Dead Sea Scrolls 1

Dead Sea Scrolls

The Psalms Scroll, designated 11Q5, with transcription

The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collectionof 972 texts discovered between 1947and 1956 at Khirbet Qumran in theWest Bank. They were found on thenorthwest shore of the Dead Sea, fromwhich they derive their name.[1] Thetexts are of great historical, religiousand linguistic significance becausethey include the earliest knownsurviving manuscripts of works laterincluded in the Hebrew Bible canon,along with extra-biblical manuscriptswhich preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism.

The texts are written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean, mostly on parchment but with some written onpapyrus and bronze.[2] The manuscripts have been dated to various ranges between 408 BCE and 318 CE.[3] Bronzecoins found on the site form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus (135-104 BCE) and continuing until the FirstJewish-Roman War (66–73 CE).[4]

The scrolls have traditionally been identified with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, although some recentinterpretations have challenged this association and argue that the scrolls were penned by priests in Jerusalem,Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups.[5][6]

The Dead Sea Scrolls are divided into three groups; copies of texts from the Hebrew Bible, which comprise roughly40% of the identified scrolls, texts from the Second Temple Period like the Book of Enoch, Jubilees, the Book ofTobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc., that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, whichcomprise roughly 30% of the identified scrolls, and sectarian manuscripts (previously unknown documents that shedlight on the rules and beliefs of a particular group or groups within greater Judaism) like the Community Rule, theWar Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk and the The Rule of the Blessing, which comprise roughly 30% of the identifiedscrolls.[7]

Discovery

Qumran cave 4, where ninety percent of thescrolls were found

The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of twelve cavesaround the site known as Wadi Qumran near the Dead Sea in what isnow the West Bank between 1946 and 1956 by the Bedouin people andarcheologists.[8]

Initial discovery (1946–1947)

The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed Edh-Dhib, hiscousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place betweenNovember 1946 and February 1947.[9][10] The shepherds discovered 7scrolls (See Fragment and scroll lists) housed in jars in a cave at whatis now known as the Qumran site. John C. Trever reconstructed the

story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin. Edh-Dhib's cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one. He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah

Dead Sea Scrolls 2

Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, and took them back to the camp to show to his family.None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process, despite popular rumor.[11] The Bedouin kept the scrolls hangingon a tent pole while they figured out what to do with them, periodically taking them out to show people. At somepoint during this time, the Community Rule was split in two. The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer namedIbrahim 'Ijha in Bethlehem. 'Ijha returned them, saying they were worthless, after being warned that they might havebeen stolen from a synagogue. Undaunted, the Bedouin went to a nearby market, where a Syrian Christian offered tobuy them. A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin,"Kando", a cobbler and part-time antiques dealer. The Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site, leaving one scrollwith Kando and selling three others to a dealer for GBP7 (US$29 in 2003).[11] The original scrolls continued tochange hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a third party until a sale could be arranged. (SeeOwnership)In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of Dr. John C. Trever, of the American Schools of OrientalResearch (ASOR), who compared the script in the scrolls to that of The Nash Papyrus, the oldest biblical manuscriptthen known, and found similarities between them. In March the 1948 Arab-Israeli War prompted the move of someof scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Miller Burrows, head of the ASOR, announced thediscovery of the scrolls in a general press release.

Search for the Qumran caves (1948–1949)Early in September 1948, Mar brought Professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new Director of ASOR, some additional scrollfragments that he had acquired. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after their discovery, scholars had yet to locatethe original cave where the fragments had been found. With unrest in the country at that time, no large-scale searchcould be undertaken safely. Sellers attempted to get the Syrians to assist in the search for the cave, but he was unableto pay their price. In early 1948, the government of Jordan gave permission to the Arab Legion to search the areawhere the original Qumran cave was thought to be. Consequently, Cave 1 was rediscovered on 28 January 1949, byBelgian United Nations observer Captain Phillipe Lippens and Arab Legion Captain Akkash el-Zebn.[12]

Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries (1949–1951)The rediscovery of Cave 1 prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5 March 1949 by theJordanian Department of Antiquities. The excavation was led by Lancaster Harding, director of the PalestineArchaeological Museum, and Roland de Vaux, the President of the Trustees of the museum. The Cave 1 site yieldeddiscoveries of additional Dead Sea Scroll fragments, linen cloth, jars, and other artifacts.[13]

Excavations of Qumran (1951–1956)In November 1951, Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran.[14] InFebruary 1952, the Bedouin people discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2. These includedfragments of Jubilees and Ben Sira written in Hebrew.[13][14] The following month, the ASOR team discovered Cave3 and the Copper Scroll. Between September and December 1952 the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4, 5, and 6were subsequently discovered by the ASOR teams.[14]

With the monetary value of the scrolls rising as their historical significance was made more public, the Bedouins andthe ASOR archaeologists accelerated their search for the scrolls separately in the same general area of Qumran,which was over 1 kilometer in length. Between 1953 and 1956, Roland de Vaux led four more archaeologicalexpeditions in the area to uncover scrolls and artifacts.[13] The last cave, Cave 11, was discovered in 1956 andyielded the last fragments to be found in the vicinity of Qumran.[15]

Dead Sea Scrolls 3

Fragment and scroll listsThe following are lists of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the caves near Qumran:[16]

Cave 1

The War Scroll, found in Qumran Cave 1.

A portion of the second discovered copy of theIsaiah scroll, 1QIsab.

Cave 1 was discovered in the winter or spring of 1947. It was firstexcavated by Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux from 15February to 5 March 1949.[17] In addition to the original seven scrolls,Cave 1 produced jars and bowls whose chemical composition andshape matched vessels discovered at the settlement at Qumran, piecesof cloth, and additional fragments that matched portions of the originalscrolls, thereby confirming that the original scrolls came from Cave 1.

The original seven scrolls from Cave 1 are:[18]

• 1QIsaa (the Great Isaiah Scroll, a copy of the Book of Isaiah)• 1QIsab (a second copy of Isaiah)• 1QS (the Community Rule) cf. 4QSa-j = 4Q255-64, 5Q11• 1QpHab (the Pesher on Habakkuk)• 1QM (the War Scroll) cf. 4Q491, 4Q493• 1QH (the Thanksgiving Hymns)• 1QapGen (the Genesis Apocryphon)

Fragment/Scroll#

Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

1QIsa Great Isaiah Scroll Large portion of the Book of Isaiah

1QIsa The Book of Isaiah A second copy of portions of theBook of Isaiah

1QS Serekh ha-Yahad or "CommunityRule"

cf. 4QSa-j = 4Q255-64, 5Q11

1QpHab Pesher on Habakkuk

1QM Milhamah or War Scroll cf. 4Q491, 4Q493; 11Q14?

1QHa Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns

1QapGen Genesis Apocryphon In Aramaic

CTLevi Cairo Geniza or Testament of Levi In Aramaic

Dead Sea Scrolls 4

1QGen Genesis 1:18-21; 3:11-14; 22:13-15; 23:17-19;24:22-24

= 1Q1

1QExod Exodus 16:12-16; 19:24-20:2, 20:5-6; 20:25-21:1;21:4-5

= 1Q2

1QpaleoLev Leviticus 11:10-11; 19:30-34; 20:20-24; 21:24-22:6;23:4-8 and Numbers 1:48-50

In palaeo-Hebrew script = 1Q3

1QDeuta Deuteronomy = 1Q4

1QDeutb Deuteronomy = 1Q5

1QJudg Judges = 1Q6

1QSam Samuel = 1Q7

1QIsab Parts of the Book of Isaiah Parts of 1QIsab = 1Q8

1QEzek Ezekiel Parts of 1QIsab = 1Q9

1QPsa Psalms = 1Q10

1QPsb Psalms = 1Q11

1QPsc Psalms = 1Q12

1QPhyl 58 fragments from a Phylactery =1Q13

1QpMic Pesher on Micah = 1Q14

1QpZeph Pesher on Zephaniah = 1Q15

1QpPs Pesher on Psalms = 1Q16

1QJuba Jubilees = 1Q17

1QJubb Jubilees = 1Q18

1QNoah Parts of the lost Book of Noah =1Q19

1QapGen Fragments of the "GenesisApocryphon"

In Aramaic) = 1Q20

1QTLevi Testament of Levi In Aramaic= 1Q21

1QDM "Dibrê Moshe" or "Words of Moses" = 1Q22

1QEnGiantsa Book of Giants Enoch In Aramaic) = 1Q23

1QEnGiantsb Book of Giants Enoch In Aramaic) = 1Q24

1Q25 "Apocryphal Prophecy"

1Q26 "Instruction"

1QMyst "Mysteries" = 1Q27

1Q28 Fragment from "Community Rule"

1QSa "Rule of the Congregation" = 1Q28a

1QSb "Rule of the Blessing" or "Rule ofthe Benedictions"

= 1Q28b

1Q29 "Liturgy of the Three Tongues ofFire"

Dead Sea Scrolls 5

1Q30 "Liturgical Text 1"

1Q31 "Liturgical Text 2"

1QNJ "New Jerusalem" in Aramaic = 1Q32 cf. 11Q18

1Q33 Fragment of the 1QM or "WarScroll")

1QLitPr "Liturgical Prayers" or "FestivalPrayers"

= 1Q34

1QHb Hodayot" or "Thanksgiving Hymns" = 1Q35

1Q36-40 "Hymnic Composition"

1Q41-70 Unclassified Fragments

1QDana Daniel = 1Q71

1QDanb Daniel = 1Q72

Cave 2Cave 2 was discovered in February 1952.[19] It yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts, including Jubilees andthe Wisdom of Sirach in the original Hebrew.

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

2QGen The Book of Genesis = 2Q1

2QExoda The Book of Exodus = 2Q2

2QExodb The Book of Exodus = 2Q3

2QExodc The Book of Exodus = 2Q4

2QpaleoLev Leviticus 11:22-29 Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 2Q5

2QNuma The Book of Numbers = 2Q6

2QNumb The Book of Numbers = 2Q7

2QNumc The Book of Numbers = 2Q8

2QNumd The Book of Numbers = 2Q9

2QDeuta The Book of Deuteronomy = 2Q10

2QDeutb The Book of Deuteronomy = 2Q11

2QDeutc The Book of Deuteronomy 10:8-12 = 2Q12

2QJer The Book of Jeremiah = 2Q13

2QPs The Book of Psalms = 2Q14

2QJob The Book of Job 33:28-30 = 2Q15

2QRutha The Book of Ruth = 2Q16

2QRuthb The Book of Ruth = 2Q17

2QSir "Wisdom of Sirach" or "Ecclesiasticus" = 2Q18

2QJuba The Book of Jubilees = 2Q19

Dead Sea Scrolls 6

2QJubb The Book of Jubilees = 2Q20

2QapMoses "Apocryphon of Moses" = 2Q21

2QapDavid "Apocryphon of David" = 2Q22

2QapProph "Apocryphal Prophecy" = 2Q23

2QapProph "Apocryphal Prophecy" = 2Q23

2QNJ "New Jerusalem" Text in Aramaic = 2Q24 cf. 1Q32 ar, 11Q18 ar

2Q25 "Juridical Text"

2QEnGiants "Book of Giants" from "Enoch" Text in Aramaic = 2Q26 cf. 6Q8

2Q27-33 Unidentified Texts

Cave 3Cave 3 was discovered on 14 March 1952.[20] The cave yielded 14 manuscripts including Jubilees and the curiousCopper Scroll, which lists 67 hiding places, mostly underground, throughout the ancient Roman province of Judea(now Israel). According to the scroll, the secret caches held astonishing amounts of gold, silver, copper, aromatics,and manuscripts.

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

3QEzek Ezekiel 16:31-33 = 3Q1

3QPs Psalms 2:6-7 = 3Q2

3QLam Lamentations = 3Q3

3QpIsa Pesher on Isaiah = 3Q4

3QJub Jubilees = 3Q5

3QHymn Unidentified hymn = 3Q6

3QTJudah Testament of Judah = 3Q7 cf. 4Q484, 4Q538

3Q8 Fragment of an unidentified text

3Q9 Possible unidentified sectarian text

3Q10-11 Unclassified fragments

3Q12-13 Unclassified fragments In Aramaic

3Q14 Unclassified fragments

3QCopper Scroll The Copper Scroll = 3Q15

Caves 4a and 4bCave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald LankesterHarding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik.[21] Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since thefragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of Qumran caves both because of itsvisibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumransettlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrollsand scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, alongwith 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot.

Dead Sea Scrolls 7

The Damascus Document Scroll, 4Q271Df, foundin Cave 4

Fragment/Scroll#

Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

4QGen-Exoda Genesis and the Exodus = 4Q1

4QGenb Genesis = 4Q2

4QGenc Genesis = 4Q3

4QGend Genesis 1:18-27 = 4Q4

4QGene Genesis = 4Q5

4QGenf Genesis 48:1-11 = 4Q6

4QGeng Genesis 48:1-11 = 4Q7

4QGenh1 Genesis 1:8-10 = 4Q8

4QGenh2 Genesis 2:17-18 = 4Q8a

4QGenh-para A paraphrase of Genesis 12:4-5 = 4Q8b

4QGenh-title The title of a Genesis manuscript = 4Q8c

4QGenj Genesis = 4Q9

4QGenk Genesis = 4Q10

4QpaleoGen-Exodl Genesis and the Exodus Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q11

4QpaleoGenm Genesis Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q12

4QExodb Exodus = 4Q13

4QExodc Exodus = 4Q14

4QExodd Exodus = 4Q15

4QExode Exodus 13:3-5 = 4Q16

4QExodf Exodus and Leviticus = 4Q17

Dead Sea Scrolls 8

4QExodg Exodus 14:21-27 = 4Q18

4QExodh Exodus 6:3-6 = 4Q19

4QExodj Exodus = 4Q20

4QExodk Exodus 36:9-10 = 4Q21

4QExodm Exodus Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q22

4QLev-Numa Leviticus and Numbers = 4Q23

4QLev-Numb Leviticus = 4Q24

4QLev-Numc Leviticus = 4Q25

4QLev-Numd Leviticus = 4Q26

4QLev-Nume Leviticus = 4Q26a

4QLev-Numg Leviticus = 4Q26b

4QNumb Numbers = 4Q27

4QDeutn "All Souls Deuteronomy" Deuteronomy 8:5-10, 5:1-6:1 = 4Q41

4QCanta Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on theSong of Songs

Song of Songs Written in Hebrew = 4Q107

4QCantb Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on theSong of Songs

Song of Songs Written in Hebrew = 4Q107

4QCantc Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on theSong of Songs

Song of Songs = 4Q108

4Q112 Daniel

4Q123 "Rewritten Joshua"

4Q127 "Rewritten Exodus"

4Q128-148 Various tefillin

4Q156 Targum of Leviticus

4QtgJob Targum of Job = 4Q157

4QRPa Rewritten Pentateuch = 4Q158

4Q161-164 Pesher on Isaiah

4QpHos The Hosea Commentary Scroll,[22] aPesher on Hosea

= 4Q166

4Q167 Pesher on Hosea

4Q169 Pesher on Nahum or NahumCommentary

4Q174 Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days

4Q175 Messianic Anthology or Testimonia Contains Deuteronomy 5:28-29,18:18-19, 33:8-11; Joshua 6:26

Written in Hasmonean script.

4Q179 Lamentations cf. 4Q501

4Q196-200 Tobit cf. 4Q501

4Q201a The Enoch Scroll[22]

Dead Sea Scrolls 9

4Q213-214 Aramaic Levi

4Q4Q215 Testament of Naphtali

4QCanta Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on theSong of Songs

= 4Q240

4Q246 Aramaic Apocalypse or The Son of GodText

4Q252 Pesher on Genesis

4Q258 Serekh ha-Yahad or Community Rule cf. 1QSd

4Q265-273 The Damascus Document cf. 4QDa/g = 4Q266/272, 4QDa/e = 4Q266/270,5Q12, 6Q15, 4Q265-73

4Q285 Rule of War cf. 11Q14

4QRPb Rewritten Pentateuch = 4Q364

4QRPc Rewritten Pentateuch = 4Q365

4QRPc Rewritten Pentateuch = 4Q365a (=4QTemple?)

4QRPd Rewritten Pentateuch = 4Q366

4QRPe Rewritten Pentateuch = 4Q367

4QInstruction Sapiential Work A = 4Q415-418

4QParaphrase Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus 4Q415-418

4Q434 Barkhi Napshi - Apocryphal Psalms 15 fragments: likely hymns of thanksgivingpraising God for his power and expressingthanks

4QMMT Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah or SomePrecepts of the Law or the HalakhicLetter

cf. 4Q394-399

4Q400-407 Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice or theAngelic Liturgy

cf. 11Q5-6

4Q448 Hymn to King Jonathan or The PrayerFor King Jonathan Scroll

Psalms 154 In addition to parts of Psalms 154 it contains aprayer mentioning King Jonathan.

4Q510-511 Songs of the Sage

4Q521 Messianic Apocalypse Made up of two fragments

4Q523 MeKleine Fragmente, z.T. gesetzlichenInhalts

Fragment is legal in content. PAM number,41.944.[23]

4Q539 Testament of Joseph

4Q541 Testament of Levid Aramaic frag. also called "4QApocryphon ofLevib ar"

4Q554-5 New Jerusalem cf. 1Q32, 2Q24, 5Q15, 11Q18

Dead Sea Scrolls 10

Cave 5Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 5 producedapproximately 25 manuscripts.[21]

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

5QDeut Deuteronomy = 5Q1

5QKgs 1 Kings = 5Q2Joshua = 5Q9

5Q10 Apocryphon of Malachi

5Q11 Rule of the Community

5Q12 Damascus Document

5Q13 Rule

5Q14 Curses

5Q15 New Jerusalem

5Q16-25 Unclassified

5QX1 Leather fragment

Cave 6Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 6 contained fragmentsof about 31 manuscripts.[21]

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 6:[24][25]

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/ScrollName

KJV Bible Association Description

6QpaleoGen Genesis 6:13-21 Written inpalaeo-Hebrew script =6Q1

6QpaleoLev Leviticus 8:12-13 Written inpalaeo-Hebrew script =6Q2

6Q3 A few letters of Deuteronomy 26:19

6QKings 1 Kings 3:12-14; 2 Kings 7:8-10; 1 Kings 12:28-31; 2 Kings7:20-8:5; 1 Kings 22:28-31; 2 Kings 9:1-2; 2 Kings 5:26; 2 Kings10:19-21; 2 Kings 6:32

Made up of 94Fragments. = 6Q4

6Q5 Possibly Psalms 78:36-37

6QCant Song of Songs 1:1-7 Written in Hebrew =6Q6

6QDaniel Daniel 11:38; 10:8-16; 11:33-36 13 Fragments. =6Q7

6QGiants ar Book of Giants from Enoch = 6Q8

6QApocryphon onSamuel-Kings

Apocryphon onSamuel-Kings

Written on papyrus. =6Q9

6QProphecy Unidentified propheticfragment

Written in Hebrewpapyrus. = 6Q10

6QAllegory of the Vine Allegory of the Vine = 6Q11

Dead Sea Scrolls 11

6QapocProph An apocryphalprophecy

= 6Q12

6QPriestProph Priestly Prophecy = 6Q13

6QD Damascus Document = 6Q15

6QBenediction Benediction = 6Q16

6QCalendricalDocument

Calendrical Document = 6Q17

6QHymn Hymn = 6Q18

6Q19 Possibly from Genesis

6Q20 Possibly from Deuteronomy

6Q21 Possibly prophetic text Fragment containing 5words.

6Q22 Unclassified fragments

6Q23 Unclassified fragments

6Q24-25 Unclassified fragments

6Q26 Accounts or contracts

6Q27-28 Unclassified fragments

6QpapProv Parts of Proverbs 11:4b-7a; 10b Single six-line fragment.= 6Q30

6Q31 Unclassified fragments

Cave 7Cave 7, along with caves 8 and 9, was one of the only caves that is accessible by passing through the settlement atQumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, archaeologists excavated cave 7 in 1957.Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6),7Q5 (which became the subject of much speculation in later decades), and a Greek copy of a scroll ofEnoch.[26][27][28] Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars.[29]

Dead Sea Scroll fragments 7Q4, 7Q5, and 7Q8from Cave 7 in Qumran, written on papyrus.

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave7:[24][25]

Dead Sea Scrolls 12

A view of part of the Temple Scroll that wasfound in Qumran Cave 11.

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

7QLXXExod gr Exodus 28:4-7 = 7Q1

7QLXXEpJer Jeremiah 43-44 = 7Q2

7Q3-4 Unknown biblical text

7Q5 Unknown biblical text

7Q6-18 Unidentified fragments Very tiny fragments written on papyrus.

7Q19 Unidentified papyrus imprint Very tiny fragments written on papyrus.

Cave 8Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that is accessible by passing through the settlement atQumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, archaeologists excavated cave 8 in 1957.Cave 8 produced five fragments: Genesis (8QGen), Psalms (8QPs), a tefillin fragment (8QPhyl), a mezuzah(8QMez), and a hymn (8QHymn).[30] Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases, a box of leather objects, tons oflamps, jars, and the sole of a leather shoe.[29]

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 8:[24][25]

Fragment/Scroll#

Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

8QGen Genesis 17:12-19; 18:20-25 = 8Q1

8QPs Psalms 17:5-9; 17:14; 18:6-9; 18:10-13 = 8Q2

8QPhyl Fragments from a"Phylactery"

Exodus 12:43-51 13:1-16; 20:11; Deuteronomy 5:1-14; 6:1-9; 11:13; 10:12-22;11:1-12

= 8Q3

8QMez Deuteronomy 10:12-11:21 from a Mezuzah = 8Q4

8QHymn Unidentified hymn = 8Q5

Dead Sea Scrolls 13

Cave 9Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that is accessible by passing through the settlement atQumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, archaeologists excavated cave 9 in 1957.There was only one fragment found in Cave 9:

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

9Qpap Unidentified fragment =9Q1 Written on papyrus.

Cave 10In Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with some writing on them, along with an unknown symbol on a greystone slab:

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

10QOstracon Ostracon =10Q1 Two letters written on a piece of pottery.[10]

Cave 11Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, socalled because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11,and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet(8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the otherhand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such,but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any knownEssene writing.[31]

Also in Cave 11, an escatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13) was found. Cave 11 alsoproduced a copy of Jubilees.According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately ownedscrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaicmanuscript of the Book of Enoch.[32]

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 11:

Fragment/Scroll#

Fragment/ScrollName

KJV Bible Association Description

11QpaleoLeva Leviticus 4:24-26; 10:4-7; 11:27-32; 13:3-9; 13:39-43; 14:16-21; 14:52-!5:5;16:2-4; 16:34-17:5; 18:27-19:4; 20:1-6; 21:6-11; 22:21-27; 23:22-29;24:9-14; 25:28-36; 26:17-26; 27:11-19

Written inpalaeo-Hebrew script. =11Q1

11QpaleoLevb Leviticus Written inpalaeo-Hebrew script. =11Q2

11QDeut Deuteronomy = 11Q3

11QEz Ezekiel = 11Q4

11QPsa Psalms = 11Q5

11QPsb Psalms 77:18-21; 78:1; 109:3-4; 118:1; 118:15-16; 119:163-165; 133:1-3;141:10; 144:1-2

= 11Q6

11QPsc Psalms 2:1-8; 9:3-7; 12:5-9; 13:1-6; 14:1-6; 17:9-15; 18:1-12; 19:4-8; 25:2-7 = 11Q7

Dead Sea Scrolls 14

11QPsd Psalms 6:2-4; 9:3-6; 18:26-29; 18:39-42; 36:13; 37:1-4; 39:13-14; 40:1;43:1-3; 45:6-8; 59:5-8; 68:1-5; 68:14-18; 78:5-12; 81:4-9; 86:11-14;115:16-18; 116:1

= 11Q8

11QPse Psalms 50:3-7 = 11Q9

11QtgJob Targum of Job = 11Q10

11QapocrPs Apocryphal paraphrase of Psalms 91 = 11Q11

11QJub Ethiopic text ofJubilees

Jubilees 4:6-11; 4:13-14; 4:16-17; 4:29-31; 5:1-2; 12:15-17; 12:28-29 = 11Q12

11QMelch "Heavenly PrinceMelchizedek"

= 11Q13

11QSM "The Book of War" = 11Q14

11QHymnsa = 11Q15

11QHymnsb = 11Q16

11QShirShabb Songs of the SabbathSacrifice

= 11Q17

11QNJ ar "New Jerusalem" Written in Aramaic =11Q18

11QTa "Temple Scroll" = 11Q19

11QTb "Temple Scroll" = 11Q20

11QTc "Temple Scroll" = 11Q21

11Q22-28 Unidentifiedfragments

11Q29 Serekh ha-Yahad related

11Q30 Unidentifiedfragments

11Q31 Unidentified wads

Fragments with unknown provenanceSome fragments of scrolls do not have significant archaeological and provenance records that reveal whichdesignated Qumran cave area they were found in. They are believed to have come from Wadi Qumran caves, but arejust as likely to have come from other archaeological sites in the Judaean Desert area.[33] These fragments havetherefore been designated to the temporary "X" series.

Dead Sea Scrolls 15

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

XQ1-3 "Tefillin from Qumran" Deuteronomy 5:1 - 6:3; 10:12 - 11:12.[33] First published in 1969; Phylacteries

XQ4 "Tefillin from Qumran" Phylacteries

XQ5a Jubilees 7:4-5

XQ5b Hymn

XQ6 Offering Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic.

XQ7 Unidentified fragment Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction.

XQpapEn Book of Enoch 9:1 One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8

Origin

A view of the Dead Sea from a cave at Qumran inwhich some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were

discovered.

There has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls.The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were the product of a sectof Jews living at nearby Qumran called the Essenes, but this theory hascome to be challenged by several modern scholars.

Qumran–Essene Theory

The view among scholars, almost universally held until the 1990s, isthe "Qumran–Essene" hypothesis originally posited by Roland Guérinde Vaux[34] and Józef Tadeusz Milik,[35] though independently bothEliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery connectedscrolls with the Essenes well before any excavations at Qumran.[36]

The Qumran–Essene theory holds that the scrolls were written by theEssenes, or by another Jewish sectarian group, residing at KhirbetQumran. They composed the scrolls and ultimately hid them in thenearby caves during the Jewish Revolt sometime between 66 and68 CE. The site of Qumran was destroyed and the scrolls neverrecovered. A number of arguments are used to support this theory.

• There are striking similarities between the description of aninitiation ceremony of new members in the Community Rule anddescriptions of the Essene initiation ceremony mentioned in the works of Flavius Josephus – a Jewish–Romanhistorian of the Second Temple Period.

• Josephus mentions the Essenes as sharing property among the members of the community, as does theCommunity Rule.

• During the excavation of Khirbet Qumran, two inkwells and plastered elements thought to be tables were found,offering evidence that some form of writing was done there. More inkwells were discovered in nearby loci. DeVaux called this area the "scriptorium" based upon this discovery.

• Several Jewish ritual baths (Hebrew: miqvah = מקוה) were discovered at Qumran, which offers evidence of anobservant Jewish presence at the site.

• Pliny the Elder (a geographer writing after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE) describes a group of Essenes living in adesert community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near the ruined town of 'Ein Gedi.

The Qumran–Essene theory has been the dominant theory since its initial proposal by Roland de Vaux and J.T.Milik. Recently, however, several other scholars have proposed alternative origins of the scrolls.

Dead Sea Scrolls 16

Christian Origin TheorySpanish Jesuit José O'Callaghan Martínez has argued that one fragment (7Q5) preserves a portion of text from theNew Testament Gospel of Mark 6:52–53.[37] In recent years, Robert Eisenman has advanced the theory that somescrolls describe the early Christian community. Eisenman also attempted to relate the career of James the Just andPaul the Apostle to some of these documents.[38]

Jerusalem Origin TheorySome scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem, who hid the scrolls in thecaves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Karl HeinrichRengstorf first proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.[39]

Later, Norman Golb suggested that the scrolls were the product of multiple libraries in Jerusalem, and notnecessarily the Jerusalem Temple library.[6][40] Proponents of the Jerusalem Origin theory point to the diversity ofthought and handwriting among the scrolls as evidence against a Qumran origin of the scrolls. Several archaeologistshave also accepted an origin of the scrolls other than Qumran, including Yizhar Hirschfeld[41] and most recentlyYizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg,[42] who all understand the remains of Qumran to be those of a Hasmonean fort thatwas reused during later periods.

Qumran–Sectarian TheoryQumran–Sectarian theories are variations on the Qumran–Essene theory. The main point of departure from theQumran–Essene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes. Most proponents ofthe Qumran–Sectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the DeadSea Scrolls, but do not necessarily conclude that the sectarians are Essenes.

Qumran–Sadducean TheoryA specific variation on the Qumran–Sectarian theory that has gained much recent popularity is the work of LawrenceH. Schiffman, who proposes that the community was led by a group of Zadokite priests (Sadducees).[43] The mostimportant document in support of this view is the "Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah" (4QMMT), which cites purity laws(such as the transfer of impurities) identical to those attributed in rabbinic writings to the Sadducees. 4QMMT alsoreproduces a festival calendar that follows Sadducee principles for the dating of certain festival days.

Physical characteristics

Age

Radiocarbon dating

Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls have been carbon dated. The initial test performed in 1950 was ona piece of linen from one of the caves. This test gave an indicative dating of 33 CE plus or minus 200 years,eliminating early hypotheses relating the scrolls to the mediaeval period.[44] Since then two large series of tests havebeen performed on the scrolls themselves. The results were summarized by VanderKam and Flint, who said the testsgive "strong reason for thinking that most of the Qumran manuscripts belong to the last two centuries BCE and thefirst century CE."[45]

Dead Sea Scrolls 17

Paleographic dating

Analysis of handwriting, a path of study known as palaeography, was applied to the text on the Dead Sea Scrolls bya variety of scholars in the field. Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates fragments from 225 BCE to50 CE.[46] These dates were determined by examining the size, variability, and style of the text.[47] The samefragments were later analyzed using radiocarbon date testing and were dated to an estimated range of 385 BCE to82 CE with a 68% accuracy rate.[46]

Ink and parchment

Shown here are gall powder (top left) and Iron(II) Oxide (bottom left), two of thekey ingredients in Iron-Gall Ink, one of the three inks used to make the Dead SeaScrolls. The Isaiah Scroll, which has been shown to use Iron-Gall Ink, is pictured

on the right.

The scrolls were analyzed using a cyclotronat the University of California, Davis, whereit was found that two types of black inkwere used: iron-gall ink and carbon sootink.[48] In addition, a third ink on the scrollsthat was red in color was found to be madewith cinnabar (HgS, mercury sulfide).[48]

There are only four uses of this red ink inthe entire collection of Dead Sea Scrollfragments.[49] The black inks found on thescrolls that are made up of carbon soot werefound to be from olive oil lamps.[50] Gallnuts from oak trees, present in some, but notall of the black inks on the scrolls, wasadded to make the ink more resilient to smudging common with pure carbon inks.[48] Honey, oil, vinegar and waterwere often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing.[50] In order to apply the ink to thescrolls, its writers used reed pens.[51]

Shown here is a closeup of the ink and text of twoof the fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The twofragments, fragments 1 and 2 of 7Q6, are written

on papyrus.

The Dead Sea scrolls were written on parchment made of processedanimal hide known as vellum (approximately 85.5 - 90.5% of thescrolls), papyrus (estimated at 8.0 - 13.0% of the scrolls), and sheets ofbronze composed of about 99.0% copper and 1.0% tin (approximately1.5% of the scrolls).[51][52] For those scrolls written on animal hides,scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, by use of DNA testingfor assembly purposes, believe that there may be a hierarchy in thereligious importance of the texts based on which type of animal wasused to create the hide. Scrolls written on goat and calf hides areconsidered by scholars to be more significant in nature, while thosewritten on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiouslysignificant in nature.[53]

In addition, tests by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Sicily, Italy, have suggested that the origin ofparchment of select Dead Sea Scroll fragments is from the Qumran area itself, by using X-ray and Particle InducedX-ray emission testing of the water used to make the parchment that were compared with the water from the areaaround the Qumran site.[54]

Dead Sea Scrolls 18

Deterioration, storage, and preservation

Two examples of the pottery that held some ofthe Dead Sea Scrolls documents found at

Qumran.

The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by thedry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran areaadjoining the Dead Sea.[55] In addition, the lack of the use of tanningmaterials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very lowairflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to theirpreservation.[56] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jarswithin the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them fromdeterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists andscholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in anuncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapiddeterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[57] During the firstfew years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to joinfragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to thedocuments.[57] The Government of Jordan had recognized the urgencyof protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of thedeterioration among the scrolls.[58] However, the government did nothave adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection andagreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have themheld at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequatelystudied".[58]

In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem and through theirtransportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[59] The museum was underfunded and had limited resourceswith which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relativelyuncontrolled by modern standards.[59] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between windowglass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion ofthe conflict during the 1956 Arab-Israeli War, the scrolls collection of the Palestinian Archaeological Museum wasstored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[60] Damp conditions from temporary storage of thescrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 lead to a more rapid rate of deterioration of thescrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some of the fragments werepartially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored whilein the vault.[60] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[58] Many ofthe texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[57][59]

Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to differentadhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[57] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus orbronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of themuseum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[61] In the late 1960s, thedeterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and SirFrancis Frank were some of the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[59] Early attempts madeby both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array ofchemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[59] In the 1970s and1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them withcardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments andscrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[57]

In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on

Dead Sea Scrolls 19

the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[57] The fragments and scrolls are preserved usingacid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[57]

Photography and assembly

Najib Albina working on the Dead Sea Scrolls inthe photo lab of the Palestine Archaeological

Museum, Circa 1955–1960.

Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different partiesduring and after the excavation process, they were not all photographedby the same organization nor in their entirety.

First photographs by the American Schools of OrientalResearch (1948)

The first individual to photograph a portion of the collection was JohnC. Trever (1916–2006), a biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was aresident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[62] Hephotographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[62][63][64]

Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographsoften exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over theyears, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removedfrom their linen wrappings.

Infrared photography and plate assembly by thePalestinian Archaeological Museum (1952–1967)

A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archeological Museum. TheMuseum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of theAmerican Colony in Jerusalem,[65] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five stage process of the sortingand assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archeological Museum, using infraredphotography. Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography,Najib and the team at the Museum produced over 1,750 photographic plates of the scrolls andfragments.[66][67][68][69] The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin, using large format film,which caused the text to stand out, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[70] These are theearliest photographs of the museum's collection, which was the most complete in the world at the time, and theyrecorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage, so they are often considered the bestrecorded copies of the scrolls.[71]

Dead Sea Scrolls 20

Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012)

A previously unreadable fragment of the DeadSea Scrolls photographed by the Jet PropulsionLaboratory at NASA in the early 1990s using

digital infrared technology. The fragment,translated into English, reads "he wrote the words

of Noah."

Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration used digital infrared imaging technology to producephotographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[72] In partnership with theAncient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research,NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand onthe use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancientmanuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images arephotographed.[73] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique,adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order toreveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead SeaScrolls.[73] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order tophotograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result,image distortion is significantly diminished.[74] This method was usedwith select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and detailsthat cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[74] The camera and digital imagingassembly was developed by Greg Berman, a scientist with NASA, specifically for the purpose of photographingillegible ancient texts.[75] On December–18-2012[76] the first output of this project was launched together withGoogle on a dedicated site http:/ / www. deadseascrolls. org. il/ . The site contains both digitizations of old imagestaken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology[77]

Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2012)Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrollsfragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. Forscrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code toassociate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significancebased on the type of material that was used.[78]

Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016, Estimated)In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make themavailable to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[79] The lead photographer ofthe project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-IIback in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[80] With photos taken at1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the nakedeye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a secondexposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[79] The digital photography project, estimated in 2011 to costapproximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars, is expected to be completed by 2016.[80]

Dead Sea Scrolls 21

Scholarly examination

Scholar Eleazar Sukenik examining one of theDead Sea Scrolls in 1951.

Early study by scholars

After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the PalestinianArchaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them andlog them for translation and study in a room that became known as the"Scrollery".[81]

Language and script

The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages:Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean.

Language Script Percentage of Documents Centuries of Known Use

Hebrew Assyrian block script[82] Estimated 76.0-79.0% 3rd century BCE to present

Hebrew Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"[83][84][85] Estimated 0.9%-1.0%[86] Unknown

Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew script[87] Estimated 1.0-1.5%[85] 10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE

Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew scribal script[87]

Aramaic Aramaic square script Estimated 16.0-17.0%[88] 8th century BCE to present

Greek Greek uncial script[87] Estimated 3.0%[85] 3rd century CE to 8th centuries CE

Nabataean Nabataean script[89] Estimated 0.2%[89] 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE

Publication

Scholars assembling and examining the Dead SeaScrolls fragments in what became known as the

"Scrollery" room of the Palestine ArchaeologicalMuseum.

Physical publication and controversy

Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of thelonger, more complete scrolls were published soon after theirdiscovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Theirtranslations into English soon followed.

Controversy

Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays havebeen a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled bya small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority ofscholars had no access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Hershel Shanks,Norman Golb and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts, so that they become available toresearchers. This controversy only ended in 1991, when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the

Dead Sea Scrolls 22

"Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", after an intervention of the Israeli government and the IsraeliAntiquities Authority (IAA).[90] In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea ScrollsFoundation, and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year.

Physical description

The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many tobe excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum fromthe 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was severely limited to the editorial committee.

Discoveries in the Judean Desert (1955–2009)

Emanuel Tov (1941-) who was Editor-in-Chief ofthe Dead Seas Scrolls Publication Project and, as

a result, responsible for the publication of 32volumes of the Discoveries in the Judean Desertseries. He also worked to publish a six-volume

printed edition with a majority of the non-BiblicalDead Sea Scrolls and make the same volumesavailable electronically on CD in a collection

titled "The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader".

The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series byOxford University Press published between 1955 and 2009 known asDiscoveries in the Judean Desert.[91] In 1952 the JordanianDepartment of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to beginexamining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent ofpublishing them.[92] The initial publication, assembled by DominiqueBarthélemy and Józef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in1955.[91] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch-Israeli textualscholar Emanuel Tov as Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Sea ScrollsPublication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov'steam had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009.

A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, BenZion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously publishedscrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[93] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led byHead Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to thelibrary's complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents thathad been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of theInternational Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimilesof the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreedto lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[94]

A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[95] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement of one of the scrolls, MMT, which he deciphered. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993.[96] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the

Dead Sea Scrolls 23

District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over toQimron all the infringing copies.[97] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright lawscholars.[98]

The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008)

In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile EditionsLimited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), andThe Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[][99] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfullyrepresents the condition of the Isaiah scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the realIsaiah scroll.[]

Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition inSeoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets includingfacsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 (now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum inAmman, Jordan) Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009.The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchmentpaper or real parchment. The complete facsimile set (three scrolls including the Isaiah scroll and the three Jordanianfragments) can be purchased for $60,000.[]

The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrân. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte [100] at theBibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France (2010) and Verbum Domini [101] at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012) andGoogle [102]

Digital publication

Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011)

The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg,Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley,British Columbia, Canada.[103] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader,on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and onWindows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks.

The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005)

The text of almost all of the non-Biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisherE.J. Brill in 2005.[104] The 2400 page, 6 volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parryand Emanuel Tov.[105] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judean Desert, thetexts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic andliturgical works.[104]

Israel Antiquities Authority and Google digitization project (2010–2016)

High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea scrolls are now available online atthe Israel Museum's website.[106]

On 19 October 2010, it was announced[] that Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge [107], on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. The first images, which according to the announcement could reveal new letters and words,[] are expected to be posted online in the few months following the announcement, and the project is scheduled for completion within five years. According to IAA director Pnina Shor, "from the minute all of this will go online there will be no need to expose the scrolls anymore",[] referring to the dark, climate-controlled

Dead Sea Scrolls 24

storeroom where the manuscripts are kept when not on display.[]

On 25 September 2011 [108] the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls this site went online. Google and the IsraelMuseum teamed up on this project,[109] allowing users to examine and explore these most ancient manuscripts fromSecond Temple times at a level of detail never before possible. The new website gives users access to searchable,high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the textsand their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the projectand are now accessible online. These include the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentaryon Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll. All five scrolls can be magnified so that users mayexamine texts in detail.

Biblical significanceBefore the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretictexts dating to the 10th century, such as the Aleppo Codex. (Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of theMasoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century.[110]) The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead SeaScrolls push that date back a millennium to the 2nd century BCE.[111] Before this discovery, the earliest extantmanuscripts of the Old Testament were manuscripts such as Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 and Codex Sinaiticus(both dating from the 4th century) that were written in Greek.According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology:

The biblical manuscripts from Qumran, which include at least fragments from every book of the OldTestament, except perhaps for the Book of Esther, provide a far older cross section of scriptural tradition thanthat available to scholars before. While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to theMasoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus andSamuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishingrange of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider theonce-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: ofthe Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is nowbecoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization aroundA.D. 100.[112]

At the time of their writing the area was transitioning between the Greek Macedonian Empire and Roman dominanceas Roman Judea. The Jewish qahal (society) had some measure of autonomy following the death of Alexander andthe fracturing of the Greek Empire among his successors. The country was long called Ιουδαία or Judæa at that time,named for the Hebrews that returned to dwell there, following the well-documented diaspora.[113] The majority ofJews never actually returned to Israel from Babylon and Persia according to the Talmud, oral and archeologicalevidence.[114][115]Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources

Biblical books foundThere are 225 Biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, withdeutercanonical books the number increases to 235.[][116] The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of thebooks of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of thedeuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Ben Sirach, Baruch 6, and Psalm151.[] The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because, as a Jew, hermarriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran,[117] or because the bookhas the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar.[] Listed below are the sixteen most representedbooks of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 1970s, including the number of translatable Dead Seatexts that represent a copy of scripture from each Biblical book:[118]

Dead Sea Scrolls 25

Book Number found

Psalms 39

Deuteronomy 33

1 Enoch 25

Genesis 24

Isaiah 22

Jubilees 21

Exodus 18

Leviticus 17

Numbers 11

Minor Prophets 10

Daniel 8

Jeremiah 6

Ezekiel 6

Job 6

1 & 2 Samuel 4

Sirach 1

Tobit Fragments

Non-biblical booksThe majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to beinsignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the Biblical books, but a different consensus hasemerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed bythem.[] Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period, when someof the Biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form.[]

Museum exhibitions and displays

Temporary public exhibitionsSmall portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museumsand public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States andthe United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions wereco-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions werediscontinued after 1965 due to the Six-days War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the IsraeliAntiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage.A list of major temporary public exhibitions can be found here:[119]

Dead Sea Scrolls 26

Exhibition Place ExhibitionCity

Exhibition Name ExhibitionDates

Description Picture

The National Museum ofNatural History

Washington,D.C., UnitedStates

"The Torch" 27 February1965 – 21March 1965

The exhibition took place in the FoyerGallery of the Natural History Building. Theexhibit, sponsored by the Government ofJordan, drew 209,643 visitors.[120]

The University ofPennsylvania Museum

Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,United States

3 April1965 – 25April 1965

Part of a Smithsonian Institution TravelingExhibition Service exhibit.[120]

The British Museum London,England,UnitedKingdom

"The Dead Sea Scrollsof Jordan"

December1965

The exhibition aroused great public interestand attracted large attendances. Theexhibition involved cooperation between thePalestinian Archeological Museum, theSmithsonian Institution, and the Governmentof the Heshemite Kingdom of Jordan[121]

The Library of Congress Washington,D.C., UnitedStates

"Scrolls from the DeadSea: The AncientLibrary of Qumran andModern Scholarship"

29 April1993 - June1993

The exhibition featured 12 scrolls and 88artifacts displayed in the library's MadisonGallery.[122]

The New York PublicLibrary

New York,New York,United States

"The Dead Sea Scrolls:AncientCivilization-ModernScholarship"

October1993 -January1994

This exhibition featured 12 fragments of theIsrael Antiquities Authority Collection and200 pieces in all.[123]

The Fine Arts Museumof San Francisco

San Francisco,California,United States

"Highlights from theIsrael AntiquitiesAuthority: The DeadSea Scrolls and 5,000Years of Treasures"

26 February1994 – 29May 1994

Among others, the exhibition included theBook of Psalms and included 50 totalartifacts on display.[124]

Biblioteca ApostolicaVaticana

Vatican City 4 July1994 – 16October1994

Israel MuseumJerusalem

Jerusalem,Israel

February1995 - May1995

Kelvingrove[125] Glasgow,Scotland,UnitedKingdom

1 May1998 – 30August1998

Romisch-GermanischesMuseum

Koln,Germany

12November1998 – 18April 1999

Austellungssaal desRegeirungsgebaudes

St. Gallen,Switzerland

7 May1999 – 8August1999

Field Museum ofChicago

Chicago,Illinois, UnitedStates

4 February2000 – 18June 2000

This exhibit included the Psalms Scroll.[126]

Dead Sea Scrolls 27

The Art Gallery of NewSouth Wales

Sydney,Australia

"Dead Sea Scrolls" 14 July2000 – 15October2000

The exhibition featured parts of the WarScroll and other fragments along with relatedartifacts.[127]

The Public Museum ofGrand Rapids

Grand Rapids,Michigan,United States

15 February2003 – 31May 2003

Museu Historic Nacional Rio de Janeiro,Brazil

1 August2004 – 10October2004

Houston Museum ofNatural Science

Houston,Texas, UnitedStates

1 October2004 – 2January2005

Museu Brasileiro daEscultura MarilisaRathsman

São Paulo,Brazil

27 October2004 – 15February2005

Discovery Place Charlotte,NorthCarolina,United States

17 February2006 – 29May 2006

Pacific Science Center Seattle,Washington,United States

23September2006 – 7January2007

Union Station Kansas City,Missouri,United States

8 February2007 – 13May 2007

Not exclusively a museum exhibition.

San Diego NaturalHistory Museum

San Diego,California,United States

"Dead Sea Scrolls" 29 June2007 – 6January2008

The museum claimed that the exhibition"was the largest and most comprehensiveexhibition of Dead Sea Scrolls everassembled." The exhibition displayed 24 setsof fragments, including some from theCopper Scroll.[128]

Museum of NaturalSciences

Raleigh, NorthCarolina,United States

"The Dead Sea Scrolls" 28 June2008 – 28December2008

The exhibition featured 12 sets of scrollfragments on loan from the IAA.[129]

Jewish Museum NewYork

New York,New York,United States

"The Dead Sea Scrolls:Mysteries of the AncientWorld"

21September2008 – 4January2009

The exhibition featured six sets of scrollfragments.[130]

Dead Sea Scrolls 28

Royal Ontario Museum Toronto,Canada

"Words that Changedthe World"

27 June2009 – 3January2010

On 24 September 2008 it was announced thatthe Royal Ontario Museum would be hostingan exhibition of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[131]

From 27 June 2009, to 3 January 2010, acollection of over 200 manuscripts of theDead Sea Scrolls were displayed at the RoyalOntario Museum in Toronto, Canada.[131]

The exhibition was a joint venture betweenthe Israel Antiquities Authority and theRoyal Ontario Museum.[132]

Science Museum ofMinnesota

St. Paul,Minnesota,United States

"Words that Changedthe World"

12 March2010 – 24October2010

The exhibition featured three sets of fivefragments from scrolls.[133]

The Franklin Institute Philadelphia,PA

"Dead Sea Scrolls: Lifeand Faith in AncientTimes"

12 May2012 – 14October2012

The exhibition features a total of twentyscrolls, displayed ten at a time, including theoldest known copies of the Hebrew Bibleand four never-before-seen scrolls. Withmore than 600 items on display, visitors willexperience firsthand the traditions, beliefsand iconic objects from everyday life, morethan 2000 years ago.[134]

Southwestern BaptistTheological Seminary

Fort Worth,Texas, UnitedStates

"Dead Sea Scrolls andthe Bible"

2 July2012 – 13January2013

A landmark endeavor, SouthwesternSeminary's exhibit marks the first time aprivate institution has hosted a display of theDead Sea Scrolls. With over 21 scroll pieces,the exhibition includes a never-before-seenGenesis fragment on loan from the Kandofamily (the largest piece held in any privatecollection) and one of only five existinglaser-facsimiles of the Great Isaiah Scroll.The exhibit focuses on the uniquerelationship between the 1947 discovery andits implications for biblical textual criticismand historicity.[135]

Individuals examining part of the IsraeliAntiquities Authority's Dead Sea Scrolls

collection on display at the Shrine of the Book, awing of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

Long-term museum exhibitions

Display at the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Since its completion in April 1965,[136] the majority of the Dead SeaScrolls collection has been moved to the Shrine of the Book, a part ofthe Israel Museum, located in Jerusalem. The museum falls under theauspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of theIsraeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at themuseum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surroundedby reproductions of other famous fragments that include CommunityRule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[137][138]

Dead Sea Scrolls 29

Display at the Jordan Museum, Amman, Jordan

Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordian government prior to 1967 was stored in Amman ratherthan at the Palestinian Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collectionremained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. Parts of this collection are anticipated to be ondisplay at the Jordan Museum in Amman after the documents move. They were moved there in between June 2011and August 2011 from the National Archaeological Museum of Jordan.[139] Among the display items are artifactsfrom the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.

Ownership

Past ownership

Advertisement in the Wall Street Journal dated 1June 1954 for four of the "Dead Sea Scrolls."

Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a thirdparty until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That thirdparty, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syrian Orthodox Church,who soon contacted St. Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting anappraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reachedMetropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as MarSamuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, MarSamuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls foundtheir way into his hands: the now famous Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), theCommunity Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book ofHabakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfacedin the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and ProfessorBenjamin Mazar, Israeli archaeologists at Hebrew University, soonfound themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, ThanksgivingHymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah scroll (1QIsab).

Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls went up for sale eventually, in an advertisement in the 1 June 1954, Wall StreetJournal. On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including theMetropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and theson of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000, approximately $2.14 million in 2012, and brought toJerusalem.[140]

Current ownershipMost of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection is currently under the ownership of the Government of the state of Israel,and housed in the Shrine of the Book on the grounds of the Israel Museum. This ownership is contested by bothJordan and Palestine.A list of known ownership of Dead Sea Scroll fragments:

Dead Sea Scrolls 30

Claimed Owner Year Acquired Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned

Azusa Pacific University[141] 2009 5

Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago[142] 1956 1

Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary[143] 2009; 2010; 2012 8

Rockefeller Museum - Government of Israel[144][145] 1967 > 15,000

The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen[146] 1980; 1994; 1995 60

The Jordan Museum - Government of Jordan[147] 1947–1956 > 25

Ownership disputesThe official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State ofIsrael, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more generalIsraeli-Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition.

Parties Involved Party Role Explanation of Role

 Jordan Disputant;Minority Owner

Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestinian Archaeological Museum, which wasoperated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of theMuseum and that they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of CulturalProperty in the Event of Armed Conflict.[148] Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-partycountries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legaldocuments that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.[149]

 Israel Disputant;Current MajorityOwner

After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the IsraelMuseum. Israel refutes Jordan's claim and states that they never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was anunlawful occupier of the museum and region.[150][151][152]

 PalestinianAuthority

Disputant The Palestinian Authority also holds a claim to the scrolls.[153]

 Canada NeutralExhibition Host

In 2009, a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Israeli Antiquities Authority was moved anddisplayed at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada. Both Palestine and Jordan petitioned theinternational community, including the United Nations,[154] for the scrolls to be seized under disputedinternational law. Ottawa dismissed the demands and the exhibit continued, with the scrolls returning toIsrael upon its conclusion.[155]

 UnitedNations

SupranationalAuthority

Under Resolution 181 (II), Jerusalem, in particular East Jerusalem, that is currently home to the RockefellerMuseum that holds the scrolls, is part of a "Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem" that issupposed to be administered by the United Nations, further complicating matters. East Jerusalem was underJordanian occupation from 1948 to 1967 and has been under Israeli occupation since 1967.

Dead Sea Scrolls 31

Copyright disputesThere are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be consideredambiguous. The documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. Thisambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of suchlaw.

Copyright of the original scrolls and translations, Qimron v. Shanks (1992)

In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimronagainst Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regardinghis publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead SeaScrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society wasdone on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, incontext of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law foraggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[156] An appeal in 2000 in front of Judge AharonBarak the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favor.[157] The court case established the twomain principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorshipand originality.The courts ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals orgroups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholarshave a degree of, in the words of David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer shows how this freedom was in thetheory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlledaccess to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[156]

References

Notes[1][1] Down, David. "Unveiling the Kings of Israel." P.160. 2011.[2] From papyrus to cyberspace (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ aug/ 27/ israel) The Guardian 27 August 2008.[3][3] Doudna, Greg, "Dating the Scrolls on the Basis of Radiocarbon Analysis", in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years, edited by Flint Peter W.,

and VanderKam, James C., Vol.1 (Leiden: Brill, 1998) 430-471.[4][4] ARC Leaney, Fom Judaean Caves, p.27,Religious Education Press, 1961.[5] Ilani, Ofri, " Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 1070797. html)",

Ha'aretz, 13 March 2009.[6] Golb, Norman, " On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ jerusalem_origin_dss. pdf)", University of

Chicago Oriental Institute, 5 June 2009.[7] Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into

English, San Francisco: Harper, 2002.[8] Retrieved 22 May 2012. (http:/ / virtualreligion. net/ iho/ dss. html#ASOR. )[9][9] Humphries, Mark. "Early Christianity." 2006.[10][10] Evans, Craig. "Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls." 2010.[11] John C. Trever. The Dead Sea Scrolls. Gorgias Press LLC, 2003.[12] "The Archaeological Site OF Qumran and the Personality Of Roland De Vaux." http:/ / www. biblicaltheology. com/ Research/

TrstenskyF01. pdf. Retrieved 22 May 2012.[13] "The Archaeological Site Of Qumran and the Personality Of Roland De Vaux." http:/ / www. biblicaltheology. com/ Research/

TrstenskyF01. pdf. Retrieved 22 May 2012.[14] http:/ / www. gnosis. org/ library/ dss/ dss_timeline. htm. Retrieved 23 May 2012.[15] "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls." http:/ / dss. collections. imj. org. il/ discovery. Retrieved 23 May 2012.[16][16] name="Vermes 1998"[17][17] VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. p. 9.[18] Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4.

Dead Sea Scrolls 32

[19][19] VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009. p. 10.[20][20] VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. p. 10.[21] VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. pp. 10–11.[22] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ exhibits/ scrolls/ scr3. html. Retrieved 21 May 2012.[23] Buitenwerf, Rieuwerd, The Gog and Magog Tradition in Revelation 20:8, in, H. J. de Jonge, Johannes Tromp, eds., The book of Ezekiel and

its influence, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, p.172; scheduled to be published in Charlesworth's edition, volume 9[24][24] Garcia Martinez, Florentino and Tigchelaar, Eibert. "The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition." Vol. 1. 1999.[25][25] Fritzmyer, Joseph. "A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature." 2008.[26] Baillet, Maurice ed. Les 'Petites Grottes' de Qumrân (ed., vol. 3 of Discoveries in the Judean Desert; Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1962), 144–45, pl. XXX.[27] Muro, Ernest A., "The Greek Fragments of Enoch from Qumran Cave 7 (7Q4, 7Q8, &7Q12 = 7QEn gr = Enoch 103:3–4, 7–8)," Revue de

Qumran 18 no. 70 (1997).[28] Puech, Émile, "Sept fragments grecs de la Lettre d'Hénoch (1 Hén 100, 103, 105) dans la grotte 7 de Qumrân (= 7QHén gr)," Revue de

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Press, 1973.[35] Milik, Józef Tadeusz, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judea, London: SCM, 1959.[36] For Sowmy, see: Trever, John C., The Untold Story of Qumran, (Westwood: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1965), p. 25.[37] O'Callaghan–Martínez, Josep, Cartas Cristianas Griegas del Siglo V, Barcelona: E. Balmes, 1963.[38] Eisenman, Robert H. James, the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. 1st

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[115] Cardinal O'Connor stated in an Easter and repeated in a Good Friday address before Saint Patrick's Cathedral, "many Jews were not evenclose enough to make the pilgrimage to Judea, by the time of the Savior.".

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html) (video), Al Jazeera, 3 November 2010.[151] Simon McGregor-Wood, "Who Owns the Dead Sea Scrolls?" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Travel/ israel-jordan-fighting-dead-sea-scrolls/

story?id=9558941), ABC News, 14 January 2010.[152] Ahmad Khatib, "Jordan wants the Dead Sea Scrolls back from Israel" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ afp/ article/

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Dead Sea Scrolls 35

Bibliography• Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible

Translated for the First Time into English, San Francisco: Harper, 2002. ISBN 0-06-060064-0, (contains thebiblical portion of the scrolls)

• Abegg, Jr. Martin, James E. Bowley, Edward M. Cook, Emanuel Tov. The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance, Vol 1."The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance, Volume 1 - BRILL" (http:/ / www. brill. nl/ default. aspx?partid=18&pid=10612). Brill.nl. 1 January 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2010. Brill Publishing 2003. ISBN 90-04-12521-3.

• Allegro, John Marco, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth (ISBN 0-7153-7680-2), Westbridge Books,U.K., 1979.*Edward M. Cook, Solving the Mysteries of the Dead Sea Scrolls: New Light on the Bible, GrandRapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994.

• Berg, Simon. Insights into the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Beginner's Guide, BookSurge Publishing, 2009.• Boccaccini, Gabriele. Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of Ways between Qumran and Enochic

Judaism, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.•• Charlesworth, James H. "The Theologies of the Dead Sea Scrolls." Pages xv-xxi in The Faith of Qumran:

Theology of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by H. Ringgren. New York: Crossroad, 1995.• Collins, John J., Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, New York: Routledge, 1997.• Collins, John J., and Craig A. Evans. Christian Beginnings and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006.• Cross, Frank Moore, The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed., Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995. ISBN

0-8006-2807-1• Davies, A. Powell, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls. (Signet, 1956.)• Davies, Philip R., George J. Brooke, and Phillip R. Callaway, The Complete World of the Dead Sea Scrolls,

London: Thames & Hudson, 2002. ISBN 0-500-05111-9• de Vaux, Roland, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Schweich Lectures of the British Academy, 1959).

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973.• Dimant, Devorah, and Uriel Rappaport (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, Leiden and

Jerusalem: E. J. Brill, Magnes Press, Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1992.• Eisenman, Robert H., The Dead Sea Scrolls and the First Christians, Shaftesbury: Element, 1996.• Eisenman, Robert H., and Michael O. Wise. The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered: The First Complete Translation

and Interpretation of 50 Key Documents Withheld for Over 35 Years, Shaftesbury: Element, 1992.• Eisenman, Robert H. and James Robinson, A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 2 vol., Washington, D.C.:

Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991.• Fitzmyer, Joseph A., Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Paulist Press 1992, ISBN

0-8091-3348-2• Galor, Katharina, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jürgen Zangenberg. Qumran: The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls:

Archaeological Interpretations and Debates: Proceedings of a Conference held at Brown University, 17–19November 2002, Edited by Florentino García Martínez, Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57. Leiden:Brill, 2006.

• García-Martinez, Florentino, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, (Translated fromSpanish into English by Wilfred G. E. Watson) (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1994).

• Gaster, Theodor H., The Dead Sea Scriptures, Peter Smith Pub Inc., 1976. ISBN=0-8446-6702-1• Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran, New York: Scribner,

1995.• Golb, Norman, On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/

jerusalem_origin_dss. pdf), University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 5 June 2009.• Heline, Theodore, Dead Sea Scrolls, New Age Bible & Philosophy Center, 1957, Reprint edition March 1987,

ISBN 0-933963-16-5

Dead Sea Scrolls 36

• Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Peabody: HendricksonPublishers, 2004.

• Israeli, Raphael, Piracy in Qumran: The Battle over the Scrolls of the Pre-Christ Era, Transaction Publishers:2008 ISBN 978-1-4128-0703-6 (http:/ / www. transactionpub. com/ cgi-bin/ transactionpublishers. storefront/ en/Product/ 1-4128-0703-4)

•• Khabbaz, C., "Les manuscrits de la mer Morte et le secret de leurs auteurs",Beirut, 2006. (Ce livre identifie lesauteurs des fameux manuscrits de la mer Morte et dévoile leur secret).

• Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, The Qumran Excavations 1993–2004: Preliminary Report, JSP 6 (Jerusalem:Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007) Download (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ images/ shop/ jsp/JSP6_Qumran_color. pdf)

• Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, "Back to Qumran: Ten years of Excavations and Research, 1993–2004," in TheSite of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates (Studies on the Texts of the Desert ofJudah 57), Brill, 2006 (pp. 55–116).

• Magness, Jodi, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002.• Maier, Johann, The Temple Scroll, [German edition was 1978], (Sheffield:JSOT Press [Supplement 34], 1985).• Milik, Józef Tadeusz, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judea, London: SCM, 1959.• Muro, E. A., "The Greek Fragments of Enoch from Qumran Cave 7 (7Q4, 7Q8, &7Q12 = 7QEn gr = Enoch

103:3-4, 7-8)." Revue de Qumran 18, no. 70 (1997): 307, 12, pl. 1.• O'Callaghan-Martínez, Josep, Cartas Cristianas Griegas del Siglo V, Barcelona: E. Balmes, 1963.• Qimron, Elisha, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies, 1986. (This is a serious discussion

of the Hebrew language of the scrolls.)• Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumran und die Bibliothek vom Toten Meer, Translated by J. R. Wilkie.

Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1960.•• Roitman, Adolfo, ed. A Day at Qumran: The Dead Sea Sect and Its Scrolls. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum, 1998.• Sanders, James A., ed. Dead Sea scrolls: The Psalms scroll of Qumrân Cave 11 (11QPsa), (1965) Oxford,

Clarendon Press.• Schiffman,Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity,

Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995, ISBN 0-385-48121-7, (Schiffman has suggested twoplausible theories of origin and identity - a Sadducean splinter group, or perhaps an Essene group with Sadduceanroots.) Excerpts of this book can be read at COJS: Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / cojs. org/ cojswiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls).

• Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 2 vols. NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1999.

• Shanks, Hershel, The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vintage Press 1999, ISBN 0-679-78089-0(recommended introduction to their discovery and history of their scholarship)

• Stegemann, Hartmut. "The Qumran Essenes: Local Members of the Main Jewish Union in Late Second TempleTimes." Pages 83–166 in The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the DeadSea Scrolls, Madrid, 18–21 March 1991, Edited by J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Mountainer. Vol. 11 ofStudies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah. Leiden: Brill, 1992.

• Thiede, Carsten Peter, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity, PALGRAVE 2000, ISBN0-312-29361-5

• Thiering, Barbara, Jesus the Man, New York: Atria, 2006.• Thiering, Barbara, Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ISBN 0-06-067782-1), New York: Harper

Collins, 1992• VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.• Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4 (good

translation, but complete only in the sense that he includes translations of complete texts, but neglects

Dead Sea Scrolls 37

fragmentary scrolls and more especially does not include biblical texts.) (7th ed. 2011 ISBN 978-0-14-119731-9)• Wise, Michael O., Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, (1996),

HarperSanFrancisco paperback 1999, ISBN 0-06-069201-4, (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls,including fragments)

• Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect, New York: Random House, 1985.

Other sources• Dead Sea Scrolls Study Vol 1: 1Q1-4Q273, Vol. 2: 4Q274-11Q31, (compact disc), Logos Research Systems, Inc.,

(contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls with Hebrew and Aramaic transcriptions in parallel with Englishtranslations)

• Comprehensive Cross Reference interactive module for Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, Philo, Nag HammadiLibrary, Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament Apocrypha, New Testament Apocrypha, Plato, Pythagoras,Dhammapada, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Tacitus, Talmud, New and Old Testaments, Apostolic and EarlyChurch Fathers (http:/ / www. accordancebible. com/ Comprehensive-Crossreferences)

External links• The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / dss. collections. imj. org. il/ ) hosted by the Israel Museum, Jerusalem• Shrine of the Book (http:/ / www. english. imjnet. org. il/ htmls/ page_899. aspx?c0=14389& bsp=14162), home

of the physical scrolls at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem• The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library (http:/ / www. deadseascrolls. org. il/ ) hosted by the Israel

Antiquities Authority JerusalemExhibits and academic projects• The Dead Sea Scrolls: Mysteries of the Ancient World (2009) (http:/ / www. thejewishmuseum. org/ exhibitions/

DeadSeaScrolls) at The Jewish Museum (New York)• Dead Sea Scrolls facsimile of 1QIsa 1Qs and 1QpHab (http:/ / www. facsimile-editions. com/ en/ ds),

Facsimile-editions.com• Qumran Visualization Project (http:/ / www. virtualqumran. com), UCLA• Timetable of the Discovery and Debate about the Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / virtualreligion. net/ iho/ dss. html),

VirtualReligion.net• The Dead Sea Scrolls Collection (http:/ / www. gnosis. org/ library/ dss/ dss. htm) at the Gnostic Society Library• The Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / farms. byu. edu/ dss/ index. html?selection=& cat=0) (FARMS), Brigham Young

University• Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit (http:/ / www. apu. edu/ deadseascrolls/ ) at Azusa Pacific University displays five Dead

Sea Scrolls fragments in Azusa, California• Scrolls From the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship (http:/ / www. loc. gov/

exhibits/ scrolls/ toc. html) at the Library of Congress• Library of Congress On-line Exhibit (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ expo/ deadsea. scrolls. exhibit/ intro. html),

ibiblio.org• The Dead Sea Scrolls Project (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ OI/ PROJ/ SCR/ Scrolls. html) at the Oriental Institute of

the University of Chicago features several articles by Norman Golb, some of which take issue with statementsmade in popular museum exhibits of the Dead Sea Scrolls• The Qumran Essene Theory and recent strategies employed in its defense (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ research/

projects/ scr/ Recent_Strategies_2007. pdf) Norman Golb (2007)• The Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature (http:/ / orion. mscc. huji. ac. il/

index. html), Hebrew University of Jerusalem, includes bibliography

Dead Sea Scrolls 38

• Ancient Treasures and the Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / www. civilization. ca/ cmc/ exhibitions/ civil/ israel/ isrele.shtml) at the Canadian Museum of Civilization

• Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / www. rom. on. ca/ scrolls/ index. php) at the Royal Ontario MuseumMedia coverage and academic articles• Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / topics. nytimes. com/ top/ reference/ timestopics/ subjects/ d/ dead_sea_scrolls/ index.

html) collected news and commentary at The New York Times• The Importance of the Discoveries in the Judean Desert (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ article_Item_eng.

asp?sec_id=36& subj_id=69& id=129& module_id=) Israel Antiquities Authority• What Are the Dead Sea Scrolls? (http:/ / www. chabad. org/ library/ article_cdo/ aid/ 1725431/ jewish/

What-Are-the-Dead-Sea-Scrolls. htm). Chabad.org interview with Dr. Lawrence Schiffman, reviewed by him.• Pesher Technique: Dr. Barbara Thiering's Writings (http:/ / www. peshertechnique. infinitesoulutions. com/ / )

Barbara Thiering's (unconventional) theories connecting the scrolls with the Bible• The Dead Sea Scrolls as a source on Palestine History of 1st century AD (http:/ / ec-dejavu. ru/ q/ Qumran-en.

html). Sergey E. Rysev.• "Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom, and Judah the Essene," (http:/ / www. duke. edu/ ~goranson/ jannaeus. pdf)

Stephen Goranson, on Teacher of Righteousness and Wicked Priest identities.• "Others and Intra-Jewish Polemic as Reflected in Qumran Texts," (http:/ / www. duke. edu/ ~goranson/

Essenes_& _Others. pdf) Stephen Goranson, evidence that English "Essenes" comes from Greek spellings thatcome from Hebrew 'osey hatorah, a self-designation in some Qumran texts.

• Introduction to the Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / www. bib-arch. org/ online-exclusives/ dead-sea-scrolls-02. asp),Biblical Archaeology Review

• Searching for the Better Text: How errors crept into the Bible and what can be done to correct them (http:/ / www.bib-arch. org/ e-features/ searching-for-better-text. asp), Biblical Archaeology Review

• The Dead Sea Scrolls and Why They Matter (http:/ / www. bib-arch. org/ online-exclusives/ dead-sea-scrolls-01.asp), Biblical Archaeology Review

Article Sources and Contributors 39

Article Sources and ContributorsDead Sea Scrolls  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=554854034  Contributors: - ), .marc., 1exec1, 2602:304:AB72:65C9:409C:839C:2D40:6A82, 2help, 83d40m, A ntv, A3RO,AAA765, AbcXyz, Acather96, Acroterion, Action potential, AdamHarvell, Adamsan, Addamohara, Adriaan, Aflsfkjhsfkjshf, Afudge, Agari, Akodautse, Al Ameer son, Alan Canon, AlanLiefting, Alansohn, Alastair Haines, Aldaron, Alexandra lb, AlfredChen, Alpha774, Amoruso, Anastrophe, Anclation, Andrew c, Angel ivanov angelov, Anger22, Angr, Animum,Annchrysthemum, Anthony Appleyard, Anthony on Stilts, Aquatik, Arcadian, Ari in Jericho, Ari89, Armon, Aronzak, Asad112, Asclepius, AshLin, Ashmoo, AtticusX, Auric, Avocats, Avoided,Avraham, BD2412, BabelStone, Bainne23, Bantosh, Bart133, Bastion Monk, Bdgarson, Beardo, Bella Swan, BenPhil, Bender2k14, Bgwhite, Bigzeki, Billposer, Bkell, Black Kite, Blah2,Blainster, BlakFlak, Blaxthos, Bluesmoon, Boat209850892086, Bob A, Bobo192, Bogey97, Boing! said Zebedee, Bongoramsey, Bookitybook, BorgHunter, Brando130, Brucer42,Bryce4CHRIST, Bs8542, Bsellers, Btilm, Bubbha, Bumblemike, Butseriouslyfolks, CIS, CJLL Wright, Caknuck, Calabe1992, Calcio33, CaliforniaKid, CalumH93, Can't sleep, clown will eatme, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, Captain panda, Carlwev, Carnush, CarrotMan, Carter, Cassowary, Cavila, Cdamama, Centrx, CesarFelipe, Cfimei, CharleyP, Chasidheretic, Chesdovi,Chris dangel, Chris the speller, ChrisCooper1991, ChrisG, Chrisbak, Chrislk02, Christ In Me 2002, Christhavemercy, Chromaticity, Chunky Rice, Clan-destine, Clinkophonist, Cmdrjameson,Cms100000000, CommonsDelinker, CopperMurdoch, Coralapus, CowboySpartan, Crf140, Critic11, Critical Reader, Crossbyname, Crum375, Cst17, CyberDorkX, CzarB, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,DVdm, Dagbert, Dak, Dancter, Daniel, Dark Mage, DarkFantasy, Darth Panda, David Spart, Dawkeye, Dcoetzee, DePiep, Deadtotruth, Deanlaw, Debresser, Den fjättrade ankan, Der Golem,Deror avi, Dibdoober, DionysiusThrax, Discospinster, DjR, Djnjwd, Doc glasgow, Docu, Domandologo, Donner60, Dougweller, Dr. Blofeld, Dragomiloff, Drench, Drjackcv, Drkup(IMJ),Drmies, Dudley Miles, Durova, Dwlegg, EagerToddler39, Eagletennis, EastTN, Ecphora, Editor2020, EdoDodo, Eeekster, Eep², Eibert, El C, ElComandanteChe, ElKevbo, Elipongo, Eliyak,Eloquence, Emmawhatever, Enedving, Enochlau, Enric Naval, EoGuy, Epbr123, Epolk, Ericl, Erxnmedia, Evanh2008, Everything Else Is Taken, Eyalfink, FDuffy, Falcon9x5, Favonian,FeanorStar7, Felgerkarb, Felicia222, Finog, FisherQueen, Flange the Flee, Flauto Dolce, Floorsheim, Florian Blaschke, Flyingidiot, Fr0gg06, FranksValli, Frap, Fullstop, Funhistory, FunkyMonkey, Fuzheado, GGdowney, Gabi S., Gadfium, Gaelen S., Gaius Cornelius, GalaazV, Gargolla, Gary D, Gary Jones, Gawil123, GeorgeMoney, Georgey524, Gilabrand, Girlwithgreeneyes,Gjnaasaa, Glenn, Gloriamarie, Gmaurer40, God'servants, Golfguy320, Golgofrinchian, Goodwin0409, Goosehonk1, Grafen, Gregcaletta, Gsmgm, Guoguo12, Gypaetus, Gzuckier,Hal6hw39nsakh1, Haldrik, Hammersoft, HansvanderMeij, Happysailor, Hardyplants, Haruth, Hemmingsen, Heptazane, Hertz1888, Hhcaas, Historian2010, Historylover4, Hkelkar, Hmains,Howcheng, Hugo999, Humus sapiens, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hvn0413, IW.HG, IZAK, Icarusdrowning, IceDragon64, Ihutchesson, Imeriki al-Shimoni, In ictu oculi, Inka 888, Insanity Incarnate,InverseHypercube, Iopq, Irbisgreif, Isnow, Ivmikh, J.H, J.delanoy, JGeorge436, JRosine, Jabbawocky16, Jack1956, Jackol, Jacob4u, Jacques Brando, Jakohn, Jaksmith, Jamesx12345, Jan1nad,JasonAQuest, Java7837, Javed Sommers, Jayjg, Jayron11, Jebba, Jeff3000, Jeffq, Jengod, Jennylongshot, Jerry, Jheald, Jimhoward72, Jimmy Fleischer, Jj137, Jjdon, Jlc46, Jlivewell, JohnBelushi, John Stattic, John Vandenberg, John of Reading, Johndoesaidso, JonHarder, Jonathan Hall, Jonneroo, Jonstwert, Jordan Brown, Jorge Stolfi, Joseaperez, Joseph Solis in Australia,Joshchamp, Jtarb, Julia117, JulianDelphiki, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, JustinDeGroat, Jverbruggen, Jwissick, KJS77, Kafka Liz, Kakorot, KarenEddaNess, Karimarie, Keelak, Keesiewonder,Kerbyrials, Kerttie, KevR, Kevin B12, Kevspencer, Khazar2, Kidindistress, Klemen Kocjancic, Koakhtzvigad, Koavf, KoshVorlon, Kristyduprey, Kusunose, KyleRGiggs, Kyoko, LITTLEej,LOwens, LachlanA, Lambiam, LeNea, Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, Lehaven, Leos Friend, Leszek Jańczuk, Leuko, Leviton, Lightlowemon, Lights, Lilac Soul, Lindert, LinuxDude, Linzc, LittleMountain 5, LizardJr8, Llywrch, Lmcelhiney, Lockesdonkey, LodeRunner, Logan, Logical2u, Lord Hawk, Lucatelospiega, Lumos3, Lupin, MBisanz, Macfanatic, Macjordan, Mackeriv,Mangoman88, Maproom, Marcok, Marecheth Ho'eElohuth, Marek69, Mark Arsten, MarkS, MarkSutton, Marokwitz, Marumari, Marysunshine, Master Devwi, Master z0b, Materialscientist, MattBritt, Mattgirling, Matthew Yeager, Maurice Carbonaro, Mav, Maxim Leyenson, Maxis ftw, Mayalld, Mckenter, Mcnabbthestrong, Mddake, Mebden, Meegs, Megliomaniac, Meltonkt, Mendaliv,Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mike Falter, Miranda, Misna, Mitchbas, Mm40, Mmcannis, Moe Epsilon, Mojoworker, Molerat, Mondain, Monosig, Monsieur Voltaire, Mopashinov, Moreschi,Morgil, Morte, Mr Stephen, MrOllie, MrX, Mrcolj, Mrjinx, Mulad, Mwidunn, Mygerardromance, N5iln, NSK Nikolaos S. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Psalms Scroll.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Psalms_Scroll.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Photograph: the Israel Antiquities Authority 1993;photographer not named.File:Qumran.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qumran.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Effi SchweizerFile:The War Scroll - Dead Sea Scroll.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_War_Scroll_-_Dead_Sea_Scroll.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors:EagletennisFile:1QIsa b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1QIsa_b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: uploaded by Daniel.baranekFile:The Damascus Document Scroll.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Damascus_Document_Scroll.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors:Eagletennis, John BelushiFile:7Q4.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:7Q4.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John BelushiFile:Temple Scroll.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Temple_Scroll.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LindertFile:View of the Dead Sea from a Cave at Qumran.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:View_of_the_Dead_Sea_from_a_Cave_at_Qumran.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Zero  Contributors: Eagletennis, SvajcrFile:IronGallDSS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IronGallDSS.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:EagletennisFile:7Q6-1,2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:7Q6-1,2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John BelushiFile:Qumran pottery.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qumran_pottery.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EagletennisFile:Najib Albina Photo Lab.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Najib_Albina_Photo_Lab.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PAM (Life time: N/A).File:Infrared Fragment Photographed by Nasa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Infrared_Fragment_Photographed_by_Nasa.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: EagletennisFile:EL Sukenik 1951.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EL_Sukenik_1951.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Hanay, Pessimist2006,Ras67, דניאל צבי, と あ る 白 い 猫

File:Dead Sea Scroll Scholar Examination.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Sea_Scroll_Scholar_Examination.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:EagletennisFile:Emanuel tov.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emanuel_tov.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Lika TovFile:People Waiting to Enter NMNH to See the "Dead Sea Scrolls" Exhibit.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:People_Waiting_to_Enter_NMNH_to_See_the_"Dead_Sea_Scrolls"_Exhibit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EagletennisFile:Howshua.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Howshua.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Saverx

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 40

Image:Steps from Moore.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steps_from_Moore.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: PRInter, 1anonymous editsFile:Flickr - Israel Defense Forces - Photo of the Day, Admiral Mike Mullen and Lt. Gen. Benny Gantz Visit Shrine of the Book.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Photo_of_the_Day,_Admiral_Mike_Mullen_and_Lt._Gen._Benny_Gantz_Visit_Shrine_of_the_Book.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Israel Defense Forces from IsraelFile:DSS ad.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DSS_ad.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: IsraelXKV8R (talk)File:Flag of Jordan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:Flag of Israel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: “The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of theFlag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. The color of the Magen David and the stripes of the Israeli flagis not precisely specified by the above legislation. The color depicted in the current version of the image is typical of flags used in Israel today, although individual flags can and do vary. The flaglegislation officially specifies dimensions of 220 cm × 160 cm. However, the sizes of actual flags vary (although the aspect ratio is usually retained).File:Flag of Palestine.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Palestine.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Orionist, previous versions by Makaristos,Mysid, etc.File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the United Nations.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilfried Huss / Anonymous

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