undetected.

Additional laboratory leaching tests were conducted by Dames & Moore in accordance with ASTM D

4793 to assess the chemical characteristics and the potential for contaminant leaching over time. The test

protocol involved shaking a known weight of sample with water and separating the aqueous phase ten

times over a ten-day period.

In general, metal concentrations in glass cullet were at or below the metal concentrations

typically found in background levels of natural aggregate Contaminant levels of the cullet samples

decreased in concentration over time and are not at concentration of concern.

Leachability is a design consideration for glass cullet applications in contact with ground water or subject

to infiltration into ground water.


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2.3 Safety and Handling

Safety concerns in handling glass cullet during production and construction include: exposure to

respirable particles and potential for skin irritations, cuts, or lacerations. Glass is primarily composed of

amorphous silica. Amorphous silica is not considered to be a significant health hazard. Crystalline silica,

a health hazard known to cause fibrogenic lung disease, is not likely to be found, except in very low

amounts, in the post-consumer glass stream used for cullet. Test results conducted-by Dames & Moore

indicated that cullet samples contained less than one percent crystalline silica which puts glass cullet dust

in the nuisance dust category under OSHA.

Skin irritations and cuts can be avoided through the use of protective clothing similar to that worn when

working with natural aggregates. This includes heavy gloves, long-sleeve shirts, pants, heavy boots, hard

hats, hearing protection and eye protection.


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CHAPTER 3

3.0.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1.0 INTRODUCTION

The project will involve analyzing the effects of partially replacing ballast with glass waste/cullets in a

concrete mix. This will involve laboratory tests and each test will be conducted several times and the

averaged results considered. In this study, concrete mix design will employed and deductions derived

purely from the obtained results. The following test will be done.

3.1.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION

Sample of the waste glass will be collected from the Coca Cola and Beer dealers depot in Nairobi and at

the selected pubs around Juja area. The glass will be inspected to ensure that the debris and other forms of

impurities are removed and then crushed manually to the required size.

3.1.2 SAMPLING OF AGGREGATES

Samples should show the true nature and conditions of the materials which they represent. They should be

drawn from points known to be representative of the probable variations in the material. At the laboratory

the main sample should be reduced to the quantity required for testing. There are two ways of reducing

the size of a sample each essentially dividing it into two similar parts. These are;

a)

Riffling

The sample is split into two halves using a riffler (Riffle box). This is a box with a number of parallel

vertical divisions, alternate ones discharging to the left and to the right. The sample is discharged into the

riffle box over its full width and the two halves are collected into the boxes at the bottom of the chutes on

each side. One half is discarded and riffling of the other half is repeated until the sample is reduced to the

desired size.

b) Quartering

The main sample is thoroughly mixed (and in case of fine aggregates, it is damped in order to avoid

segregation). The aggregate is heaped into a cone and then turned over to form a new cone. This is

repeated twice, the material always being deposited at the apex of the cone so that the fall of particles is

evenly distributed round the circumference. The final cone is flattened and divided into quarters. One pair


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of the diagonally opposite quarters is discarded and the remainder forms the sample for testing. If it is still

too large, it can be reduced further by quartering. Care must be taken to include all fine material in the

appropriate quarter.

3.2.3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Introduction

This test consists of dividing up and separating by means of a series of test sieves, a material into several

particle size classifications of decreasing sizes. The mass of the particles retained on the various sieves is

related to the initial mass of the material. The cumulative percentages passing each sieve are reported in

numerical and graphical form.

Objective

(i). To determine the particle size distribution of specified aggregates.

(ii). To draw grading curves for the aggregates specified.

Procedure

1. The test sieves will be arranged from top to bottom in order of decreasing aperture sizes with pan and

lid to form a sieving column.

2. The aggregate sample will then poured into the sieving column and shaken thoroughly manually.

3. The sieves will be removed one by one starting with the largest aperture sizes (top most), and each

sieve shaken manually ensuring no material is lost. All the material which passed each sieve will be

returned into the column before continuing with the operation with that sieve.

4. The retained material will be weighed for the sieve with the largest aperture size and its weight

recorded.

5. The same operation will be carried out for all the sieves in the column and their weights recorded.

6. The screened material that will remain in the pan will weighed and its weight recorded.

Calculations

1) Record the various masses on a test data sheet.

2) Calculate the mass retained on each sieve as a percentage of the original dry mass.

3) Calculate the cumulative percentage of the original dry mass passing each sieve down to the smallest

aperture sieve.


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Fig 1: Sieves

3.3 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXES

This is the process of selecting the correct proportions of cement, fine and coarse aggregate, water and

sometimes admixtures to produce concrete having the properties specified and desired i.e. workability,

compressive strength, density and durability requirements by means of specifying the minimum or

maximum water/cement ratio.

3.3.1 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Strength Margin

Due to variability of concrete strengths, the mix must be designed to have higher mean strengths than the

characteristic strength. The difference between the two is the Margin. The margin is based on the

variability of concrete strengths from previous production data expressed as a standard deviation.

Workability

Two alternative methods were used to determine workability; Slump test which is more appropriate for

higher workability mixes and the compacting factor test which is particularly appropriate for mixes which

are applicable to mixes compacted by vibration.


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Free – water

The total water in a concrete mix consists of water absorbed by the aggregate to bring it to saturated

surface – dry condition and the free – water available for hydration of cement and for the workability of

the fresh concrete. The workability of fresh concrete depends on a large extent on its free – water content.

In practice, aggregates are often wet and they contain both absorbed water and free surface water so that

the water added to the mixer is less than the free – water content. The strength of concrete is better related

to the free – water/cement ratio since on this basis the strength of concrete does not depend on the

absorption characteristics of the aggregates.

Types of aggregates

Two characteristics of aggregates particles that affect the properties of concrete are particle shape and

surface texture. Particle shape affects workability of the concrete and the surface texture affects the bond

between the cement matrix and the aggregates particles and thus the strength of concrete. Two types of

aggregates are considered for design on this basis; Crushed and Uncrushed.

Aggregate grading

The design of mixes will be based on specific grading curves of aggregates. The curves of fine aggregates

must comply with grading zones of BS 882.

Mix parameters

The approach to be adopted for specifying mix parameters will be reference to the weights of materials in

a unit volume of fully compacted concrete. This approach will require the knowledge of expected density

of fresh concrete which depends primarily on the relative density of the aggregate and the water content

of the mix. This method will result in the mix being specified in terms of the weights in kilograms of

different materials required to produce 1m3 of finished concrete.

3.3.2 STAGES IN MIX DESIGN

STAGE 1: Selection of Target Water/Cement (W/C) ratio

STAGE 2: Selection of free – water content.

STAGE 3: Determination of cement content

STAGE 4: Determination of total aggregate content

STAGE 5: Selection of fine and coarse aggregate content

STAGE 6: Mix proportioning

3.4 BATCHING OF CONCRETE MATERIALS

Following the mix design process, concrete materials (Cement, Fine and Coarse Aggregates) should be

prepared early enough before the concrete works begins. This allows the smooth running of the project.

Batching of materials will be done by weight. The advantage of weight method is that bulking of


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aggregates (especially fine aggregates) does not affect the proportioning of materials by weight unlike

batching by volume method. Bulking of sand results in a smaller weight of sand occupying a fixed

volume of the measuring container thus the resulting mix becomes deficient in sand and appears stony

and the concrete may be prone to segregation and honeycombing. Concrete yield may be reduced.

The batch weights of aggregates determined in the mix design process are based on a saturated surface –

dry conditions. When working with dry aggregates, the following options may be adopted to achieve

saturated surface – dry conditions;

1. The batch weights of fine and coarse dry aggregates required for the trial mix are calculated by

multiplying the batch weights derived from mix design by 100 100+ ,where A is the percentage by

weight of the water needed to bring the aggregate to the saturated surface – dry condition.

2. The dry aggregates are brought to a saturated surface – dry condition before mixing process by addition

of the required amount of water for absorption by the aggregate according to BS 1881 – 125:1983.

3. Increasing the weight of mixing water to allow for the absorption of some mixing water by the dry

aggregate during mixing process.

Batching of concrete materials by weight may be expressed as follows;

Wt (C) + Wt (CA) + Wt (FA) + Wt (Air) = Wt (CC)

Where;

Wt (C) = Weight of cement.

Wt (CA) = Weight of coarse aggregate.

Wt (FA) = Weight of fine aggregate.

Wt (Air) = Weight of entrained air.

Wt (CC) = Weight of compacted concrete.

3.5.0 TESTING THE PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE.

3.5.1 WORKABILITY

Workability may be described as the consistence of a mix such that the concrete can be transported,

placed and finished sufficiently easily and without segregation. Workability may also be specifically

defined as the amount of useful work necessary to obtain full compaction i.e. the work done to overcome

the internal friction and the surface friction between the individual particles in concrete and also between

the concrete and the surface of the mould or of the reinforcement.

The main factor affecting workability is the water content of the mix expressed in Kilograms per cubic

metre of concrete. If the water content and other mix proportions are fixed, workability is governed by the

maximum size of aggregate, shape and texture.


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The free – water required to produce concrete of a specified slump depends upon the characteristics of the

aggregate. The grading of coarse aggregates, provided it complies with the requirements of BS 882, has

little effect on water requirement of a concrete mix. The grading of fine aggregate has a considerable

effect on the water requirement of the concrete. Changing the grading of sand from a coarse one (e.g.

20% by weight passing the 600 m test sieve) to a finer one (e.g. 90% by weight passing 600 m test

sieve) can result in an increase of water content of 25Kg/m3 in order to maintain the required workability

of the concrete. Such a change in water content would reduce considerably the compressive strength of

the concrete. The workability can be maintained by reducing the fines content.

3.5.2 SLUMP TEST

Introduction

Slump test has been used extensively in site work to detect variations in the uniformity of mix of given

proportions. It is useful on the site as a check on the variations of materials being fed to the mixer. An

increase in slump may mean that the moisture content of aggregate has increased or a change in grading

of the aggregate, such as the deficiency of fine aggregate. Too much or too low slump gives an immediate

warning and enables the mixer operator to remedy the situation.

The test will be done according to BS 1881 – 102:1983 which describes the determination of slump of

cohesive concrete of medium to high workability. The slump test is sensitive to the consistency of fresh

concrete. The test is valid if yields a true slump, this being a slump in which the concrete remains

substantially intact and symmetrical.

Objective

To determine slump of fresh concrete mix.

Apparatus

A standard mould which is a frustum of a cone complying with BS 1881 – 102: 1983.

A standard flat base plate preferably steel.

A standard tamping rod.

Standard graduated steel rule from 0 to 300mm at 5mm intervals.

A scoop approximately 100mm wide.

Procedure

1) The inside surfaces of the mould will be cleaned and oiled to prevent adherence of fresh concrete on

the surfaces.

2) The mould is placed on the base plate and firmly held.

3) The cone will then be filled with fresh concrete in three layer with each layer compacted with 25

strokes of the tamping rod.


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4) After filling the mould, the top surface will be struck off by means of rolling action of the tamping rod.

5) Immediately after filling, the cone will be slowly and carefully lifted.

6) Immediately after removal of the mould the slump of the unsupported concrete will measured and

recorded.

3.6 TESTING THE PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

3.6.1 DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – CUBE TEST TO BS EN 12390 –

2:2000

3.6.1.1 Casting of cubes

The specimens were cast in iron moulds generally 150mm cubes. This conforms to the specifications of

BS 1881 – 3:1970. The moulds surfaces are first cleaned and oiled on their inside surfaces in order to

prevent development of bond between the mould and the concrete. The moulds are then assembled and

bolts and nuts tightened to prevent leakage of cement paste.

After preparing trial mixes, the moulds are filled with concrete in three layers, each layer being

compacted using a poker vibrator to remove as much entrapped air as possible and to produce full

compaction of concrete without segregation. The moulds are filled to overflowing and excess concrete

removed by sawing action of steel rule. Surface finishing was then done by means of a trowel. The test

specimens are then left in the moulds undisturbed for 24 hours and protected against shock, vibration and

dehydration at a temperature of 20 ± 30C.

3.6.1.2 Curing of cubes

Curing may be defined as the procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a

control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete. The objective of curing

was to keep concrete as nearly saturated as possible, until the originally water – filled space in the fresh

cement paste was filled to the desired extent by the products of hydration of cement. The temperature

during curing also controls the rate of progress of the reactions of hydration and consequently affects the

development of strength of concrete. The cubes were placed in a curing pond/tank at a temperature of 20

± 20C for the specified period of time.

Before placing cubes into a curing tank they must be marked with a water proof marker. Details to be

marked on the cubes are mainly; type of mix, date of casting, duration for curing and crushing day.

3.6.1.3 Compressive Test

After curing the cubes for the specified period, they will be removed and wiped to remove surface

moisture in readiness for compression test. The cubes will then be placed with the cast faces in contact

with the platens of the testing machine that is the position of the cube when tested should be at right


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angles to that as cast. The load will then be applied at a constant rate of stress of approximately equal to

15 N/mm2 to failure. The readings on the dial gauge will be recorded for each cube

The crushing strength is influenced by a number of factors in addition to the water/cement ratio and

degree of compaction. These are

The type of cement and its quali ty . Both the rate of strength gain and the ultimate

strength may be affected.

Type and sur face of aggregate . Affects the bond strength.

Ef fi ciency of curi ng . Loss in strength of up to 40% may result from premature drying

out.

Temperature . In general, the initial rate of hardening of concrete is increased by an

increase in temperature but may lead to lower ultimate strength. At lower temperatures,

the crushing strength

3.7.0 FLEXURAL TEST (MODULUS OF RUPTURE)

3.7.1 OBJECTIVE

To measure the strength of concrete by subjecting concrete beams to flexure. The flexural test measures

the force required to bend a beam under three point loading conditions. The data is often used to select

materials for parts that will support loads without flexing. Flexural modulus is used as an indication of a

materials’ stiffness when flexed. Since the physical properties of many materials (especially

thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient temperature, it is sometimes appropriate to test materials

at temperatures that simulate the intended end use environment

APPARATUS

Concrete beam specimens

Standard rig for modulus of rupture

PROCEDURE

The beam specimens were removed from their curing positions and placed on the testing machine whilst

still in the wet condition. The surfaces were cleared of any loose material and the beam axis aligned with

the axis of the machine. The load was applied at a rate of 1780 N/min until the specimen failed.


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3.8.0 INDIRECT SPLITTING (TENSILE) TEST

3.8.1 OBJECTIVE

To determine the tensile strength of concrete specimen.

APPARATUS

Compression Testing Machine

Concrete cylinder specimens

PROCEDURE

A concrete cylinder was placed with its axis horizontal between the platens of a testing machine, and the

load was increased until failure by splitting along the vertical diameter took place.


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CHAPTER 4

4.0.0 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1.0 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (BS 812:PART1: 1975)

4.1.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES.

The results obtained from sieve analysis of coarse aggregates are shown below. From the tables and

graphs, it can be seen that coarse aggregates particle distribution is reasonably uniform and it is in

agreement with BS 812: 1975.

Table 1

4.1.1.0 Coarse Glass Cullet Sieve Analysis

Sieve sizes

(mm)

Wt. retained

(g)

Wt. passing

(g)

% retained Cumulative %

retained

Cumulative %

passing

40 0 2500 0.00 0.00 100.00

30 234 2266 9.36 9.36 90.64

25 554.5 1711.5 22.18 31.54 68.46

20 1147.5 564 45.9 77.44 22.56

15 303.5 260.5 12.14 89.58 10.42

10 246.0 14.5 9.84 99.42 0.58

5 9.7 4.8 0.388 99.81 0.19


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Fig 11: Coarse Glass graph


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Table 2

4.1.1.1 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis.

Sieve sizes

(mm)

Wt. retained

(g)

Wt. passing

(g)


retained

Cumulative %

passing

40 0 2500 0.00 0.00 100.00

30 0 2500 0.00 0.00 100.00

25 77 2423 3.08 3.08 96.92

20 1548.5 874.5 61.94 65.02 34.98

15 439 435.5 17.56 82.58 17.42

10 426 9.5 17.04 99.62 0.38

5 9.5 0.0 0.38 100.00 0.00


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Fig 12: Normal Aggregate graph


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Table 3

4.1.1.2 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis.

Sieve sizes

(mm)

Wt. retained

(g)

Wt. passing

(g)


retained

Cumulative %

passing

2.37 47.5 2452.5 1.90 1.90 98.10

1.2 441 2011.5 17.64 19.54 80.46

0.60 1089.5 922 43.58 63.12 36.88

0.30 671 251 26.84 89.96 10.04

0.15 188 63 7.52 97.48 2.52

0.074 44 19 1.76 99.24 0.76


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Fig 13: Fine aggregate Graph


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4.2.0 SLUMP TEST

As shown in Table below the slumps are in the BS recommended range of 30-60, indicating that the test

results are valid in this experiment. It can be seen that the workability of glass containing 45% glass had a

higher slump than the rest, this is quite not reasonable since workability is governed by the surface area

and shape of the aggregate.

Table 4: Summary of the slump test results

Coarse aggregate replacement (%) Slump (mm)

0% 37

15% 31

30% 35

45% 5460% 39

75% 49

Fig 8: Slump Graph


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4.3.0 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The target compressive strength was 20N/mm² since the concrete mix was of class 20.Test results on

compressive strength of the 24 mixtures are summarized in the table 4 and 5.In each series, the

compressive strength decreased with increase of glass content. With the same amount of glass content,

mixtures in series C (15% aggregate replacement had the highest compressive strength at all test ages

Table 4: Summary of Average Crushing Strengths and Densities at 7 days

Coarse aggregate replacement

(%)

Average Compressive Strength

(N/mm2)

Average Density (Kg/m³)

0.0 11.6 2427.6

15.0 9.3 2459.9

30.0 5.4 2329.845.0 4.3 2345.0

60.0 2.7 2433.2

75.0 1.6 2477.5


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Table 5: Summary of Average Crushing Strengths and Densities at 28 days

Percentage Replacement Average Compressive Strength

(N/mm2)

Average Density (Kg/m³)

0.0% 21 2432.6

15.0% 15.5 2428.7

30.0% 12.8 2280.6

45.0% 9.83 2457.2

60.0% 5.4 2428.4

75.0% 3.6 2464.9

The 15% replacement concrete had a compressive strength of 15.5N/mm2 at 28 days, in comparison to

the control concrete(0% plastic) which had a strength of 21 N/mm2. The 30% , 45% ,60% and 75% glass

replacement had compressive strengths of 12.8N/mm² ,9.83N/mm²,5.4N/mm²and 3.6 N/mm2

respectively, at 28 days.


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The results for the 15% replacement concrete were slightly lower than the control mix, which could

probably be attributed to poor bonding between the glass aggregates and the cement paste. The waste

glass had smooth , flat surfaces and were large in size as compared to natural aggregates. The These

factors could have contributed to the compressive performance observed. The compressive strength of

concrete is known to depend on the characteristics of the coarse aggregate i.e. aggregate strength, shape,

size and surface texture. Thus an aggregate that does not have the above characteristics adequately might

not produce a conducive concrete mix. For the 60% and 75% replacement concrete, it can be seen that an

increase in the quantity of waste glass led to a remarkable decrease in compressive strength. Moreover,

the w/c ratio could affect the strength development of concrete, although the initial w/c ratio is the same

for all the mixes, the absorption of water by the aggregate can affect the final w/c ratio, which then leads

to strength difference. The higher the w/c ratio is, the lower strength. Therefore, for the first mix, a larger

amount of aggregate absorbs a greater quantity of water. The effective w/c ration in that mix has reduced

and thus, higher strength that resulted.

4.3.1 MODES OF FAILURE

The modes of failure of the hardened concrete cubes after crushing, at 28 days, are shown in the figures

below. The mode of failure is distinct for the cubes containing the waste glass. This can be explained by

analysing the state of the glass cullets themselves in comparison to the sample containing ballast only.

During the compression test, the control concrete cube fails by the failure/cracking of the ballast

aggregate itself, but the glass aggregates don’t crack or break. This indicates that the failure of the cubes

containing glass is due to weak bonding with the cement paste, thus leaving the glass whole even after the

cube is crushed.


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Fig 2: 75% Coarse glass aggregate replacement


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Fig 4: 45% Coarse glass aggregate replacement.


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Fig 4: 30% Coarse glass aggregate replacement


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Fig 5: 15% Coarse Glass Replacement

4.4.0 TENSILE (SPLITTING) TESTS

From the results shown below, the tensile strength of the concrete containing normal aggregates had the

highest tensile strength as compared to those containing glass cullets. The tensile strength of the concrete

decreased as the percentage of glass cullets increased. The tests were carried out after 28 days, and the

full results summarized as shown below. This indicates that the trend value of the tensile strength is

similar to that of compressive strength. This indicates that the effective w/c ratio has a similar influence

on the tensile strength as to the compressive strength and this is likely related to the water absorption

performance of concrete.


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Table 6: Summary of Splitting Tensile Test Results

Percentage

Replacement

Average Tensile

Strength (N/mm2)

0% 1.68

15% 1.35

30% 0.84

Fig 9: Tensile Strength Graph

The strength attained at 28 days by the control concrete was 1.91 N/mm2. The concrete containing the

glass cullets had lower tensile strengths and progressively reduced densities. This shows that concrete

made using these glass cullets produces less tensile strength than conventional concrete. The above results


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could be attributed to binding characteristic of the cement paste and the glass cullets. Due to their physical

characteristics i.e. surface texture and shape, the bonding was weak.

4.5.0 FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MODULUS OF RUPTURE)

Flexural testing is used to determine the flexure or bending properties of a material. Sometimes referred

to as a transverse beam test, it involves placing a sample between two knife-edge points and initiating a

load at the midpoint of the sample. Maximum stress and strain are calculated on the incremental load

applied. From the results shown in the tables below, it can be seen that the flexural strength of the beams

decreased with an increase in the % replacement of coarse aggregate with glass cullet. The control

concrete beam had the highest strength, which decreased as the percentage of glass cullet increased. The

full results are summarized in Table 7 below.

Table 7: Summary of Flexural test results at 28 days

Percentage Replacement Maximum Flexural Strength

(N/mm2)

0% 1.70

15% 1.21

30% 1.74


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Fig 9: Flexural Strength Graph


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4.5.1 TESTING OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE

Fig 6: 30% replacement before flexture


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Fig 7: 30% replacement after flexure.


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5.0 CHAPTER 5

5.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study evaluated the feasibility of using glass from one source as a partial replacement of course

aggregate in concrete. The results of this study should be verified using several other sources of course

glass cullets. Based on the results obtained in this investigation, the following conclusions may be drawn.

I. Strength of concrete is slightly reduced when coarse aggregate is partially replaced by glass

cullets.

II. The use of glass cullet aggregates results in concrete with density which is more than that of

coarse aggregate.

III.

5.1.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

I. Research should be done on to find the effect of Alkali silica reaction in the sense of development

of strength in concrete.

II. Research should be done on whether lower quantities of glass cullets can be used with admixtures

to boost their strength.

III.

The effect of using crushed fine glass cullets as a replacement of fine aggregates on the strength

development of concrete.


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REFERENCES

A M Neville, Properties of Concrete, Third Edition

A Report by, “Nebraska State Recycling association” on “Glass cullet utilization study for

Civil Engineering Applications.”

British Standard Institution, BS 1881-116:1983, “Method for Determination of Compressive

Strength of Concrete Cubes, ” London

British Standard Institution, BS1881-117:1983, “Method for Determination of Tensile

Splitting Strength, ” London

British Standard Institution, BS1881-118:1983, “Method for Determination of Flexural

Strength “London Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, Chapter 12

on Strength, ASTM STP 169B.

Studies of Flexural Strength of Concrete, Part 3, Effects of Variations in Testing Procedures,

by Stanton Walker and D.L. Bloem, NRMCA Publication No. 75 (ASTM Proceedings,

Volume 57, 1957).

Utilization of Soda glass in wall and floor tile by House and Building Research Center –

Cairo.


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APPENDIX A

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN TABLE

Stage Item Reference/Calculation Values

1 1.1 Characteristic strength Specified …20……..N/mm2

at...28..days

Proportion defective…5……. %

1.2 Standard deviation Fig. 3 ……8…..N/mm2

1.3 Margin C1 (k=…1.64…)1.64…*8…=…13.12….N/mm2

1.4 Target mean strength C2 …20……..+…8.2…….=…28.2….N/mm2

1.5 Cement type Specified OPC

1.6 Aggregate type: coarse

Aggregate type: fine

………Crushed………..

……Uncrushed……………….

1.7 Free water/cement ratio Table 2, Fig 4 ………0.7…..

1.8 Max. water/cement ratio Specified ……0.60…………..

2 2.1 Slump or V-B Specified Slump…30-60………mm or V-B………….s

2.2 Max. aggregate size Specified …20…….mm

2.3 Free water content Table 3 …190……..kg/m3

3 3.1 Cement content C3 …190..÷…0.7.=…271…kg/m3

3.2 Max. cement content Specified

3.3 Min. cement content Specified

3.4 Modified water/cement

ratio

…………………….

4 4.1 Relative density of

aggregate

……2.7……..

4.2 Concrete density Fig 5 ……2430…….kg/m

4.3 Total aggregate content C4 …2430…-… 271....-…190..=…1969.kg/m

5 5.1 Grading of fine

aggregate

BS 882 Zone …2...

5.2 Proportion of fine

aggregate

Fig 6 ……45……. %

5.3

5.4

Fine aggregate content

Coarse aggregate

C5

C5

…45%….*…1969…..=…886……kg/m3

….1969.....-…886..

.=...1083….kg/m

3

Quantities Cement

(kg)

Water (kg) Fine Aggregate (kg) Coarse Aggregate (kg)

Per m3 270 190 886 1083

Per trial

mix of

…..m3


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