Designing Knowledge Co- production for Climate and...
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Designing Knowledge Co-production for Climate and Development CARIAA Working Paper #21 Blane Harvey Logan Cochrane Marissa Van Epp Pete Cranston Pier Andrea Pirani
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Harvey, B., Cochrane, L., Van Epp, M., Cranston, P., Pirani, P.A. 2017. Designing Knowledge Co-production for Climate and Development. CARIAA Working Paper no. 21. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada and UK Aid, London, United Kingdom. Available online at: www.idrc.ca/cariaa ISSN: 2292-6798 About CARIAA Working Papers This series is based on work funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) through the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA). CARIAA aims to build the resilience of vulnerable populations and their livelihoods in three climate change hot spots in Africa and Asia. The program supports collaborative research to inform adaptation policy and practice. Titles in this series are intended to share initial findings and lessons from research and background studies commissioned by the program. Papers are intended to foster exchange and dialogue within science and policy circles concerned with climate change adaptation in vulnerability hotspots. As an interim output of the CARIAA program, they have not undergone an external review process. Opinions stated are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of IDRC, DFID, or partners. Feedback is welcomed as a means to strengthen these works: some may later be revised for peer-reviewed publication. Contact Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia c/o International Development Research Centre PO Box 8500, Ottawa, ON Canada K1G 3H9 Telephone: (+1) 613-236-6163; Email: [email protected] Creative Commons License This Working Paper is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Articles appearing in this publication may be freely quoted and reproduced provided that i) the source is acknowledged, ii) the material is not used for commercial purposes, and iii) any adaptations of the material are distributed under the same license. © 2017 International Development Research Centre
Cover photos: Top: © PANOS/Jean-Leo Dugast Bottom: © PANOS/Abbie Trayler-Smith Left: © Blane Harvey
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Abstract
Climatechangeposessignificantglobalchallenges.Solutionsrequirenewwaysofworking,thinkingandacting.Knowledgeco-productionisoftencitedasoneoftheinnovationsneededfornavigatingthecomplexityofclimatechangechallenges,yethowtobestapproachco-productionprocessesremainsunclear.Inthisworkingpaperweexplorethewaysinwhichclimateanddevelopmentresearchersareapproachingtheco-productionofknowledgeandgrapplewiththeextenttowhichthemodalitiesusedarereachingtheirstatedpotential.Usingadiversearrayofcasestudies,weoutlinearangeofapproachestoco-production,fromtechnicaltotransformative.Drawingonliteratureonco-production,weproposeaheuristicthatmapsoutaspectrumofapproachestoco-productionandoffersanassessmentoftherelationshipbetweenprocessesandoutcomesofco-productioninordertoenablemoreinformedplanninganddecision-making.InsodoingthispaperprovideslessonsandinsightsthatCARIAAandsimilaradaptationresearchinitiativescanapplyindeterminingthepotentialofknowledgeco-productionasameanstoinfluencepolicy,practiceandbehaviour.
Keywords
Climatechange,internationaldevelopment,knowledgeco-production
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Resumé
Leschangementsclimatiquesposentd’importantsdéfisàl’échelledelaplanète.Pourrelevercesdéfis,ilfautchangernotrefaçondetravailler,depenseretd’agir.Lacoproductiondeconnaissancesestsouventcitéecommel’unedesinnovationspermettantdesaisirlacomplexitédesdéfisqueprésententleschangementsclimatiques,maisildemeuredifficilededéfinirlameilleureméthodeàadopter.Danscetarticle,nousétudionscommentleschercheursenchangementsclimatiquesetendéveloppementabordentlacoproductiondeconnaissances,etnoustentonsdedéterminerdansquellemesurelesmécanismesutilisésremplissentleurspromesses.Ennousservantdediversesétudesdecas,nousprésentonsunéventaild’approchesdelacoproduction,deladémarchetechniqueàlaméthodetransformatrice.Ennousappuyantsurlalittératuretraitantdelacoproduction,nousprésentonsuneheuristiquequirecensedemultiplesapprochesdelacoproductionetfournituneévaluationdelarelationentrelesprocessusetlesrésultatsdelacoproduction,afind’éclairerlaplanificationetlaprisededécisions.
Motsclés
Changementsclimatiques,développementinternational,coproductiondeconnaissances
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About the authors
BlaneHarveyisanAssistantProfessorintheDepartmentofIntegratedStudiesinEducationatMcGillUniversityinMontreal,Canada,andaResearchAssociateattheOverseasDevelopmentInstituteinLondon,UK.
Contact:[email protected]
LoganCochraneisaBantingFellowatCarletonUniversityinOttawa,Canada.
Contact:[email protected]
MarissaVanEppisanindependentconsultantbasedinNewYork.
Contact:[email protected]
PeteCranstonisaCo-DirectorofEuforicServicesbasedintheUK.
Contact:[email protected]
PierAndreaPiraniisaCo-DirectorofEuforicServicesbasedintheUK.
Contact:[email protected]
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Acknowledgements
Theauthorswouldliketothankallofthecasestudycontributorswhosharedtheir
experiencesofco-productionforthisstudy:AlejandroArgumedo(ANDES),MaxBlanck,the
ClimateChangeandSocialLearning(CCSL)Sandboxteam,DavidEllis(InternationalPotato
Center),ReneGomez(InternationalPotatoCenter),SigmundKluckner(RenewableEnergy
&EnergyEfficiencyPartnership),MariaJosePacha(ClimateandDevelopmentKnowledge
Network),JamesSmith(RenewableEnergy&EnergyEfficiencyPartnership),Margot
Steenbergen(RedCrossClimateCentre),TammyStenner(ANDES),andKrystynaSwiderska
(InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment).Thispaperisbasedonwork
commissionedbytheCollaborativeAdaptationResearchInitiativeinAfricaandAsia
(CARIAA)andfundedbyCanada’sInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre(IDRC)and
theUK’sDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID).Theviewsexpressedinthis
workarethoseofthecreatorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseofDfIDandIDRCor
itsBoardofGovernors.
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Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................................... i
Resumé........................................................................................................................................................................... ii
Abouttheauthors .....................................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................................................iv
1. Backgroundandintroduction .....................................................................................................................1
2. Knowledgeco-productioninclimateanddevelopment..................................................................3
2.1Thepromisesofco-production..........................................................................................................3
2.2Theprocessofco-production .............................................................................................................5
2.3Challengestopractice ............................................................................................................................5
3. Casestudyevidence.........................................................................................................................................7
3.1Overviewandmethodology.................................................................................................................7
3.2Characterisingthecases..................................................................................................................... 14
3.3Cross-cuttingthemes........................................................................................................................... 15
4. Discussionanddesignheuristic .............................................................................................................. 16
5. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................... 19
6. References......................................................................................................................................................... 20
Annex:GoodPracticeinKnowledgeSynthesisCaseStudies............................................................... 23
Case1:CDKNLatinAmericaandCarribbeanLearningExchangeWorkshops .................. 24
Case2:ClimateChangeandSocialLearningSandbox................................................................... 29
Case3:TheClimateKnowledgeBrokersManifesto....................................................................... 34
Case4:FAOGlobalForumonFoodSecurityandNutrition ........................................................ 39
Case5:PotatoPark-InternationalPotatoCenter-ANDESAgreementfortheRepatriationofNativePotatoes.......................................................................................................................................... 44
Case6:RedCrossClimateCentreWriteshopProcess................................................................... 50
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1. Background and introduction
Itisincreasinglyrecognizedthataddressingthechallengesposedbyclimatechangerequiresnewapproachesandmodalitiesforresearch(DeSouzaetal,2015;Cochraneetal,2017).Thoughchangesareoccurringonaglobalscale,impactsarefeltmostdirectlyatlocalscales,anddecisionsarelargelymadenationally.Further,thedriversofclimatechange,itsimpactsandtheresponsesneededcutacrosssectors,academicdisciplinesandsocialgroups,makingitespeciallychallengingtomobilisecollectiveresponses.Oneofthesolutionsproposedtoaddresstheneedtoproduceresearchintransdisciplinarywaysatmultiplescalesisco-production(Mauseretal,2013;LemosandMorehouse,2005).Co-productionisseenasameanstogeneratemoreinclusiveandrobustresearchresultsaswellastointegratekeyaudiences,suchasdecisionmakersandimpactedcommunities,intoresearchdesign,implementationandanalysis.
TheinitialcaseanalysiscontainedinthisreportwascommissionedbytheCollaborativeAdaptationResearchInitiativeinAfricaandAsia(CARIAA),aseven-year,CAD$70millionprogramstudyingclimatechange“hotspots”inthreedistinctsocio-ecologicalsystemsacrosssixteencountries(DeSouzaetal,2015).CARIAAiscomprisedoffourtransdisciplinaryconsortia,whichcollectivelyincludeover450researchersandpractitioners.ThenatureofCARIAA’sscope,design,andobjectivesmeanthatknowledgeco-productionisofclearinterest–andthereisthereforeaninterestinlearningfromtheexperiencesfromsimilarprograms.Ourexperienceplanning,supportingandscopingoptionsforco-productionactivitieswiththeCARIAAprogrampromptedabroaderreflectionabouttheassumptionsbehindtheinterestinsuchprocesses,andhowdecisionmakingaroundthedesignandimplementationofco-productionprocesseswasundertaken.Wepositedthatanalysingcasestudiesofsuccessfulco-productioncouldfacilitatemorepurposefulchoicesandbetteralignassumptionswiththeprocess,outputsandimpacts.
WhileweareinbroadagreementwithMoser(2016)thatco-designandco-productionofferpotentialtotransformthewayresearchanddecisionmakingoccur,inthispaperwearguethat,inpractice,co-productionprocessessufferfromalimitedconceptualisationofhowprocessmeetsoutcomes.Thisisnotforalackofresearchandcritiqueonknowledgeproduction(Gibbonsetal,1994;Nowotnyetal,2001;Ostrom,1996).However,muchliketheconceptofparticipation,whichgainedfavourindevelopmentresearchinthe1970sand80s-thenfacedcritiqueinthe1990sand2000s(Chambers,1983;CookeandKothari,2001)-thereisfrequentlyanormativeuseoftheconceptofco-productionwhichfailstotakeintoaccountthewide-rangingpotentialoutcomesitcouldcontributeto,fromlargelyinstrumental(orevenextractive)processesthatentrenchnormsofpractice,totransformativeones.
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Inthispaper,wetakeacloserlookatco-productionprocessesinclimateanddevelopment
usingareviewofrecentliteratureandasampleofcasestudiesofself-identified“successful”
co-productionprocessesthatengagedresearchers,policymakersandpractitionerstoask:
1) Whatkindsofquestionsorproblemsaresuccessfulco-productionapproachesbeingusedtoanswerorresolveinclimateanddevelopment?
2) Inthesesuccessfulcases,howdoestheco-productioncontextandprocessinfluenceitsoutputsandoutcomes?
3) Howdosuccessfactorsvaryacrossdifferentco-productionapproachesorproblemtypes?
Aswediscussbelow,thesampleofcasesofself-described“successful”instancesofco-
productionintheareaofclimateanddevelopmentreviewedinthispaperrevealsastrong
emphasisonmorebounded,output-orientedprocesses.Whiletheboundednatureofthese
outcomesdoesnotrepresentashortcomingperse,itdoescallintoquestionwhethersuch
approachessignificantlycontributetothe“transformationalunderstandingofa
sustainabilityproblem”(SchuttenbergandGuth,2015)thatsometheoristshavestatedas
theprocess’spotential.Byestablishingamorenuancedunderstandingoftherangeof
possibleprocessesandend-pointsthatco-productionoffers,researcherswillbeablemake
better-informeddecisionsaboutwhichapproachestoadopt,andbetterunderstandthe
extenttowhichco-productionisbeingusedtoitsstatedpotential.
Havingexaminedhowresearchprojectsinthesphereofclimateanddevelopmentare
currentlyseekingtosupportco-production,anddrawinguponasampleofsixcasestudies,
weproposeaheuristicthatmapsoutaspectrumofapproachestoco-productionandoffers
anassessmentoftherelationshipbetweenprocessesandoutcomesofco-productionin
ordertoenablemoreinformedplanninganddecision-making.Ourcasestudyanalysis
suggeststhat,whilesomediscussionsofco-productionpointtoitstransformativepotential
todisruptortransformingnormsofthinkingandpractice,usesinthecontextofclimateand
developmentpracticetendtobemorefocusedupontheaimofcreating“useable
knowledge”(DillingandLemos,2011).Furthermore,wearguethatwhileco-production
offersthepotentialfortransformativeprocessesandoutcomes,theinvestmentand
transactioncostsrequiredforsuchapproachesaresuchthatprojectsandprogrammes
shouldbestrategicindecidingwheretheseapproachesaremostimportant.Theymayeven
questionwhethersuchapproachesarefeasiblewithinthecontextofatime-boundproject
orprogramme.Drawingontheliteratureandonknowledgemanagementandco-
productionexperiencesinclimatechangeanddevelopment,theheuristicsupportsthinking
aboutprocessesandproductstodeterminewhichmodalityandprocessesaremost
appropriateforagivenobjective.
Beforepresentingthecasestudies,thefollowingsectionreviewssomeofthemain
definitionalandconceptualaspectsofco-production,outliningwhatco-productionisand
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whyithasbeenarguedascrucialforclimatechangeresearch.Thethirdsectionpresentsadiversearrayofcasestudiesthathavesuccessfullyutilizedco-productioninthecontextofclimateanddevelopment.Drawingonouranalysisofthesecasestudies,andofthewideracademicliterature,wethenproposetheuseofa“pathwaysapproach”asaconceptforlinkingco-productionprocesstooutcomesinastrategicmanner,andofferadesignheuristictothisend.Wealsocallforcriticalreflectionontheintendedendsofco-productioninclimateanddevelopment,invitingthoseworkingtowardtheseendstoreflectonhowwellourcurrentpracticesmeetourambitions.
2. Knowledge co-production in climate and development
2.1 The promises of co-production
Knowledgeco-productionisseenacriticalaspectofunderstandingandactingoncomplexglobalchallengeslikeenvironmentalchangeandsustainability.Thisisduetoitsperceivedabilitytodrawinknowledgefromacrossdisciplinaryandepistemiccommunities;promotesharedlearningbasedoncollectiveexperience;increasetheperceivedlegitimacy,relevanceandusabilityoftheknowledgebeinggeneratedamongnon-academicstakeholders;andforsome,challengeentrenchednormsofknowinganddoing(Langetal,2012;Moser,2016;CampbellandVanderhoven,2016;vanKerkhoffandLebel,2015).Assuch,ithasgarneredconsiderableattentionasameansofaddressingthegulfbetweenresearch,policyandpracticeinthefieldsofclimatechangeadaptationandsustainabledevelopment(DillingandLemos,2011),andasatoolformorefundamental,ortransformative,typesofchange(SchuttenbergandGuth,2015).
Whileinterpretationsvary,asweexplorebelow,Armitageetaldefineco-productionas“thecollaborativeprocessofbringingapluralityofknowledgesourcesandtypestogethertoaddressadefinedproblemandbuildanintegratedorsystems-orientedunderstandingofthatproblem”(2011:996).Theboundarieswhereco-productionprocessesbeginandendareunderstooddifferentlywithintheliterature.Mauseretal(2013)proposethatco-productionsitswithinabroader,iterativeprocessofco-creationwhereco-designprecedesco-production,andadisseminationofresultsfollows.Elsewhere,co-productionisseentoincludeco-design,collaborativeplanningandco-implementation,co-analyses,andcollaborativeadvocacyforchange,allofwhichareoftenenabledbyahostofintermediaries,includingknowledgebrokers,facilitatorsandboundaryagents(Harvey,LewinandFisher,2012;Reyersetal,2015).Beyondthequestionoftheboundariesofco-productionprocesses,theretwoothersignificantareasofdivergenceininterpretationsoftheconceptwhichweexplorebelow.
First,twocontrastinginterpretationsofthevalueofco-productioncanbefoundintheliterature(vanKerkhoffandLebel,2015;Wyborn,2015).Wetermthesetwointerpretationsemergentandinstrumental.Theemergentinterpretation,whichhasbeen
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dominantinthefieldofscienceandtechnologystudies,seesco-productionasanidiomthatoffersnewwaysofknowingandrepresentingtheworldacrosssocialandnaturalorders(Jasanoff,2004).Inthisinterpretation,thekeycontributionofco-productionisitscapacitytochallengethehegemonyofparticularwaysofknowingandtoinviteamoreconsciousreflectiononhowscienceandsocietyconstituteoneanother(Pohletal,2010).Thisvalueemergesfrompeople’sengagedparticipationintheco-productionprocess.
Theinstrumentalinterpretationofco-production’svaluefocusesinsteadonitsroleincreating“useableknowledge”.Hereco-productionisseenasaninstrumentforaddressingthepressingneedtogetknowledgeintoaccessibleformatsandrelevantcontextstoinformdecisionmakingonmajorchallengesliketheimpactsofclimatechangeonthelivelihoodsofthepoor(DillingandLemos,2011;Clarketal,2016).Thismeans,forDillingandLemos(2011:681),bridginginterpretationsofwhatisunderstoodtobe“useful”fromascientificperspectiveandwhatis“useable”fromapracticalperspective,andestablishingasharedvisionofwhatknowledgeisuseableinparticulardecisionmakingprocesses.
Whiletherearecomplementaritiesbetweentheseinterpretationstherearealsotensions.Thefirstinterpretation(e.g.Jasanoff,2004)challengestheuniversalisingpositionofscience-drivenknowledgeanditsperceiveddistinctnessfromlocalisedsocialcontextswhilethesecond(e.g.DillingandLemos,2011)tendstoleavetheseunchallenged,takingamoreprescriptivestanceonhowtheserelationshipscanbebettermanagedtoaddresstheprioritiesofdecisionmakersatarangeoflevels(vanKerkhoffandLebel,2015).Further,thetwointerpretationsrevealapotentialtensionbetweenvaluingtheoutputsoroutcomesofco-production(newknowledgeorsolutions,ascapturedaboveinthedefinitionfromArmitageetal(2011),versusseeingtheprocessofco-productionasagoodinandofitself.Jasanoff(2004),forinstance,suggeststhatknowledgeco-productionisbetterthoughtofontologicallyandnormatively:notasameanstoaspecific,desiredresult,butasaprocessthatrepresentshowknowledgecreationoughttobe-emergent,andfocusedontherightquestions(ratherthantherightanswers;seeTable1).Thesedistinctionsarereflectedinthecasestudiesthatfollow,andmayhaveabearingonwhatkindsofoutcomescanbeexpectedfromprocesseslabelledasco-productive,asweexplorebelow.
Table1–Instrumentalandemergentco-productionends
Emergent(frominteractionsbetweenactors) Instrumental(knowledgethatisuseableforpracticalpurposes)
Co-productionasaprocessthatrepresents-andtransformsperspectiveson-howknowledgeproductionoughttobe.Processasanend.
Co-productionasavehicletogetknowledgeintoaccessibleformatsandrelevantcontextstoinformdecisionmaking.
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2.2 The process of co-production
Muchasitsexpectedendsvary,theprocessthroughwhichco-productionisundertakenisinterpreteddifferentlyacrosstheliterature,fromtheactorsinvolvedtothewaysinwhichtheyengagewithoneanother.Animportantdimensionofco-productionprocessesisthenatureoftheinterfacebetweenactorsfromdifferentdomains.HerePohletal(2010)proposetwomainapproaches,thefirstbeingthroughtheuseofintermediariesorbrokerswhohelptomediateacrossboundaries,andthesecondbeingthroughdirectinteractionbetweentheseactorsinaspaceofconfluencetheyterm“theagora”(seeTable2).Inthisapproach,theysuggest,“boundariesbetweentheclassicalepistemologicalrealmsandcorrespondingrolesofacademicandnon-academicactorsareblurred”(Pohletal,2010:269).Incontrast,Cvitanovicetal(2015)seeintermediaryorbrokeredapproachesasseparatetoco-production,withco-productionbeingaprocesswhereinequalparticipationoccursfromtheideadevelopmentuntilthedisseminationofoutcomes.Weseethesedifferentinterfacesasaspectrumratherthanfullydistinctapproaches.Brokeredapproachesmaystillofferdirectinteractionbetweenscientistsandnon-scientists,while“agora”approachesmaybefacilitated,forinstance.Thedistinctionlies,inourview,intheextenttowhichparticipantsaredeliberatelycalledupontodealwiththesocialandcognitivechallengesofaccommodatingcontrastingworldviewsandpotentiallyconcedingaspectsoftheirown.Further,wealsoarguethattheroleoffacilitationmay(anddoes,inthecasestudiesbelow)featureinbothbrokeredandagoraframings,butthatthefacilitationfunctionmaybedistinctlydifferentineach.
Table2–Brokeredand“Agora”Co-productionProcesses
Brokeredco-production “Agora”framingofco-production
‘Boundaryorganizations’helptostabiliseinteractionsbetweenscienceandnon-scienceactors.(Pohletal,2010)Design,conveningandfacilitationbyathirdpartywithamandatetohelpestablishagreedobjectivesandgeneratesharedunderstanding.
Collaborativeendeavourofacademicandnon-academicactorswherethesecommunities“confrontoneanother’sworldviewsinapurposefullyopenintellectualandsocialspace.”(Pohletal,2010)
Co-productionoccurswheninteractionsbetweenactorsminimizedifferencesintheirculturalbackgroundsandemphasizethecollectivenatureoftheendeavour.(SchuttenbergandGuth,2015)
2.3 Challenges to practice
Asoutlinedabove,therearestrongreasonstoadvocatefortheco-productionofknowledgeinclimateanddevelopment.Yet,therearemanychallengesandbarrierstodoingso.Knowledgeco-productionposesdifferentsetsofchallenges:heterogeneousgroupsofstakeholdershavediverseworldviews,culturalbackgrounds,interests,objectives,
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motivations,relationships,institutionalstructuresandresources(Huppe,CreechandKnoblauch,2012;Cvitanovicetal,2015).Pohletal(2010)highlightthestructuralandpower-relateddimensionsofco-productionindefiningitas“asimultaneousproductionofknowledgeandsocialorder.”Thediversityofknowledgethatisrequiredmaythereforealsobetherootofsomebarrierstocollaboration.Thebasisforsuccessfulcollaboration,manyargue(e.g.Huppe,CreechandKnoblauch,2012),iscreatinganenvironmentwhereinrelationshipsareestablished,commonvisionisdetermined,andsharedobjectivesareclear.Pohletal(2010:270-271)notethat“anoverallchallengeforsustainabilityresearchers[is]thatofstructuringtheagoraduringtheco-productionofknowledge.”Evenincaseswhereco-productiondevelopsfromanexistingcommunityofpracticewheresocialcapitalishigh,thetransactioncostsandtimedemandsforco-productionarehigh.Thispaperwillnotexplorehowthesechallengescanbemitigatedorovercomegenerally,asCvitanovicetal(2015)andothersdo.Rather,wefocusontheimplementationofknowledgeproductionprocesseswithintheintersectingspacesofclimateanddevelopment.
WhileweagreewithMoser(2016:107)thatthe“casehasbeenmade,convincingly,whyengagementofscientistsandusersofscientificknowledgeissuperiortoresearchconductedinisolationfromitspracticecontext”,weareconcernedthattheconflationbetweendivergentendsandmeansofco-productionreviewedabovecanleadtoinstanceswhereco-productionprocessesfailtodeliverwhattheyareseentopromise.Somerecentscholarshiphasavoidedtakingastanceonthecontrastinginterpretationsoftheendsofco-production.VanKerkhoffandLebel(2015)forinstance,seekinsteadtoidentifyconceptsandapproachesthatcandrawconnectionsbetweentheseinterpretationsandtheirrespectivepointsoffocus.Wewouldchallengethat,infact,moreworkisneededtoteaseoutthedistinctionsbetweenthesedifferingendsandmeans,andtobetterunderstandtheopportunitiesandlimitationsofeachinpractice.Asimilarprocessemergedfromtheexplosionofattentiononparticipatoryapproachestodevelopmentaftercriticismoftheirincreasinglyutilitarianordepoliticiseduse(CookeandKothari,2001).
BuildingonMoser(2016)andothers’considerationofhowbesttoundertakeco-production,researchonco-productionshouldalsointerrogatewhetherco-productionisthebestapproachforparticularproblemtypes,whichmodesofco-productionaremostappropriatetotheaimsthathavebeensetout,andwhichpathwaysofactioneffectivelylinkapproachesandoutcomes.Thecasestudiesexploredinthispaperhelpusbegintoaddressthesequestions.Theyofferexamplesofknowledgeco-productionthatcansupportthedevelopmentofaheuristicforco-productiondesign.Ouraimhereisnottodebatethemeritofco-production,buttorecognizehowthedifferentframingsplayoutinpractice,andcallformoreinformeddecisionmakingaboutwhen,where,howandforwhatknowledgeco-productionmaybethemosteffectiveandappropriateprocess.
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3. Case study evidence
3.1 Overview and methodology
Tobetterunderstandhowco-productionprocessesareappliedinclimateanddevelopmentpracticeweundertookastudyofsixcasestudiesofself-identified“successful”co-production(seeTables3and4).Thecasesetwasidentifiedthroughacombinationof“snowball”samplingaswellasaninvitationforsubmissionscirculatedonrelevantemaillistservs.CaseswereselectedfromthosethatmetastandardsetofcriteriadesignedtofitwiththetypesofcontextualfactorsfoundwithintheCARIAAprogramme,whichthisreviewwasdesignedtoinform,andwhicharecommonplaceinahighpercentageofclimateanddevelopmentresearchprogrammes,namely:Thattheactorsinvolvedaregeographicallydistributed;thattheyspandifferentdisciplinaryorepistemicboundaries;thattheyfacecompetingprioritiesordemandsfortheirtime;andthattheoutputsoroutcomesoftheseprocesseswerenotsolelyacademicinnature.Theassessmentthattheco-productionprocessqualifyasa“success”waslefttothoseputtingforwardthecases,inlinewiththecriteriaoutlinedabove.Itwasnotevaluatedanyfurtherbytheauthorsbeyondreviewingsupportingdocumentationrelatedtothecase.
Acommoninterviewprotocolwasusedtoensuresimilardatawascollectedabouteachcasestudy.Thesixselectedcasestudieswerethendevelopedbaseduponin-personandremoteinterviewswiththeparticipantsinvolved,whichweresemi-structuredandguidedbykeyquestionstoensureconsistency.Thedatawasinputintoacommoncasetemplateallowingforsimilarinformationtobeeasilycomparedandcontrasted,resultinginsixbriefsummarydocuments(seeAppendix1).Eachdraftcasestudywasthenvalidatedbyintevieweestoensureaccuracy.Inonecase,theCIPPotatoPark,thecasestudywasderivedfromongoingresearchthatwasexaminingsimilarquestions(VanEppandGarside,2016)andthereforedidnotrequireadditionalinterviews.Comparativeanalysisacrossthecasestudieswasthenconductedbytheauthors,whosortedthedata,andfromwhichkeythemesweredrawnusinganopencodingapproach.Inotherwords,theauthorsdidnotpre-determinekeyindicatorsforassessment,butinsteadderivedthemesbasedonwhatrespondentsidentifiedasmostsignificant.Whilethispresentssomelimitationsforcomparabilityacrossthedataset,doingsoallowedforamoreexploratoryresearchprocess.
Inthispaper,wefocusonresultsemergingfromknowledgeco-productionprocessesviatheselectedcasestudies.AdditionaldetailonthecontextandfeaturesofeachcaseisavailableinAppendix1.Duetotheheterogeneityofcasestudies,thescopefordirectcomparisonislimitedandwefocusinsteaduponthefeaturesandlearningeachcasestudyidentifiedinlinewiththedimensionsofco-productionlaidoutabove,andassesstheseintheaggregate.Afurtherpotentiallimitationisthatthecasestudieswereexplicitlysoughtasexampleswhereinco-productionwassuccessful.Wedidnotseekcasesfromthosethatdidnotworkwellforcontrast,butrecognizemuchcanbelearnedfromexploringsuchinstances.Tables3and4summarisetheseresults,firstlookingattheaims,meansandends
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oftheseinstancesofsuccessfulco-productioninclimateanddevelopment(Table3),andthenatthedriversandbarrierstosuccessidentifiedbyrespondents(Table4).
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Table3–SummaryofSixCasesofCo-productiononClimateandDevelopment
Case Objective(s)ofco-production
Co-productionapproach Outputsand/oroutcomes
ClimateKnowledgeBrokersGroup(CKB):Climateknowledgebrokers’manifesto
Instrumental:Productionofasetofjointprinciplesontheroleofknowledgebrokeringforclimatechange
Brokered:TheCKBsecretariatapproachedarangeofpotentialcontributorstothemanifesto,whocollectivelyundertookaprocessofgatheringviewpointsfromawidersetofactors.Thegroupthenanalysedthefindingsandcraftedtheresultsintothemanifestothroughatwo-dayfacilitatedworkshop.
Primary:TheprimaryoutputwastheManifestobookandanaccompanyingsummary.
Complementary:Theprocessalsoprovidedanetworkingand“bonding”experienceastheteamcollaboratedontopicsthatdrewgroupmemberstogether.IthelpedtopushtheCKBgroupforwardinitsthinkingaboutitsroleinthewiderclimatechangecommunityandhowbesttoplayit.Finally,theprocessconnectedclimateknowledgebrokerstoclimateknowledgeusers.
RedCrossClimateCentreWriteshopprocess
Instrumental:Documentingexperiencefrompracticeandcollectivelearningthroughafacilitatedpeereditingandreviewprocesses.
Brokered:Interdisciplinaryteamsofauthors,editors,reviewersandfacilitatorscometogethertodevelopcasestudiesofexperiencesonacommonthemeoverthecourseofaweek.Throughtheprocessparticipantsrefinetheirunderstandingsoftheirowncasesandexpandtheirlearningthroughthereviewsofothers’experience.Insomeinstancesajointsynthesisoutputisalsoproducedtobringtogetherthesharedperspectives.
Primary:Productionofasetofpeer-reviewedcasestudiesfromeachoftheparticipatingauthorteams.
Complementary:Identificationofcommonlessonsthatcanbelearnedandsynthesisedfromacrossarangeofrelatedexperience.
Climate&Development Instrumental:Sharinganddocumentingthechallenges
Brokered:Thedesignoftheagendaaimedtocreateabalancebetween
Primary:Participantsco-created30lessonslearned,aroundthedesign,
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KnowledgeNetwork(CDKN)andFundacion
FuturoLatinoamericano(FFLA):LatinAmerican&CaribbeanLearning
ExchangeWorkshops
andlessonslearnedfromadiverse(andoftendisconnected)rangeofprogrammingactivitiesonclimatecompatibledevelopmentfundedinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanthroughCKDN.
creativeandrationalthinking,generatingasuitableenvironmentfordialogue,learningexchangeandthecollectiveconstructionofknowledge.Facilitationtechniquesaimedtocreateaspacewhereparticipantscouldco-createasetoflessonslearnedacrossthedifferentinitiatives.
implementation,governanceandprioritiesforfutureresearchonclimatecompatibledevelopmentinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Thelessonswerepackagedinto1-pagedocumentsforeachoftheprojectspresentedintheworkshop,aswellasinblogposts,aworkingpaper,andapublicwebinar.
Complementary:TheprocessallowedparticipantstoputforwardrecommendationsforCDKNtoimproveprojectimplementationintheregionandtocreateaNetworkinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.ParticipantsdecidedtosetupaFacebookgroupcontinuetoexchangeideasonclimatecompatibledevelopmentintheirregion.
GlobalForumonFoodSecurityandNutrition
(FSN):‘ClimateChangeandFoodSecurityandNutrition’dialogue
Instrumentaloremergent:Afacilitatedonlineforumthatisusedtoeitherobtainstakeholderinputsintodraftreportsorpoliciesforfurtherdevelopment;ortohostmoreopen-endeddialoguearoundatheme,withthespecificoutputoroutcomeofthatdialogueleftmoreopen.Inthecaseofthedialogueonclimatechangeandfoodsecurityandnutrition
Brokered:TheFAOfacilitatestheforumusingtwoapproaches:(1)Consultations-Adraftdocument(e.g.globalguidelines,nationalpolicydocuments)issharedforfeedback;therearesomeinstancesofradicalchangestodrafts,inothersnot,and(2)Opendiscussions,withopeningcommentsandkeyquestionsposed.Bothareparticipatoryprocessestoenhanceknowledgesharing/dissemination.Ingeneral,FSNbelieves50%ofparticipationisfortheinputitselfand50%isforknowledge
Dependinguponwhichofapproachisused,theoutputvaries.Forconsultationstheoutputisarevisedreport/policy/setofguidelineswhichtakesintoaccountstakeholderpriorities.Fordiscussionstheoutcomeisasynthesisorscopingofmulti-stakeholderperspectivesonselectedthemes.Intheclimatechangedialogue,outputsincludedawebinarfollowingthediscussion,andsummariesinthreelanguages.
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objectivesweremoreinstrumentalinnature.
sharingandlearningforthecommunity.
CGIAR’sClimateChangeAgricultureandFood
Security(CCAFS)programme:Climate
ChangeandSocialLearning(CCSL)Sandbox
Emergent:AfacilitatedonlineforumusedtocatalyzeinteractionandinitiatenewcollaborationsbetweenCCAFSteammembersandexternalpartnersusingasociallearningapproach.
Agora:ThevisionwasthattheSandboxcouldevolveintoaself-governingcommunityofpracticeandactasareflectionofhowsociallearningmayworkinpractice.Itfocusedonencouragingconversationsandaslow,organicandsustainablegrowthofacommunityofcollaborators.
Amixofoutputsandoutcomesthatincluded:acollectivenarrativeontheimportanceofsociallearningtoclimatechange,agricultureandfood;collectiveframeworksonsociallearning;gatheringsofthemembers;innovationgrantstoideasproposedthroughthesandbox;andaseriesofpublications.
InternationalPotatoCenter(CIP),Quechua-Aymara
AssociationforSustainableCommunities(ANDES),andthePotatoPark:Agreement
fortheRepatriationofNativePotatoesinPeru
Emergent:ForthePotatoParkcommunities,akeyobjectivewastoenableareciprocal(two-way)exchange,andenhancetherecognitionoftheirrightsovernativepotatoescollectedfromtheircommunities.
Agora:PotatoParkfarmersworktogetherwithCIPscientiststorepatriateandexperimentallygrowpotatovarietiesnativetotheindigenouscommunities.AsociacionANDES,anNGOwhichworkscloselywiththePotatoParkcommunities,playsanimportantroleincapacitybuildingandfacilitationtoenableindigenousfarmerstoengageincollaborativeresearchwithCIPscientists.
Primary:Increasedcropdiversityresultingfromtheagreementhasprovidedmoreoptionsinthefaceofincreasedpestinfestation,andotherchangingclimateconditions.
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Table4–Driversandbarrierstosuccessidentifiedinthecases
Case CKBManifesto RCCCWriteshops CDKNExchange FSNDialogue CCSLSandbox IPCPotatoPark
Drivers Relevance/resonance:Focusonatopicandcontentthatresonatedwiththegroup
Facilitation:Strongandexperiencedfacilitationcriticalfordealingwithfluidityandemergence.
Ownership:Collectiveownershipoftheprocessandcontentthroughouttheprocess.
EfficientFormat:Thewriteshopprocessisafastandefficient.Itavoidsdrawn-oute-mailconversationsandinevitabledelaysasteamscollaborateoverlongdistancesamidstcompetingpriorities.
Diversityofexpertiseandskillsets.
Incentives:Itdeliversaproductforparticipantsbytheendoftheworkshop.
Design:Providesaconstructiveplatformforfeedback,andapleasantco-creationenvironment.
Design:Facilitatorsmanagedtoensureagoodbalancebetweencreativeandanalytical/reflectivesessions
Thefacilitationoftheworkshop.
Relevance/resonance:Capturedtheinterestofparticipants.
Theincentivesfortheparticipants.
Investment:High-level,long-termsupportfromFAO.
Relevance/resonance:topicsreflectideasandinterestsofthecommunity.
Diversity:intermsofthemesandparticipants.
Accessibility:Ensuretheprocesses&technologyareeasy-to-use,clearandengaging.
Strongfacilitation–occurringatmultiplelevels.
Translation:ofprocessandoutput.
Participants:Identifyingandengagingthosewithexperienceandinterestinthearea.
Relevance/resonance:Definingwhatarethenewissuesforinvestigation.
Design:Modellingasociallearningapproachtothewaythattheactivitiesdevelopedandbuildingconnectionsbetweendifferentdisciplinesandinstitutions
Incentives:Supportingandpromotingpublications
Investmentinfacilitation,CommunityofPracticedevelopmentandsupporttosmallresearchandpublicationprojects.
Design:Themixofprocessandproduct
Language:TheabilityofaCIPscientisttospeakQuechuawascrucialfortheintegrationoftraditionalknowledge.
ThefacilitationroleofANDESensuredactivefarmerparticipationandanequitablepartnership.
Participants:Activeparticipationoffarmersensuredcommitmenttoreachingtheprojectgoals.
Flexibility:CIPscientistshavelearnedtouseanideaasasparktobuildaprojectratherthanpresentingprojectstothecommunities;andtonotbeblindedbyconventionaldatacollectionmethods/needs.
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orientationisimportant.
InvestmentincapacitybuildingbybothCIPand
ANDES.
BarriersTime:Difficulttofind
sufficienttime
forstrategic
conversations
inanetworked
organisation.
Theconsistency
ofstructure
andcontent
among
contributors.
Language:TheManifestowas
onlyproduced
inEnglish.
Timeandguidance:Sufficient
preparationtimeand
clearguidancefor
authorsarecriticalat
theoutset.
Participants:Challengingwhen
participantsarenot
thosewithdirect
experienceofthe
subjectmatter.
Skills:Nothavingtherightskillsinthe
room.
Time:Challengestosecuringtheright
participantsamidst
competingpriorities
andbusyschedules.
Keepingthemomentum
Maintaining
momentumand
connectionsafter
theeventendsis
nosimpletask.
Participants:Havingtheright
peopleparticipate
iscriticalto
achievingthe
workshop
objectives.
Comfortwithsharing-Peopledon’tnecessarily
knowhowto
sharetheir
lessonslearned,
especiallydeep
lessons.
Focus:Balancingspecificitywith
inclusion/accessibil
ityinexchanges.
Languagebarriers:Translation
presentssignificant
costandtime
barriers.
Time:Someusers
feeling
overwhelmedwith
communications.
Time:Over-busynessdetractforcollaboration;
Format:Membersaren’t
veryinterestedinworking
onlinebutwhoacceptit
asa‘necessaryevil’.
Ownership:Projectwasnobody’scentralfocus.It
wasbuildingintothe
intersticesofpeople’s
lives.
Time:Regularcommunication
supportsinformation
sharingandincreased
understanding,although
CIP’stimeinthefieldis
quitelimited.
Documentation:Amore
systematicprocessfor
documenting,storing
andsharinginformation
andresultsof
collaborativeresearchis
needed.
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3.2 Characterising the cases
Onedefiningfeatureofallsixcasestudiesisthattheywereareallfundedandprogramme-based.Whiletheliteraturesuggeststhatstablefundingisoneofthekeystosuccessfulco-productionprocesses(FAO,2012;Palmeretal,2016),thisdistinguishesthesecasestudiesasbeingdrawnfromasubsetofknowledgeco-productiontypes.Assuch,themajorityoftheseinitiativeswerenotcompletelyemergentprocessesasonemightfindinsocialmovementmobilisationorautonomouscommunitybasedadaptationforinstance,butratheroperatedinanenvironmentinfluencedbypoliticalprioritiesanddonordecisions,andareprocessesthatsetoutwithanobjectivetoaffectorsupportspecifictypesofchange.Cognizantofthis,thecasestudiesserveasexamplesofknowledgeco-productionwithinaparticulartypeofcontext,albeitonethatisnonethelessrepresentativeofaconsiderableamountofworkinthefieldofclimateanddevelopment.
Thiscommonfeature(fundingwithinthecontextofatime-boundprogramme)mayhaveabearingontheco-productionactivities-whichtendedtowardmorestructuredandbrokered.Programmedinterventionsoftenstruggletoreconcileslow,emergentprocesseswiththetime-boundandoutput-orientedmanagementprocessesthattendtogovernthem(Harveyetal,2017).Inthetwocasesthattendedtowardsmoreemergentoutcomesusinglessbrokering,theCIP-ANDES-PotatoParkAgreementwasgroundedinacommunitypartnershipthatdatesbacktoDecember2004-farlongerthanatraditionalprojectorprogrammecycle,whiletheCCSLSandboxfeaturedalargecoresetofcollaboratorswhowerepartof,orlong-timecontributorsin,theCGIARsystem.Thatthesetwocasesbuiltcloselyonwell-establishedrelationshipsmayhaveencouragedthedesignofco-productionapproachesthatfavouredemergenceanddeepinteraction.Indeed,lessonsfromresearchersinthePotatoParkinitiative(seeTables3and4)highlighthowadoptingacommitmenttoallowinganticipatedoutcomesemergefrominteractionratherthanpre-definedquestionsorgoalshasbeenakeytoeffectiveengagementwiththecommunity.Thisviewissupportedelsewhereintheliterature(Huppe,CreechandKnoblauch,2012).
Itisalsopossiblethatthemoreboundednatureoftheco-productionactivitiesthatemergedfromthesekindsofprogrammesledtoanincreasedrateofperceivedsuccess,giventhatobjectiveswereclearlydefinedandachievablewithinafixedtimeframe.Recentanalysisofparticipatoryprocessesforaddressingpolicyproblemsrangingfromstructuredtounstructuredoffersparallelshere.HurlbertandGupta’s(2015)studyofa“splitladderofparticipation”revealedthatcasesofparticipationinpolicyprocessestendedtowardsmorestructured-to-moderatelystructuredandtechnocraticproblem-types,withfewerexamplesofunstructuredor‘wicked’policyproblemsthattheypositarethemostappropriatecontextsforexpandingparticipationandadaptivegovernance.Theseunstructuredproblems,HurlbertandGupta(2015)note,areareaswherevaluesarelikelytobeinquestionandconsensusmaybeoutofreach.Thus,forthecasesofco-productiondescribedhere,itisperhapsunsurprisingthatsuchexampleswerelesslikelytobeputforwardas
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instancesof“success”inthecasesourcingprocess.Caseswithinoursamplewhereobjectivesareclassedasemergenteitherfeaturedparticipationfromapre-establishedcommunity(CCSLSandboxandPotatoParkcases),orexplicitlysetouttotakestockofdifferingperspectives(FAO’sFSNDiscussions).
3.3 Cross-cutting themes
Lookingacrossthesixcasesatthedriversandbarriersthatshapedtheirsuccess(Table4),anumberofcommonfactorsemerge.Thesefactorsaligncloselywiththeelementsofco-productionprocesssetoutbySchuttenbergandGuth(2015),namely:
● Focusingonmeaningfulissues,whichwedescribeasrelevanceand/orresonanceofthethemes;
● Engagingrepresentativestakeholders,whichwetermedparticipation;
● Facilitatingshared,iterativelearning;
● Usingconstructivedecision-makingandconflictresolutionprocesses,whichfeatureunderfacilitationanddesignfactorsinourtable;and
● Producingaboundaryobject(oftenaco-producedknowledgeproductinthecasesreviewed),whichfeaturedstronglyasincentiveswithinthecaseshere.
Inadditiontothesefactors,ourreviewconsistentlyhighlightedtheparticularinfluencethatlanguagebarriersandtimeconstraintscanhaveonthesuccessofco-productionacrossthecontextswehavestudied.Thesenewfeaturesmaystandoutparticularlystronglywithinthesampleofcasesduetotheirinternationalandprogramme-basednature.
Thecoherenceofdriversandbarriersacrossthissamplesuggeststhatmanypre-conditionsspanapproachestoco-production,regardlessofwhethertheyareinstrumentaloremergent,brokeredorrepresentativeof‘theagora’.Whetherparticularcriteriaaremorecriticaltosuccessdependingontheapproachwasnotassessedinthisstudybutcouldbeausefulareaforfutureinvestigation.Thereweresomecriteriathatdifferedacrossthesample,however.Theseincludesustainedinvestmentinaprocessandasenseofsharedsenseofownership.
● Sustainedinvestment:Theroleofsustainedinvestment,bothintermsoffinancingandcommitmentfromorganisationalleadership,wasparticularlyhighlightedincaseswhereco-productionobjectiveswereemergent.Incontrasttomoreinstrumentalco-productionprocessesthatofferefficientmeansofreachingspecificoutcomes(forinstance,theRCCCWriteshops),emergentapproachesthatdonotfeaturepre-definedoutcomesmaydependmoreondemonstratedorganisationalcommitmenttothevalueoftheco-productionprocess.Incontextswhereinvestmentinaco-productionprocesscannotbemaintained,itmaythereforebe
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advisabletoadoptmoreinstrumentalapproaches,ortoavoidusingaco-productionapproach.
● Ownership:Whileownershipwashighlightedacrossthesetofcases,itvariedfrombeingadrivertoabarrier,or,inthecaseofthePotatoParkremainedakeychallengethatparticipantshadtonavigatebyadjustingtheirapproachesovertime.Thecaseevidencesuggeststhatownershipofco-productionmaybemoreeasilydevelopedininstrumentalapproaches,atleastwithinthecontextofthecasesexaminedhere.Thismaybeduetothemoreclearly-definedandtime-boundnatureoftheseactivities,incontrastwiththechallengesconfrontedbyemergentprocesseswithlessfocusonspecificoutputstowardswhichallmemberswerecollectivelyworking.Co-productionprocessdesignshouldconsiderthecompetingdemandsthatparticipantswillfaceindeterminingwhatkindsofco-productionprocessesareappropriate,indeedifany.
4. Discussion and design heuristic
Inreflectingontheresultsfromthisreview,werevisitthethreequestionsposedattheoutsetofthispapertostructureourdiscussion.TheresponsesmayprovideinsightsonhowprogramslikeCARIAA,andthoseexaminedthroughthecasestudies,canbestapproachfutureco-productionendeavours.
1) Whatkindsofquestionsorproblemsaresuccessfulco-productionapproachesbeingusedtoanswerorresolveinclimateanddevelopment?
Drawinguponthecasestudiesandtheliterature,weproposethattheaimsofco-productioncanbesituatedonaspectrumthatrangefrommoreinstrumentalapproachesaimedatimprovingtheusabilityorrelevanceofparticularknowledgesets,tomoreemergentaimsrelatedtochangingtheframingofproblems,thenatureofthequestions,andthenormsofknowledgeproduction.Thecasesofsuccessfulco-productionidentifiedforthissamplespanthisspectrumbuttendtobemoreconcentratedtowardcreatinguseableknowledge.Aswehavehighlightedthroughoutthepaper,thecontextinwhichthesecasesareoperatingistypicalofmuchofthe‘programmed’workinthisfieldbutexcludesco-productionactivitiesinitiatedbysocialmovements,citizens’groups,etc.,whichmayinfluencethequestionsandaimssetoutfortheprocess.Wealsoconsideredwhetherthenatureofthequestionthatwasaskedhasinfluencedthelikelihoodofperceivedsuccessinsofarasmoreboundedandinstrumentalendsmightbedeemedmoreanswerableorachievable.Manyofthecasesherealsohaveaclearemphasisonproducingcollectively-ownedboundaryobjectsasacentralaspectoftheco-production.Thismaymakereachingaspecificendpointwheresuccesscanbedeclaredmorefeasible(e.g.aco-productioneventisconcluded;aquestionanswered;oraproductfinalised).Furtherstudyisneededtounderstandhowperceptionsofsuccessvaryacrossthisspectrumofquestions/aimsand
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theextenttowhichthatinfluencesinvestment,engagement,orownershipofparticularco-productionapproaches.
2) Inthesesuccessfulcases,howdoestheco-productioncontextandprocessinfluenceitsoutputsandoutcomes?
Drawinguponthesignificantbodyofexistingliteratureonapproachestoco-production,wecharacteriseco-productionprocessesintwobroadcategories:Inthefirst,brokeredapproaches,engagementacrossdifferentstakeholdergroupsismediated,preservinggroups’respectiveepistemiccultureswhilstenablingtheproductionofnewhybridknowledgeorboundaryobjects.Alternatively,through“agora”approachesinteractionsseektominimizeordisruptthesedifferences,yieldingnewperspectivesonthecollectivenatureofthechallengeinquestion.Whileoursampleofsuccessfulcasesofferedexamplesofbothapproaches,theuseofbrokeredapproacheswasmoreprevalent,perhapsowingtotheirlessdisruptiveandmoreeasilystructurednature.
Acrossallprocesstypes,despitethedifferenceinanticipatedoutcomes,thegenerationofoutputs(orboundaryobjects)wasseentocontributetothesuccessoftheco-production.Thecentralityoftheseoutputstotheoverallaimsoftheco-productionactivitydifferedhowever,rangingfrombeingtheanticipated“end”oftheco-productionitselftobeinganincentivethatcatalysesandsustainsparticipationintheprocess.
Thesedistinctionsappearsignificantintermsofinformingthedesignofco-productionprocesses.Whentakenalongsidetherangeofpossibleapproachesweseethepossibilityofchartinga“co-productionpathway”thatsetsouttheassumedrelationshipbetweenprocesses,outputsandoutcomesinwaysthatensurecoherencebetweenmeansandends,andthatensurethepotentialsofparticularapproachestoco-productionarenotoverstated(ononehand),orunder-equipped(ontheother).Inlarge,multi-actorcollaborationssuchastheCARIAAinitiative,theremaywellnotbeconsensusonthisrelationshipbetweenprocessandoutcomes,noronwhichismoreimportant.Thus,itseemsimportanttodefinethese,andensurethatsucha“co-productionpathway”enablesacollaborationtoaddressbothultimateandintermediateaimsinwaysthatareclearlyunderstoodbythosetakingpart.
3) Howdosuccessfactorsvaryacrossdifferentco-productionapproachesorproblemtypes?
Acrossthecasestudyset,wefoundhighdegreesofsimilarityinfactors,aswellasafewkeydistinctions.Thecommonfactorsconfirmandbuildonfeaturesofco-productionsetoutelsewhereintheliterature(SchuttenbergandGuth,2015).Sustainedinvestmentandownership,asdiscussedabove,highlightuniquefeaturesandpresentimportantlearningaboutwhatquestionsoughttobeaskedwhenconsideringco-production.Yet,questionsremainastowhethertheconstraints/realitiesimposedbydevelopmentprojectslike
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CARIAAactuallyallowforthefullharnessingofsuccessfactorsthatcanenableandsustainco-productionwithagora-styleapproachesandemergentoutcomes(c.f.Harveyetal,2017).
Oneoftheobservationsonco-productionprocessesthatwesharedattheoutsetofthisstudywasthatplanninganddesigndecisionsarenotaspurposefulandinformedastheycouldbe,particularlyabouthowandwhyparticularco-productiveapproachesshouldleadtoanticipatedoutcomesthatprojectsorprogrammessetout.Ouranalysishasidentifiedthattherearedifferentprocesses,outputsandoutcomesalongthespectrumofco-production.Basedontheliteratureandthecasestudiesanalysed,wepresentadesignheuristic(Figure1)thatcancontributetoasharedunderstandingofprocessaimsanddeterminewhichmodalityandprocessaremostappropriatefortheirrespectiveresources,timelinesandobjectives.Thiscanthenbecomplementedbyareviewoflessonsonthedriversandbarriersassociatedwitheachdimensionoftheheuristic.Thiswouldallowplanninginco-productionactivitiesorlargerprogrammeslikeCARIAAtobedrivenbyfundamentalquestionsrelatedtothepathwaysenvisionedforco-productionactivitiestoaffectthetypeofchangedesired,andtheapproachesthatarebestsuitedtheintendedaims.
Figure1.Adesignheuristicforknowledgeco-production
Thisheuristicpresentsthetwospectrumsofco-productionsetoutearlierinthispaperarounditsaim/ends(frominstrumentaltoemergent)anditsapproach(frombrokeredto“agora”).Drawingonthecaseevidenceandtheliteraturewepositthatbrokeredand
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instrumentalapproaches-wheretheintended“use”oftheprocessoutcomehasbeendefinedandinteractionsaremediatedinwaysthatdonotseektodisruptstakeholderrolesoridentities-aremorelikelytoyieldtangibleoutput-orientedknowledgeproductswithinlimitedtimeframe.However,theyarelesswellsuitedtomoreintentionallytransformativeaims,suchasdisruptingnormsorworldviewsontheirown.Conversely,emergent“agora”approachesaresuitedtothedisruptiveandpotentiallytransformationalaimsowingtotheirmoreevolvingandintersubjectivenature.
Toillustratethis,wehavesituatedtypesofactivitiesorengagementthatmaybeusedtowardsco-productionaimsinthesevariousguises.Wehavenotplottedthecasesreviewedhereagainstthisspectrumastheyrepresentamuchnarrowerrangeofapproachesowningtotheircontextualsimilarities,aswehaveoutlined.
5. Conclusion
Theemphasisonco-productionandsimilarmodelsofcollaborationacrossdisciplinaryandepistemicboundariesinrespondingtoclimatechangeanddevelopmentchallengeshasgrownconsiderably.Whileweagreethat,inprinciple,co-productionoffersrealbenefitsinaddressingthe‘wicked’natureofthesechallenges,weechoothersincautioningthatthetangibleoutputsormoretransformativeoutcomesthatarefrequentlyassociatedwithco-productionriskbeingoverstated,oratleastmisunderstood(Lewis,2015;Mitlin,2008).Theanalysisofaseriesofsuccessfulco-productionprocesseshasfacilitatedtheoutliningofaheuristictosupportdecisionmakingaboutwhatmodality,when,where,howandforwhatknowledgeco-productionmaybethemosteffectiveandappropriateprocess.
Thispaperhassoughttobetterunderstandhowtheco-productionapproachescontributetoparticularkindsofoutcomes,advocatingtheconceptof“co-productionpathways”asawayofthinkingmorestrategicallyabouthowparticularframingsandapproachestoco-productioncanyieldparticularoutcomes.Wehavealsoprovidedsomecautionaryobservationsaboutthepotentiallimitstoco-productionwithinthecontextoftime-boundandproject-basedclimateanddevelopmentinitiativeslikeCARIAA.
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6. References
Armitage,D.,Berkes,F.,Dale,A.,Kocho-Schellenberg,E.&Patton,E.(2011).Co-managementandtheco-productionofknowledge:LearningtoadaptinCanada’sarctic.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,21(3),995–1004.
Campbell,H.&Vanderhoven,D.(2016).Knowledgethatmatters:Realisingthepotentialofco-production.N8ResearchPartnership.Availableonlineat:http://www.n8research.org.uk/media/Final-Report-Co-Production-2016-01-20.pdf.
Chambers,R.(1983).Ruraldevelopment:Puttingthelastfirst.London:Longman.
Clark,W.C.,vanKerkhoff,L.,Lebel,L.&Gallopin,G.C.(2016).Craftingusableknowledgeforsustainabledevelopment.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,113(17),4570-4578.
Cochrane,L.,Cundill,G.,Ludi,E.,New,M.,Nicholls,R.J.,Wester,P.,Cantin,B.,Murali,K.S.,Leone,M.Kituyi,E.&Landry,M.-E.(2017).AreflectiononcollaborativeadaptationresearchinAfricaandAsia.RegionalEnvironmentalChange.doi:10.1007/s10113-017-1140-6
Cooke,B.&Kothari,U.,Eds.(2001).Participation:TheNewTyranny?ZedBooks:NewYork.
Cvitanovic,C.,Hobday,A.J.,vanKerkhoff,L.,Wilson,S.K.,Dobbs,K.&Marshall,N.A.(2015).Improvingknowledgeexchangeamongscientistsanddecision-makerstofacilitatetheadaptivegovernanceofmarineresources:Areviewofknowledgeandresearchneeds.Ocean&CoastalManagement,112,25-35.
DeSouza,K.,Kituyi,E.,Harvey,B.,Leone,M.,Murali,K.S.&Ford,J.D.(2015).VulnerabilitytoclimatechangeinthreehotspotsinAfricaandAsia:Keyissuesforpolicy-relevantadaptationandresilience-buildingresearch.RegionalEnvironmentalChange,15,747-753.
Dilling,L.&Lemos,M.C.(2011).Creatingusablescience:Opportunitiesandconstraintsforclimateknowledgeuseandtheirimplicationsforsciencepolicy.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,21(2),680-689.
FAO.(2012).TheGlobalForumonFoodSecurityandNutrition:Onlinediscussionsthatmakeadifference.Rome:FoodandAgricultureOrganization.
Gibbons,M.,Limoges,C.,Nowotny,H.,Schwartzman,S.,Scott,P.&Trow,M.1994.TheNewProductionofKnowledge:TheDynamicsofScienceandResearchinContemporarySocieties.London:SAGEPublications.
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Harvey,B.,Lewin,T.&Fisher,C.(2012).Introduction:Isdevelopmentresearchcommunicationcomingofage?IDSBulletin,43(5),1-8.
Harvey,B.,Pasanen,T.,Pollard,A.&Raybould,J.(2017a).Fosteringlearninginlargeprogrammesandportfolios:Emerginglessonsfromclimatechangeandsustainabledevelopment.Sustainability,9(2),315.
Huppe,G.,Creech,H.&Knoblauch,D.(2012).Thefrontiersofnetworkedgovernance.Winnipeg:InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment.
Hurlbert,M.&Gupta,J.(2015).Thesplitladderofparticipation:Adiagnostic,strategic,andevaluationtooltoassesswhenparticipationisnecessary.EnvironmentalScience&Policy,50,100-113.
Jasanoff,S.(2004).Theidiomofco-production(p.1-12).InStatesofKnowledge:TheCo-productionofScienceandSocialOrder.NewYork:Routledge.
Lang,D.J.,Wiek,A.,Bergmann,M.,Stauffacher,M.,Martens,P.,Moll,P.,Swilling,M.&Thomas,C.J.(2012).Transdisciplinaryresearchinsustainabilityscience:Practice,principles,andchallenges.SustainabilityScience,7,25-43.
Lewis,J.(2015).Collaborateordie?Interdisciplinaryworkholdsgreatpromisebutgoal-orientedassumptionsmustbechallenged.LSEImpactBlog.Availableat:http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2015/04/02/collaborate-or-die-disciplinary-differences-in-the-social-sciences/
Lemos,M.C.andMorehouse,B.J.(2005).Theco-productionofscienceandpolicyinintegratedclimateassessments.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,15(1),57-68.
Mauser,W.,Klepper,G.,Rice,M.,Schmalzbauer,B.S.,Hackmann,H.,Leemans,R.&Moore,H.(2013).Transdisciplinaryglobalchangeresearch:Theco-creationofknowledgeforsustainability.CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,5(3),420-431.
Mitlin,D.(2008).Withandbeyondthestate—co-productionasaroutetopoliticalinfluence,powerandtransformationforgrassrootsorganizations.EnvironmentandUrbanization,20(2),339-360.
Moser,S.C.(2016).Canscienceontransformationtransformscience?Lessonsfromco-design.CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,20,106-115.
Nowotny,H.,Scott,P.&Gibbons,M.2001.Re-ThinkingScience:KnowledgeandthePublicinanAgeofUncertainty.Cambridge:PolityPress.
Ostrom,E.1996.CrossingtheGreatDivide:Coproduction,Synergy,andDevelopment.WorldDevelopment,24(6),1073-1087.
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Palmer,M.A.,Kramer,J.G.,Boyd,J.&Hawthorne,D.(2016).Practicesforfacilitatinginterdisciplinarysyntheticresearch:TheNationalSocio-EnvironmentalSynthesisCenter(SESYNC).CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,19,111-122.
Pohl,C.,Rist,S.,Zimmermann,A.,Fry,P.,Gurung,G.S.,Schneider,F.,Speranza,C.I.,Kiteme,B.,Boillat,S.,Serrano,E.&Hadorn,G.H.(2010).Researchers'rolesinknowledgeco-production:experiencefromsustainabilityresearchinKenya,Switzerland,BoliviaandNepal.ScienceandPublicPolicy,37(4),267.
Reyers,B.,Nel,J.L.,O’Farrell,P.J.,Sitas,N.&Nel,D.C.(2015).Navigatingcomplexitythroughknowledgecoproduction:Mainstreamingecosystemservicesintodisasterriskreduction.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,112(24),7362-7368.
Schuttenberg,H.Z.&Guth,H.K.(2015).Seekingoursharedwisdom:Aframeworkforunderstandingknowledgecoproductionandcoproductivecapacities.EcologyandSociety,20(1),15.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07038-200115.
VanEpp,M.andGarside,B,(2016).Solving‘wicked’problems:cansociallearningcatalyseadaptiveresponsestoclimatechange?IIEDWorkingPaper.IIED,London.
VanKerkhoff,L.E.,&Lebel,L.(2015).Coproductivecapacities:Rethinkingscience-governancerelationsinadiverseworld.EcologyandSociety,20(1),14.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07188-200114
Wyborn,C.A.(2015).Connectingknowledgewithactionthroughcoproductivecapacities:Adaptivegovernanceandconnectivityconservation.EcologyandSociety,20(1),11.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-06510-200111
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Annex: Good Practice in Knowledge Synthesis Case Studies
Thesixcasestudiesinthisannexshowcaseapproachestoknowledgesynthesisandco-productionthathavemetwithpositiveresults.TheyincludebothtraditionalandinnovativeapproachesthatmayserveasaninspirationforCARIAA.
Thecasestudiesweredrawnfromtheauthors’knowledgeofrelevantinitiatives,aswellascrowdsourcedthroughplatformssuchasKM4DevandResearch2Action.Aselectionwasmadebasedonthefollowingcriteria:
• Thecaseprovidesanovel/interestingexampleofsynthesisorco-productionthatyieldedasuccessfuloutput/outcome;
• Itfeaturesparticipationfromadecentralisedpartnership(ideallyglobal);
• Participantshadcompetingpriorities/areasoffocusordemands;
• Collaborationcrossesdisciplines/sectorsordrawsindifferentknowledgetypes;and
• Theoutput/outcomeisinthepublicdomainandnotsolelyacademic.
Basedonthesecriteria,thesixcasestudiesselectedforanalysisare(inalphabeticalorder):
1) CDKNLatinAmericaandCarribbeanLearningExchangeWorkshops
2) ClimateChangeandSocialLearningSandbox
3) TheClimateKnolwedgeBrokersManifesto
4) FAOGlobalForumonFoodSecurityandNutrition
5) PotatoPark-InternationalPotatoCenter-ANDESAgreementfortheRepatriationofNativePotatoes
6) RedCrossClimateCentreWriteshopProcess
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Case 1: CDKN Latin America and Carribbean Learning Exchange Workshops
Contributor:MariaJosePacha(CDKN)
Editedby:BlaneHarveyandPierAndreaPirani
Overview• ThiscasestudydescribeslearningandexchangeworkshopsorganizedbyClimate
andDevelopmentKnowledgeNetwork(CDKN)tosharelessonslearnedfromprojectsrelatedinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Theworkshopaimedatstimulatingparticipantstoreflectontheirexperiences,todistillsuccessfulpracticesandtocodifytheirtacitknowledgeinwaysthatcouldbeeasilysharedandcommunicatedtoothers.
• Toachievethisobjective,theworkshopfollowedaparticipatoryapproachandwasfacilitatedusinginnovativeknowledgesharingmethodologies.Thisstimulatedparticipants’interestandactiveengagement.
• Asetoflessonslearnedwasco-createdduringtheworkshop.Theselessonswerethenre-usedandre-packagedintoadditionalknowledgeproducts.
• TheworkshopalsosetthefoundationforanemergingnetworkofpractitionersworkingonClimateCompatibleDevelopment(CCD)atsub-nationallevelintheregion.
• Thecasestudyprovidesaninterestingexampleofhowtodesignandfacilitateaneffectiveface-to-faceeventtoshareexperiencesandco-createknowledgeproductsthatcanberepackagedintoadditionaloutputsandusedtoinformsubsequentwork.Forthistohappen,therightpeopleshouldbeinvolved,andtheappropriateparticipatorymethodologiesandfacilitationtechniquesshouldbeputinplace.
ContextCDKNhasbeenfinanciallysupportingprojectsthataretestingnewapproachestoClimateCompatibleDevelopmentincitiesandregionsinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Alotofvaluable“knowledgecapital”isgeneratedbytheseprojectsandalotoflessonscanbecapturedandlearnedfromtheseexperiences.However,mostofthetimekeystakeholdersdon’thavetime(ordon’thavethehabit)toreflectontheirexperiencesandtodistillusefullessonsthatcanbesharedandcommunicatedtoothers,toscaleupexperiencesandgoodpractices.
MuchofCDKN’sworkiscarriedoutby“suppliers”,orcontractedgroupswhocontributeforalimitedamountoftime.WithoutadedicatedprocesstodocumentsomeofthelessonsfromthesesuppliersCDKNhasstruggledtoconsistentlylearnfromtheworktheysupport.
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ToovercomethesechallengesandfacilitatetheexchangeofexperiencesandlessonslearnedinthedesignandimplementationofCCDprojects,CDKNorganizedthreeregionalworkshops,bringingtogetherrepresentativesofinstitutionsmanagingtheseprojectsaswellasgovernmentrepresentatives.Thefirstworkshop,co-organizedbyCDKNLACandFundacionFuturoLatinoamericano(FFLA),tookplaceinQuito(Ecuador)inJuly2015.TeamsfromtenprojectsworkingonclimatecompatibledevelopmentintheCaribbean,Colombia,Ecuador,Lima,BoliviaandArgentinatookpartintheworkshop.Themainobjectiveoftheeventwastoenableparticipantstosharetheirexperiences,articulatechallengesandcapturethelessonslearnedfromsuccessfulpracticesputforwardbycitiestoadvanceinCCDinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.
TheinitiativeFromtheoutset,theQuitomeetingwasconceivedasalandmarkforCDKNandtheorganizerswantedittobeadifferenteventthana‘workshopasusual’.Witharound40peoplefromtendifferentprojectsattending,theideawastoovercomethetraditionalPowerPoint-basedapproachtosharecontexts,achievements,challengesandlessonsfromtheCDKNsupportedprojectsintheregion.Thiswasreflectedintheoverallworkshopmethodologyanddesign,processflowandfacilitation,whichwasconceivedtobeasparticipatoryaspossible.Inthe2.5daysoftheworkshop,thefacilitatorsguidedandsupportedparticipantstocollectivelysharetheirknowledgeandexperience,reflectontheirworkand,mostimportantly,drawouttacitknowledgeandgenerateasetoflessonslearnedfromtheirpractices.
Thedesignoftheagendaaimedtocreateabalancebetweencreativeandrationalthinking,generatingasuitableenvironmentfordialogue,learningexchangeandthecollectiveconstructionofknowledge.Examplesoftheparticipatoryknowledgesharingtechniquesusedtofacilitatethedifferentworkshopsessionsinclude:
• Groupwork,duringwhichparticipantswereaskedtomakea3DdesignoftheiridealcitywithinaCCDframework
• Sixthinkinghats:“TheThinkingHatsexerciseisakindofrole-playinwhichdifferentperspectivesarerepresentedbyhatsofdifferentcolours.Whenaparticipantissymbolicallywearingaspecifichat,theymustseektoperceivethesituationthroughthelensassociatedwiththatcolour.Thismethodshowshowdifferentaspectsofone’spersonalitycanapproachaproblemdifferently.”1
• Fishbowl:“Fishbowlsinvolveasmallgroupofpeople(usually5-8)seatedincircle,havingaconversationinfullviewofalargergroupoflisteners.Fishbowlprocessesprovideacreativewaytoincludethe“public”inasmallgroupdiscussion.”2
1Source:KSToolkit.2Source:KSToolkit.
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• Chatshow:“Thechatshowencouragesparticipantstoshareexperiencesinaninformal,funenvironment.Thechatshow'sopencirclelayoutencouragesgreaterparticipationthanafishbowland,duetoitsinformalnature,islessintimidatingthanapaneldiscussion.”3
• Chinesewhispers:“Participantsformed2lines,oneforthosespeakingandunderstandingEnglishandtheotheronlySpanish.Alongandcomplicatedtextwasselectedfulloffigures,datesanddetailsthatwasreadtothefirstpersonoftheline.Then,heorshehadtoconveythemessagetotheimmediatelybehindfellowparticipantandtheactionswassubsequentlyrepeateduntilreachingtheendoftheline.Thefinalresultwasreallydifferentfromtheoriginalincontentandlength.Thisdynamicwasusefultounderstandhowdifficultitistoconveyanoriginalmessagewithoutdistortionsfromapriorpersonalknowledge.”4
Theflowofthemeetingandthefacilitationtechniquesusedallaimedtoputparticipantsintheconditiontoco-createasetoflessonslearnedacrossthedifferentinitiatives.Specifically,participantspreparedthelessonslearnedperprojectandtheypresentedthetwoorthreemostimportantlessonstotherestofthegroup.Participantsthenvotedforthoselessonsthatwererelevantfortheirprojects,too.Asaresultofthisprocess,thirtydifferentlessonsweregeneratedandclassifiedintodifferenttopics,fromlessonslearnedwhileformulatingaCCDproposaltolessonslearnedonprojectGovernancetolessonslearnedonresearchandCCD.
Participatoryworkshopssuchasthisonerequirepeopletogetoutoftheircomfortzoneandthismaynotbeeasyforeverybody.Someoftheparticipantsstruggledtothinkdifferentlyandtocommunicatethelessonslearned.However,theyrecognisedthechallengestheywereworkingagainstandingeneralappreciatedandenjoyedtheoverallprocessandapproach.
DriversandchallengesThefollowingdriversofsuccessareworthhighlighting:
• Thedesignoftheworkshop:Facilitatorsmanagedtoensureagoodbalancebetweencreativeandanalytical/reflectivesessionswhichwasinstrumentaltoreachtheworkshopobjectiveandtheco-creationoflessonslearned.
• Thefacilitationoftheworkshop:Noteveryoneisaccustomedtoparticipatoryworkshops.Goodfacilitationskillsareessentialtoencourageparticipantstoactivelyengageintheprocess.
3Source:KSToolkit.4Source:CDKNWorkshopreport.
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• Theinterestofparticipants:Thewaytheworkshopwasdesignedandconductedenabledtofreeupparticipant’sattentionandstimulatetheirinteresttoactivelyengageintheprocess.
• Theincentivesfortheparticipants:Theworkshopgaveparticipantstheopportunitytosharewhattheyweredoingintheirprojectsandwhattheylearned.Likewise,theyhadauniqueopportunitytolearnaboutothers’experiences.
• Thecreationofanetwork:Priortotheworkshop,participantswerenotconnectedtoeachotheracrossprojects.Theface-to-faceworkshopgavethemtheopportunitytomeetandtosetthefoundationsforanewnetworkofpractitioners.
Ontheotherhand,theworkshoppresentedalsoasetofchallenges:
• Keepingthemomentum:Thisisakeyandcommonchallengetomostface-to-faceworkshops,especiallywhenparticipantsdon’tknoweachotherpriortotheeventanddon’tbelongtoanestablishednetworkorcommunity.Whilealotofenergyandengagementcanbeachievedduringtheworkshop,maintainingthemomentumandkeepingpeopleconnectedaftertheeventendsisnosimpletask,regardlessofthetechnologyinplaceandtheonlinespacesthatmaybeavailabletocontinuetalkingandexchanging.
• Invitingtherightpeople:Especiallyinaparticipatoryworkshop,itistheparticipantswhoowntheprocessanddeterminetheoutcomeoftheevent.Havingtherightpeopleparticipateisthereforecriticaltoachievingtheworkshopobjectives.InthecaseoftheQuitoworkshop,thismeanthavingparticipantsthathadbeeninvolvedintheprojectssincethebeginningandhadahandsonexperienceofthesubject.Additionally,itwouldbeusefultohaveparticipantsthatactuallyhavedecision-makingpowerintheirorganisationstoincreasethelikelihoodofrecommendationsbeingtakenforward.
• Knowinghowtoshare:Peopledon’tnecessarilyknowhowtosharetheirlessonslearned,especiallydeeplessons.Theyarenotsurehowtocommunicatetheminwaysthataremeaningfultoothers.Thisiswhereprocessfacilitationiskeytostimulatecollectivelearningandsharing.
• Takingtheprocessforward:Thereisatrade-offbetweenbeingprescriptiveandleavingparticipantsscopetodefinewhattheywanttodeveloporshareaftertheworkshop.Theriskisthat,whenthemomentumisgone,littlegetsactuallydone.Inthiscase,CDKNproposedsomeoptionsbutthefinaldecisiononwaystotaketheprocessforwardaftertheeventwasuptoparticipants.
ResultsUsuallyproductssuchaslessonslearnedareoutsourcedtoprofessionalsordrawnupengagingwithsinglesuppliers.InthecaseoftheQuitoworkshop,thewholeapproachwas
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underpinnedbytheefforttopromoteaco-creationprocess,whichcapturesdifferentperspectivesandtransformstacitknowledgefromparticipants’headsintoexplicitknowledge.
Asaresult,duringtheworkshopparticipantsco-created30lessonslearned,aroundthedesign,implementation,governanceandfurtherresearchonCCDinLAC.Theselessonshavebeenpackaged,re-usedandpresentedindifferentproducts,suchasa1-pagerforeachoftheprojectspresentedintheworkshop,blogposts,aworkingpaper,andapublicwebinar.
Theworkshopwasinstrumentaltoidentifyingchallengesrelatedtosustainabilityofprojects,fromdiagnosisandplanningtoimplementationandhowtogeneratethepoliticalsothatprojectsaretranslatedintolaws,rulesandspecificactivities.
Further,theco-creationprocessallowedparticipantstoputforwardrecommendationsforCDKNtoimproveprojectimplementationintheregionandtocreateaCCDNetworkinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Specifically,participantsdecidedtosetupaFacebookgrouptobringforwardwhatachievedinQuitoandcontinuetoexchangeideasandchallenges,tosharegoodpracticesandcontinuelearningfromeachotherhowtoimplementclimatecompatibledevelopmentintheirregion.
AnalysisTraditionalworkshopsandeventsoftenfailtotriggerparticipants’interestandengagement,resultinginmissedopportunitiesforeffectivedialogue,knowledgetransferandlearning.
Thiscasestudyinsteaddemonstrateshowarelativelyshortface-to-faceeventcanbeeffectiveinbringingpeopletogethertoshareexperiencesandco-createvaluableknowledgeproducts.The30lessonslearnedproducedintheQuitoworkshopemergedfromthecollectiveknowledgeandexperienceinparticipantsandhavebeenthere-usedbyCDKN,repackagedintoadditionaloutputsandusedtotoinformsubsequentwork.
Forthistohappen,therightpeopleshouldbeinvolved,andtheappropriateparticipatorymethodologiesandfacilitationtechniquesshouldbeputinplace.
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Case 2: Climate Change and Social Learning Sandbox
Contributors:TheCCSLSandboxteam
Draftedby:PeteCranston
OverviewCGIARresearchprogramsarecomplicatedventures,involvingseveralCGcentresaswellasarangeofotherpartners.TheClimateChangeAgricultureandFoodSecurity(CCAFS)programledaninvestigationintotheroleofSocialLearninginfosteringlearningandchangewithinits’domain.TheClimateChangeandSocialLearninginitiativeCCSLranforthreeyears.AllofthepartnersengagedinCCSLactivitiesasanadditionalfocusintheirwork.CCSLheldworkshops,commissionedandproducedco-authoredpublicationsandothercommunicationmaterial,includingalargenumberofblogsandacartoon-story.TheinitiativewassupportedbyaSandbox,afacilitatedcommunityofpracticethatusedasocialnetwork(Yammer)andawikitomaintainandgrowcommunicationbetweenfacetofacemeetings.CCSLillustrateshowatargetedinvestmentinamixoffacetofacemeetingsandafacilitatedcommunityofpracticecansupportandbuildanenvironmentinwhichaloosenetworkofpeopleareabletocollaboratetohelpformandbuildasetofconceptsinanemergentareaofinterest,andoutofwhichtodevelopandsynthesiseideasandrecommendationsforresearchandcommunicationproducts.
ContextCCAFSexplorescommunicationandlearningapproachesthatmightbeappropriateinits’constantlychangingdomain.Withagroupofpartnerorganisations,5CCAFSheldtwoworkshopsonCommunicationsandSocialLearninginClimateChangeinMayandNovember2012.Theseworkshopshighlightedthatforproblemslikeclimatechangeitisnotsufficienttodirectexpertstoevaluatetheissueandadvisepolicymakersoraffectedpeoplehowtorespond.Instead,weneedongoing,flexible,consultativeprocessesthatdevelopacollectiveunderstandingandresponse.
TherelevanceandpotentialofSocialLearningasalearningandcollaborationapproachwasfirstdiscussedwithintheCCAFSteamandthensharedwithmembersoftheILRICommunicationandKMteamin2012.ToengagepotentialcollaboratorsacallwasissuedforExpressionsofInterestindevelopingaResearchpaperonthepotentialofSocialLearninginClimateChangeAdaptation.AllthefinalistswereinvitedtothefirstworkshopinMay2012.Thisfacilitatedparticipatoryworkshopscopedouttheareaandidentifiedareasofresearchinterest.ThefirstCCSLpaper,‘UnlockingthePotentialofSocialLearningforClimateChangeandFoodSecurity’settheconceptualframeworkfortheproject,and
5InternationalLivestockResearchInstitute(ILRI),theInternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED),theInstituteofDevelopmentStudies(IDS),andotherpartners.
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wasfollowedbyotherpapersovertime.Allthepapersweredevelopedcollaboratively,sharedanddiscussedontheSandboxYammernetwork.
TheInitiativeASandbox(essentiallyafacilitatedandresourcedspaceforvirtualcollaboration)wasestablishedtosustainworkontheideasandactivitiesaroundClimateChangeSocialLearning(CCSL)thathadsurfacedduringtheworkshop.
TheSandboxconsistedof:
• ApublicwikiwhereCCAFSandrelatedprojects’CCSLexperiencewasdocumented
• Aprivatesocialnetwork(onYammer)toseekfeedbackonideasandprojects,toshareresourcesandtolearnsocially,wherepracticalchallengesandissuescouldbereflecteduponandsupportedbythecollectivewisdomofSandboxmembers
• Amodestfundingmechanismtoencourageinterestingideasaroundsociallearninginclimatechangeagricultureandfoodsecuritytobedevelopedandrolledout
TheSandboxranfromSeptember2012-June2015andwasdesignedfortheuseofCCAFSandpartnerstoenthuseandcatalyzeinteraction,innovationandconcretecollaborationusingsociallearningtoinformdecision-making.ThevisionwasthattheSandboxcouldevolveintoaself-governingcommunityofpracticeandbeagenuinereflectionofhowsociallearningmayworkinpractice.
Anotheroutcomewastheinitiationofaseriesofworkingpapers,journalarticlesandbriefsthatcontinuetocapturethenewthinkingcomingoutoftheCCSLinitiative6.
ActivitiesandOutputsOveritslifetimethesandboxsupportedthefollowing:
• TheCCSLFrameworkandToolkit
• Threeinternationalworkshops7
• Fourinnovationgrants8
• 108peoplewhojoinedtheCCSLgroup(onYammer)from27differentorganisations
• 381CCSLYammergroupconversations,118associatedfiles,17collaborativenotesandover48topics
6https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/32729.7EvidenceGatheringfortheClimateChangeandSocialLearningcommunity,June2014;CCAFSScienceMeeting,April2013;ActingonWhatWeKnowandHowWeLearnforClimateandDevelopmentPolicy,IDSMarch2013.8ToMakerereUniversity,ILEIA,IIEDandIDS.
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• 92CCSLwikipagesand228associatedfiles(coveringstrategy,events,projects,resources,glossary,fundingopportunities,etc)
• Threeface-to-faceandtwovirtualCCSLCoreTeammeetings
• TheCCSLnarrativeexplaininghowsociallearningforclimatechange,agricultureandfoodsecurityshouldbebroughtaboutamongscientistsandclimatechange-focusedpractitioners
• TheCGIARstocktakingpaper:‘AnewrelevanceandbetterprospectsforwideruptakeofsociallearningwithinCGIAR—FindingsfromastocktakingexercisewithinCGIAR’
• Thewhiteboardvideo‘Transformativepartnershipsforafood-secureworld’.
Resources:FundingforthecoreSandboxactiviteiscovered60daysperyear,splitbetweenthreepeople,whoco-facilitatedtheactivities.9
DriversandchallengesOverall,theSandboxwasn’tespeciallyinnovative.Ratheritusedamixofwell-triedapproachestobuildingandsupportingacommunityofinterest,selectingfromatoolboxoffacetofaceanddigitalfacilitationmethods.TheCCSLprojectasawholewassimilarlyeclecticinitsbalancedsetofactivities,startingwithexplorationandconceptformation,andthendevelopingintoresearchandpublication,aswellasadvocacywithintheCGIARforthevalueofSocialLearning.TheSandboxsimilarlyhadamixedproductandprocessorientationandwasdeliberatelyemergentinconcept-notengaginginpromotionalactivitiesaimedatmassrecruitmentnorspreadingitselfthinlyovermanyactivitystreams.Insteadtheprojectfocusedonencouragingconversationsandslow,organicandsustainablegrowth.Theoveralllevelofactivitywastypicalofnetworksthatconnectmainlyonline,withonlyperiodicfacetofacemeetings.Therewasasmallbutslowlygrowingcoreofregularuserswhoposteditemsandrespondedtoothers;alargergroup,thatalsogrewduringtheproject,whorespondedoccasionally;andthemajoritycontenttoviewthetraffic,whovaluedbeingconnected,andwerecontenttoexploitorshareresourcesprivately,outsidetheSandboxitself.Oneindicatorofthestrengthofthecommunitycamefromtheannual‘refresh’process.Whenaskediftheywishedtoremainmembers90%+ofthemembersoptedtostayconnected.
TheSandboxalsofacedtypicalchallengesforsuchanetwork:constantcomplaintsofover-busyness,andalotofmemberswhoaren’tveryinterestedinworkingonlinebutwhoacceptitasa‘necessaryevil’.Anotherchallenge,relevanttoCARIAA,wasthattheCCSLprojectasawholewasnobody’scentralfocus.Itwasbuildingintotheintersticesofpeople’slives.
9EwenLeBorgne;CarlJackson;PeteCranston.
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Results“Respondingtothechallengesofclimatechangeasacross-cuttinganddisruptivediscourseindevelopmentrequires…freshcombinationsorconjunctionsoflearningandknowledgesharingpractice.”10SocialLearning(SL)asaconceptisnotnew,andthegeneralcaseiseasilymadethatSLcouldbeavaluableapproachtosupportcollaborationandadaptiveresponsestoclimatechange.Thereisalsogenerallyenergyaroundtheidentificationofnewresearchareas,andbridgingdifferentdisciplines.However,applyingsomerigourtoaninvestigationofthepotentialandactualvalueofsociallearningrequiredaseriesofsteps:
• Theidentificationandengagementofthosewithexperienceofandaninterestinthearea
• Workingwiththosecollaboratorstodefinewhatwasanewareaforinvestigationandexploreresearch
• ApplyingresourcestomodellingaSLapproachtothewaythattheactivitiesdeveloped,ensuringthatallconnectedwerekeptintouchwithdevelopments,hadaccesstocollectivesupportandsharedfindings
• Buildingconnectionsbetweendifferentdisciplinesandinstitutions
• Supportingandpromotingpublications
Networksandcommunitiesofpractice,especiallythosewhichrelyheavilyondigitalchannelsforcommunicationalmostneverformspontaneouslybutinsteadformaroundagroupofpeoplewhoplayafacilitativerole.TheSandboxwasdesignedtouseentry-leveldigitaltechnologyandprovideaminimumviableamountofsupportforcollaborationandnetworkdevelopment.Thesteadygrowth,engagementofaverydiversenetworkaswellastheoutputsdemonstrateapositivereturnonthisinvestment.Ofcoursecollaborativeresearchandco-productiontakeplaceoutsideoffacilitatedgroupsandnetworks.TheSandboxcaseisthatlimitedfacilitationusingsimpledigitaltoolscanspeedupresearchandcollaborationprocesses,increasethediversityofparticipantsandimproveoutputqualitythroughcollectivesupportandreview.
AnalysisThepotentialrelevancetoCARIAAisthatCCSLoverallwasaloosenetworkofpeopleandorganisationswhosemainfocuswaselsewhere.Sothechallengewastofindwaystolink,connectandengagepeopleinacommonareaofinterest.TheSandboxdemonstrateshowasmallinvestmentinfacilitation,CommunityofPracticedevelopmentandsupporttosmallresearchandpublicationprojectscangenerateusefulresearchproductsandalso,moreimportantly,connectandengagepeopleinanongoingprocessofreflection,learningand
10CCSLSandboxbriefingnotehttp://bit.ly/1qLzvQd.
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conceptdevelopment.Andthattheseconnectionsinturnbuildintoandsupportotherprojects.Themixofprocessandproductorientationisalsoimportant:theproductfocusgeneratesmotivationaltimelines,targets,andasenseoffocus;attentiontoprocesskeepspeopleinformed,buildsconnectionsandengagementaswellasmaintaininginterestandconnectionbetweenfacetofacemeetings.Whiletheparentproject,CCAFS,hadastronginterestintheareaanditsdevelopment,theywereabletooutsourceitsdevelopmentandbenefitthemselvesfromtheprocessandproducts.
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Case 3: The Climate Knowledge Brokers Manifesto
Contributors:JamesSmithandSigmundKluckner,REEEP
Draftedby:BlaneHarvey
Overview• TheClimateKnowledgeBrokersManifestolaysouttherolesandprinciplesofthe
professionofaClimateKnowledgeBroker:anorganizationorindividualfacilitating
theexchangeofclimaterelatedinformationtoenableclimatesensitivedecisions
basedonthehighestqualityinformationandknowledgepossible.
• TheManifestowasdevelopedinthroughahighlycollaborativeprocesswith17
individualsfromdifferentprofessionalbackgrounds,organisationsand
geographicallocationscontributingtodatacollection,analysis,draftingofresults
andvalidatingthefinaloutput.
• Theprocessoffersclearopportunitiestobuildstrongerbondswithinateamand
withawidersetofstakeholderwhilesimultaneouslygeneratingaco-produced
pieceofknowledgesynthesis.
ContextClimateknowledgebrokershelptoensurethatthosewhoneedtotakeclimatesensitive
andclimate-relateddecisionshaveaccesstothebestavailableknowledge.Theyactas
filters,interfacesandtranslatorsbetweenclimateknowledgeproducersandusers,across
differentdisciplines,fieldsandsectors,employingarangeofmethodsandcommunication
approachestomeettheirdiverseusers'needs.Itisarelativelynewfieldofthinkingand
practice,butonethathasdevelopedfasttoservetheneedsofknowledgeusers.
Collaboration,coordinationandcoherencehavebeenthecoreprinciplesbehindtheClimate
KnowledgeBrokersGroup(CKB)sinceitwasestablishedin2011.TheCKBGroupactsasa
championforthisemergingfield,aninnovationhub,andathrivingcommunityofpractice
withover150membersdrawnfromleadingglobal,regionalandnationalknowledge
brokersworkingacrossthefullspectrumofclimate-relatedthemes.Organisationsinvolved
rangefromUNorganisationsandmultilateraldevelopmentbanks,throughgovernmental
organisations,academicinstitutions,researchinstitutesandthinktanks,andNGOs.
TheCKBCoordinationHubwasestablishedin2014tocoordinatedifferenteffortswithin
theCKBGroup.ItishostedatREEEP,theRenewableEnergyandEnergyEfficiency
PartnershipinViennaandconsistsofasmallteamoffullandpart-timestaffmembers
workingontheCKBintitiative,withonepersonactingasafull-timeprojectlead.Three
membersoftheREEEPCKBteamwereinvolvedintheplanninganddesignoftheManifesto
knowledgesynthesisprocess.
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ThemainpurposeoftheClimateKnowledgeBrokersManifestowastoputclimateknowledgebrokeringingeneral,andtheCKBgroupinparticular,firmlyinthemindsofdecision-makers.Theyalsowishedtoattractfurtherknowledgebrokerstotheirgroup,andpersuadefunderstosupportbrokeringwithincreased,andmorecoordinatedfunding.TheManifestosetsoutthecaseforclimateknowledgebrokering:whatitis,whyitisimportantandhowitworks.Importantly,itstartsfromtheneedsoftheusersofclimateknowledge;decisionmakersinwhateverfieldwhodecisionsare(orshouldbe)influencedbywhatisknownaboutclimatechange.
TheInitiativeTheManifesto(availableonlinehereinarangeofformats)wasdevelopedinahighlycollaborativemannerwith17contributors(whoactedasinterviewersandeditors)–individualsprimarilydrawnfromtheCKBgroupwhoconductedover80interviewswithclimateknowledgeusersandbrokersalike.Theseinterviewswerelooselytranscribedthencollectivelyeditedataloosely-structuredbutfacilitatedtwo-daywrite-shop.Afinalroundofeditingwasundertakenbyasmallcoregroupofeditorswithcontributorsthenprovidingafurtherreviewandapprovalofthefinalproduct.
Whatmotivatedpeopletocontribute?Contributorsparticipatedvoluntarilywiththeexceptionofafewwhohadtravelcostscovered.Theysawvalueofengagingwiththissetofinterviewtargetsandmanyself-selectedbasedoninterestandperceivedopportunity.ThisengagementwasbuiltontheconveningpoweroftheCKBgroup,andcontributorsweretoacertainextentabletousetheCKBManifestoprocess(whichwasperceivedassemi-independenttotheirusualresponsibilities)asanopportunitytolearnmoreforthemselves.Clearly,personalinterestandperceivedimportanceofthistopicalsohadabigroleinpeople’swillingnesstovolunteertheirtimeandexpertise.
Step1.Designingtheprocess:ThetimingoftheCKBManifestodraftingprocesswas,tosomeextent,opportunistic.TheSteeringGroupandCoordinationHubhadintendedtodevelopaclearstatementaboutknowledgebrokeringprinciples,buttheopportunitypresentedbysomenewly-availablefundstosupporttheteam’sworkreallykick-startedtheprocess.
AsmallteamatREEEPundertookthedesignoftheprocessbasedonsomepastexperienceofcollaborativedraftingfromadifferentfieldofwork.TheypresentedtheideatotheCKBSteeringGrouptogettheirbuyinandsolicittheirparticipation.ThroughthediscussionswiththeSteeringGroupthecoreteamdraftedafirstlistofpeopletoinviteaseithercontributorsorinterviewees.Theytriedtodevelopalistthatwouldreflectthefulldiversityoftheknowledgebrokeringfield,buildingthelistthroughmultipleroundsofinputsfromcontributorsastheyjoinedtheinitiative.ThegroupusedGoogleAppstohostdocumentsandallowformasscollaboration.
Step2.Gatheringcontributions:Oncetheteamof17contributorswasinplaceandalistofpotentialintervieweeswasdevelopedthelistwassharedoutamongbyregionandby
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topicwhereverpossible.Asetofsemi-structuredinterviewquestionswasdevelopedbytheteamofcontributors.Theinterviewsthemselvesservedmultiplepurposes.Obviouslytheyservedtogatherinformationaboutwhattheusersneed,buttheyalsohadthebenefitofraisingawarenessaboutthegroupandtheforthcomingpublicationamongpeoplewhowereseentobekeyactorsinafieldoftheirinterest.
Thecontributorsthemselvestranscribedtheinterviews,butdidsotovaryingdegreesofcompleteness.Onthispoint,giventhenumberofcontributors,thevoluntarynatureoftheexercise,andthefactthatthiswasnotapieceofacademicresearch,theteamdidnotimposestrictresearchprotocolsontheprocess,leavingadegreeofinconsistencyacrosstheevidencecollected.
Step3.Collectiveanalysisandwrite-up:Theresultsoftheinterviewswerejointlyanalysedbythecontributorsinaloosely-structuredtwo-dayworkshophostedbyREEEPinVienna.Theteamworkedwithafluidframeworkfortheworkshoptorespondtoemergingideas–workingwithstacksofinterviewreportsathandtomakesuretheyaccuratelyreflectedwhattheyhadheard.Oncecontributorshadfamiliarisedthemselveswithenoughoftheinterviewtranscriptions/reportsthenexttaskwastodrawoutinterestingcontentonuserneedsandtoputthesepointsontopost-itnotes.Participantsthenundertookaclusteringandrankingexercisethatservedtoemergetheproducedthebasicframeworkoftheiranalysis,andultimately,oftheManifesto.
AftertwodaystheteamofcontributorshadproducedasuccinctstatementonwhattheManifestowasgoingtosay,alongwithasetofquotesandnotesdrawnfromtheinterviews.AtthispointthecoreteamatREEEPtookonthetaskofproducingafulldraftoftheManifesto,withtwoteammembersleading,andtwoothersprovidingsupport.Thisprocesstookapproximately2-3weeksofwork.Thedraftwasthensharedbacktocontributorsandsteeringgroupforrevision.Aseconddraftwasthendiscussedduringfacilitateddiscussions–bothplenaryandsmallgroup-withthewiderCKBgroupduringtheannualCKBworkshop.Thisledtofurtheramendments,andtheManifestowasformallyadoptedbytheSteeringGroupafewweekslater.
Driversandchallenges
Drivers:• Thefocusonatopicandcontentthatstronglyresonatedwiththegroupwasa
criticalfactorinsecuringpeople’spersonaleffortstojoinandcontribute.Thefactthatcollaboratorsvolunteeredtheirtimetothisservesasevidenceofthisbuy-in.
• Asecondmajorcontributortothesuccessoftheprocesswasthecontributionofstrongfacilitationwithexperienceinsimilarprocesses.Thefluidnatureoftheworkshopprocess,inparticular,requiredfacilitationthatcouldgivepeoplefaiththattheoutcomewouldemergefromsomethingwithaquiteloosestructure.
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• Perhapsasaproductofbothpointsabove,afinalimportantdriverwasthatthesenseofcollectiveownershipoftheManifestoprocessandcontentremainedstrongthroughouttheprocess;nosmallfeatforateamof17contributors.
Challenges:• TheManifestowritingprocessraisedstrategicquestionsanddiscussionsforthe
CKBGroup,anditisalwaysdifficulttofindsufficienttimeforsuchconversationsinanetworkedorganisation.
• Asnotedabove,theconsistencyofstructureandcontentbetweentheinterviewsandthereportsdraftedbycontributorswasnotoptimal.However,thiswasarelativelyminorissuesincethemaincontentdevelopmentwasundertakenthroughthediscussionsattheworkshop
• TheManifestowasonlypublishedinEnglish,buthassincesparkedalotofinterestofregionaleditionsinotherlanguages.AtranslationhasbeendoneintoSpanishasoftoday,andiscurrentlyinthedesignandprintprocess.TheCKBteamexpectthistohaveapositiveimpactontheoutreachandconnectiontowardsLatinAmericanKnowledgeBrokers.
Results• TheprimaryoutputwastheManifestobookandanaccompanying8-pagesummary
pamphlet.Awebpagehostingalloftheoutputswasalsocreated.
• Theprocessalsogeneratedotherpositiveoutcomes.Itprovidedagreatnetworkingand“bonding”experienceastheteamcollaboratedontopicsthatdrewgroupmemberstogether.
• Relatedtothis,theprocesshelpedtopushtheCKBgroupforwardinitsthinkingaboutitsroleinrelationtothewiderclimatechangecommunityandhowbesttoplayit.
• Finally,theprocessofferedastrongaddedvaluebyconnectingclimateknowledgebrokerstoclimateknowledgeusers.Thisofferedastrongnetworkingeffectthatwasofbenefittotheindividualsandgroupalike.
AnalysisTheprocessdescribedofferssomevaluablepointsforreflectionfortheCARIAAprogramme.Ithighlightsthepotentialtouseknowledgesynthesisandco-productionprocessesaswaysofbuildingstrongerstakeholderengagementbypositioningtheknowledgeproductsforuptakerightfromtheverydesignstagewhilebroadeningtheknowledgebaseonwhichtheprogrammeisdrawing.Donewell,thiscanalsohaveapowerfulteam-buildingdimensionthatisvaluableinadistributednetworkorpartnershipsuchasbothCKBandCARIAA.
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Itisworthnoting,howeverthattherearesomeclearpre-conditionsforsuccessinthiskindofendeavour:
1) Theselectionofathemethatgenuinelyresonateswithparticipantsiscriticaltogainingandsustainingbuy-intotheprocess.
2) Thereisastrongneedforfacilitationandcoordinationintheprocess.Thisshouldnotbeseenasatime-savingexercise,butratherawayofbroadeningthesourcesandpotentialuser-baseofknowledgeproducts.
3) Participantsmustbewillingtohavedegreeoftoleranceforuncertaintyandfluidityastheprocessevolves.Aswithmanyco-productionprocesses,theendpointiscollectivelydefinedandthereforepeoplemustbewillingtosurrendersomecontrolofbothprocessandoutcomes.
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Case 4: FAO Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition
Contributor:MaxF.Blanck
Editedby:LoganCochrane
Overview• TheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)oftheUnitedNationshasoperateda
GlobalForumonFoodSecurityandNutrition(FSN)since2007,facilitatingknowledgesharingandsynthesisworkforaglobalcommunityofexpertsandpractitioners.To-date,thereareover7000members,whohavecontributedtomorethan150onlinediscussions.
• Therearetwomainapproachestaken,bothofwhichareentirelyonlineandtypicallyrunfor3to4weeks.Inthefirst,theFAOsharesadraftdocumentseekingfeedbackandinput,andinthesecondanexpertfacilitatesadiscussionbyofferingopeningremarksandkeyquestionswiththeobjectiveofsharingandpresentinginformation.
• ThekeytoFAO’sFSNistheflexibilityoftheplatform,whichallowsgovernmentstohaveregionally-specificdiscussionsonpolicy,aswellasglobaldiscussionsonemergingissues.
• Theimpactsvaryaccordingtothediscussion,theyhavedirectlychangedandinformednationalpolicy,supportedthecreationofglobalguidelines,providedfeedbackintointernationalforumsandcreatingnewknowledge,oneofwhichresultedinthewritingofabook.
ContextFAOestablishedtheFSNandfacilitatesthediscussionsthatoccuronit.However,arangeofindividuals,organizationsandgovernmentscanproposetopicstotheFSN,whothenfacilitateorsupportthefacilitationofthediscussion.Forexample,agovernmenthasusedtheplatformtoseekinputandfeedbackonitsnationalpolicy,whichresultedinacompletechangeofdirectionforthatnationalpolicy.Inotherinstances,theFSNcommunityprovidesinputfortheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionfortheUnitedNationsCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity.Inothercasesindividualsproposetopicsfordiscussion,suchasadoctoralstudentwhofacilitatedadiscussionondeconstructingtheconceptoffoodsecurity,afterwhichhepublishedabookonthetopic.Inyetothercases,theFSNcommunitycontributesinputandfeedbacktoglobalguidelines,suchastheVoluntaryGuidelinesonSustainableSoilManagement.Thepurposeoftheprojectsvaryaccordingtothetypeofdiscussion,althoughtwobroadapproachesareused,whicharediscussedinmoredetailbelow(oneseeksinputandfeedback,theothercreatescontentandsharesnewknowledgeonasubject).Thedriversforparticipationarelargelyparticipants’involvement
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andinterestintheFSNcommunity.TheFAOleadershipoftheprojectdrawsinterest,andtheopportunitytoprovideinputfordocumentssuchastheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionfortheUnitedNationsCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity,offersincentiveforindividualstooffertheirtimeandthoughtsvoluntarily.
TheinitiativeTwobroadapproaches:(1)Consultations-adraftdocument(e.g.globalguidelines,nationalpolicydocumentsorHighLevelPanelofExpertsreports)issharedforfeedback;therearesomeinstancesofradicalchangestodrafts,inothersnot,and(2)Opendiscussions,withopeningcommentsandkeyquestionsposed.Bothareparticipatoryprocessestoenhanceknowledgesharing/dissemination.Ingeneral,FSNbelieves50%ofparticipationisfortheinputitselfand50%isforknowledgesharingandlearningforthecommunity.
Consultations:Intheconsultationapproach,FAO(oranotherentity)producesadraft,forwhichfeedbackissought.Thesearesomeofthemostwidelyengagedwithprocesses,andspecificallythedraftsproducedbytheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionfortheUnitedNationsCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity.Intheseinstances,participationislimitedtocommentingonaproposeddraft,afterwhichrevisionsareintegratedintothedraftbeforefinalization.ThesynthesisworkisconductedbytheFAO(orHLPEorotherwise),drawinguponthecommentsandfeedbackofferedbythecommunity.Thereareanaverageof60contributionsperdiscussion,whicharequitedetailed(1+pageeach),with~30countriescommonlyrepresented.ThemotivationofcommunitymembersisheightenedinthecaseoftheHLPEreports,sincetheaudienceofthefinalreportwillbeglobal,andthereforetheinput(althoughnotacknowledgedwithinthereport),mayreachabroadaudience.
OpenDiscussions:Thesecondapproacharediscussionsaroundaspecifictopic.ThesemayberaisedbymembersorbytheFSN,andcanberegionally-ornationally-specific.FAOstatesthatthediscussions“explorefoodsecurityandnutritiontopicsfromapractitioners’pointofview,canprovideinputtopolicyformulationprocessesandcanbeusedtovalidatetechnicalwork.”Topicsareintroducedbyafacilitator,whoisanexpertinthefield,whoalsoprovidesabackgroundandposeskeyquestions,which“helpstobuildasharedunderstandingongoalsforthediscussion.”Digestsarepreparedasthediscussionprogresses,whicharesharedviathemailinglist(theyfindsomeusersprefertouseemailoverthewebsite,sothedigestsareemailedaswellasposted).Specificindividualsmaybeidentifiedandinvitedtocontribute.Discussionsendwithconcludingremarksfromfacilitator.FAOFSNteampreparesasynthesissummary(English,French,Spanish,withtranslationprovided),whichissharedwithallmembers.
Intotal,morethan150discussionshavebeenheldto-date.Thesediscussionspromoteknowledgemanagementandsharing,andactasacommunityofsupportandsharingforthe7,000+members.Thereisalsoagreatdiversityofmembership,bothintermsofbackgroundandlocation:
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PublicationoutliningFAOFSNapproach:http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap095e/ap095e00.pdf
DriversandchallengesEffective:TheFSNrepresentativeatFAOsuggestedthatthemostimportantdriverforsustainedandincreasingparticipationinthediscussionsisdrivenbyhigh-level,long-termsupportfromFAO,whichhetracedbackto2005,beforethelaunchoftheFSNnetwork(in2007).ThisprovidedcommitmentanddirectionfromFAO,andensuredsustainedsupportforparticipatoryprojectssuchasFSN.Havingestablishedthenetwork,oneofthemeansthroughwhichtheprojectwasmadeeffectivewasthestructure:topicsaredemanddriven,sothatideasandinterestsofthecommunityarereflectedinthediscussions.Additionally,thereisapurposefulefforttodiversifytopics,suchthatspecific,highly-detailedreports(e.g.soilconservation)arebalancedwithbroaderdiscussionsmoreapplicabletothecommunityasawhole(e.g.urbanizationandruraltransformation).Withparticipantsinterestedinthetopics,FSNensurestheprocessesareeasy-to-use,clearandengagingtoretainparticipation.Thisincludescontinuous,consistentandstrongfacilitation–occurringatmultiplelevels:theexpertfacilitatorofthetopic,theFSNteamfacilitatingpostingandprocessaswellastranslation,synthesisandsummary.AsaresultofFSN’sinternationalnetwork,thereisaverydiversegroupofparticipants(regionsaswellasbackgrounds,asshownabove),whichresultsindiscussionsthataredynamic(asopposedtoagroupofindividualswhoshareperspectivesattheoutsetandthediscussionssimplyconfirmtheideasthegroupalreadyshared).Thisdiversityiskeytosuccess,butachallengetofoster.ThedriverofthissuccesscanlargelybeattributedtotheFSNbeingaprojectoftheFAO(thenetworknowhasmorethan7000members).TwospecificinitiativesoftheFSNalsoenhancedtheeffectivenessofthediscussions:(1)translation:thisisnotlimitedtooutputs,butalsowithinthediscussionswhiletheyareon-going,enablingamuchbroaderopportunityforparticipation,and(2)participantscancontributeonthewebsiteorvia
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email.ThesecontributionsrequiresignificantcontributionsfromFSN,sincethepostssubmittedviaemailareaddedbyFSNstaff.However,FSNhasfoundthatsomemembersprefertoengageviaemail,andthisislikelythecaseforindividualswhodonothaveconsistentinternetaccess,butcanwrite/respondonemailwhileoffline(whichwouldnotbepossibleifengagementwaslimitedtothewebsiteplatform).FSNalsodoesnotspecifywhattheoutputshouldlooklikeforalldiscussions,rathertheoutputisflexiblebasedonthetypeofdiscussion,fromproceedingstosynthesissummaries.
Challenges:TheFSNfacesanumberofchallengesinensuringitscontinuedsuccessinthesesynthesisandfeedbackdiscussions.Onechallengeisthatthetopicstypicallyareproposedfrommembers,organizationsorotherthirdparties,andthenatureofthetopicsaswell,whichcanresultinperiodsofspecificdiscussionsoccurringwhereinbroaderparticipationislimited.FSNattemptstoaddressthistothebestofitsabilitybyencouragingnewtopicsfordiscussionandschedulingproposedonesaccordingly.Theschedulingandtypeofdiscussionsaffectstheinterestofthegeneralmembership,whomaynothaveknowledgeorinteresttoengageinhighlyspecializedconversationsthatareoutsideoftheirfieldofexpertise.FSNattemptstoensurearegularsetoftopicsthatarebroad,inclusiveandencourageadiverserangeofparticipation.AlthoughFSNplacesalotoftime,resourcesandeffortintotranslation,therearestilllinguisticbarriersthatpreventsomeparticipation.Indeed,oneoftheprimarychallengesFSNfacesisthecostandtimerequiredforexistingtranslationefforts.AchallengethatFSNencounteredearlyintheprocesswassomeusersfeelingoverwhelmedwithemailcommunications,sotheprocesswasrefinedandfewerdigestemailsaresenttomemberstopreventthis.
Advice:FSNofferssomeadviceforconsortiaandnetworksworkingonsynthesis:Ifyoucreateacommunity,youneedalong-termvision.FSNhastwostaffdedicatedtorunningdiscussions,totalingabout15peryear,whichhasbeenrunningsince2007.Thesestaffalsoputtogetherthesyntheses,summariesanddigests.FSNalsoprovidesthefinancialandtechnicalsupportfortranslation,sothecommitmenttotheseparticipatoryexercisesmustbesignificant,andnotcreatedasasideproject.Theentireactivityisparticipatory,butthesynthesisworkismostlydonebyFSNorotherpartners(nottheparticipants),whodonothaveareviewofthefinaldocument.TheFAObrandcertainlycontributestothesuccessofFSN,astheFAOisaplacewherepeoplelooktofindinformationontheFSNtopics.
ResultsOfthemorethan150discussionsthathavetakenplaceto-date,eachhaveresultedinoutputs,fromproceedingstosynthesissummaries.Alongwiththese,ahostofotherresourcesarecollected,sharedandpostedonFSNforfuturereferencebythecommunity,andgeneralaudience(theseareopentothepublic).Intermsofparticipation,theHLPECFSdiscussionsweresuggestedtobethemostsuccessful,andhadthelargestlevelofengagement–thesehadaslightlyuniqueformataswell,wherebythereweretwoonlinediscussionspartseach,thefirstonthescopingandthesecondonthedraft.Thediscussionshaveresultedinahighlevelofinformationsharing,whichhavedirectlycontributedto
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policychangesandacademicoutputsthathavecreatednewknowledgeonthetopicsdiscussed.Inotherinstances,theoutputshaveresultedinglobalguidelines,whichareadoptedand/orfollowedbyahostoforganizations.Fewgeneralizationscanbemadebecausetheimpactsvaryaccordingtothetopics,objectivesandorganizationsinvolved.FSNalsonotedthatthefacilitatingpersonand/ororganizationgainsasignificantamountofvisibilityasahostofanFSNdiscussion,whichcanraiseawarenessaboutspecificprojectsorprograms,aswellaskeyissues.
Discussionsareavailablehere:http://www.fao.org/fsnforum/forum
Withineachdiscussiontherearelinkstothedocuments(e.g.drafts),keyquestionsandbackground.TheFSNalsoupdatesalistof“DiscussionDocuments”(e.g.topic,proceedings,aboutthefacilitators)anda“FurtherReading”section,withlinkstokeydocumentsonthetopicbeingdiscussed.
StatisticsofsomeoftheDiscussionsarelistedinadocument(linkbelow),whichincludethelocationoftheparticipantsforeachspecifictopic,theirgenderandaffiliation.Interestingly,thesevariedsignificantlybytopic.Foradiscussiononwomeninagriculture,46%ofcontributorswerewomen,whereasadiscussionon“currentfoodsecurityconcepts”hadonly12%.Inthefoodsecurityconceptsdiscussion,52%ofcontributorswereacademicsorresearchers,whereasadiscussionon“foodsecurityinprotractedcrisis”had45%ofcontributorsbeing“Independent/Other.”
Selectionofspecificdiscussions:http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap095e/ap095e00.pdf
AnalysisIfCARIAAplanstohavereportsabouttheentireprogramwrittenbytheIDRCteam,orbyaselectfewindividuals,the“Consultation”processusedbyFAOFSNprovidesaworkingmodelforhowfeedbackcanbeobtained,whilealsoincreasingbuy-inbecauseallmembershadtheopportunitytocontributeinthedraftphase.
CARIAAmayusethediscussionformat(andevenusetheFAOFSNexistingplatform,ifthetopicisconnected)tohaveastructuredconversationaboutatopic.ForCARIAA,thismightincludediscussionsabouttheme-basedsynthesiswork(e.g.aroundmigration).Thiscouldoccurinanearlystage,asaknowledgesharingactivity.ItmayalsooccurasanactivityseekingtoanswerspecificquestionswiththestatedobjectiveofcreatingaCARIAAsynthesisdocumentonthatsubject.
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Case 5: Potato Park-International Potato Center-ANDES Agreement for the Repatriation of Native Potatoes
Authors:TammyStenner,AlejandroArgumedo,DavidEllis,KrystynaSwiderska,ReneGomezandMarissaVanEpp
Overview• ThiscasestudyexplorescollaborativeresearchbetweentheInternationalPotato
Center(CIP)andindigenouscommunitiesinthePeruvianAndesduringaten-yearagreementfornativepotatorepatriation,inrelationtotheagreement’simpactonfoodsecurity,climateadaptationandsustainabledevelopment.
• Theagreementisanexampleofasuccessfulprogram-basedefforttofostertheco-productionofresearchbystakeholdergroupswithsignificantculturaldifferences.Tenyearsofactivitiesundertheagreementhaveledtotransformationalchangesinthevaluesandpracticesofbothscientistsandlocalcommunities,andtoawiderangeofpositivedevelopmentoutcomesthatwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithadifferentapproachtotheresearch.
• Driversofcollaborationincludetwo-waycapacitybuilding,facilitation,andtrustbuilding.Emergentoutcomeswereenabledbyflexibleplanning.Challengesfacedincludedevelopingadequatesystemsfordocumentingandsharingresearchresults,aswellasspreadingtransformationalchangeinvaluesinpracticetowidergroups.
ContextThiscasestudyexplorescollaborativeresearchbetweentheInternationalPotatoCenter(CIP)andindigenouscommunitiesinthePeruvianAndesduringaten-yearagreementfornativepotatorepatriation,inrelationtotheagreement’simpactonfoodsecurity,climateadaptationandsustainabledevelopment.
TheAgreementfortheRepatriation,RestorationandMonitoringofAgrobiodiversityofNativePotatoandAssociatedCommunityKnowledgeSystemsbetweenCIP,ANDESandtheAssociationofPotatoParkCommunities(inPisac,Cusco,Peru),wasfirstsignedinDecember2004.Throughthishistoricfive-yearagreement,theCIPgenebankhasreturned410disease-freenativepotatolandracestothesixPotatoPark(PP)communitiesforfoodsecurityandin-situconservationofgeneticresources.ThesevarietieswerecollectedbyCIPscientistsfromcommunitiesintheareainthe1960s,buthadsincebeenlostfromthecommunitiesthroughgeneticerosion.Thisisoneofthefirstsuchrepatriationfromagenebanktocommunities,recognisingtheimportanceofin-situ-ex-situlinksforfoodsecurityandclimateadaptation.
Asecondfive-yearagreementwassignedin2010,whichinvolvedcollaborativeresearchactivitiestomonitorandtesttherepatriatedpotatovarieties.Knowledgesharinganddirect
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researchcollaborationbetweenscientistsandindigenousfarmers,twogroupsthatdonotnormallyinteractasco-researchers,tookplaceduringthissecondphase.AsociacionANDES,anNGOthatworkscloselywiththePotatoParkcommunities,isalsopartytotheagreementandhasplayedanimportantroleincapacitybuildingandfacilitationtoenabletheindigenousfarmerstoengageincollaborativeresearchwithCIPscientists.
Theagreementisoneofthefewexampleswheretheusuallyseparateformalandinformalseedsystemsarecollaboratingdirectlyformutualbenefit,withactivecommunityparticipationinresearchprocesses,fromdesigntoanalysis.Thisequitableresearchpartnershipbetweenindigenousfarmersandscientistshaslinkedscienceandtraditionalknowledge,andglobalandlocalknowledge,forabetterunderstandingofclimatechangeandfoodsecurityproblemsandsolutions.Activeparticipationoffarmershasalsoensuredahighlevelofcommitmenttoreachingtheprojectgoals,akeyfactorinensuringtheproject’ssuccess.Sociallearninghasbeenaninherentandnecessarypartofthisprocess.
Theagreementishistoricallysignificantbecauseforthepast200yearsormore,theflowofgeneticmaterialhaslargelybeenfromcommunitiestoprivatecollectors,commercialentities,botanicalgardensandgenebanks;oncetransferred,communitieshavehadverylittleaccesstothetraditionalvarietiestheyhavedomesticated,improvedandconservedovercenturies.Thus,forthePotatoParkcommunities,akeyobjectivewastoenableareciprocal(i.e.two-way)exchange,andenhancetherecognitionoftheirrightsovernativepotatoescollectedfromtheircommunities.
TheinitiativeDesignandimplementationoftheagreement:Thepre-agreementactivitiesinvolvedallpartiesindevelopingtheidea,contentandformatoftheagreement.Theagreementincludesobjectivesonconservation,protectionofcommunityresourcesandknowledge,collaborativeresearch,andruraldevelopment.
FivePotatoParkcommunitieswereactivelyengagedindesigningandimplementingactivities,withtechnicalsupportandtrainingfromANDESandCIP.Intotal49indigenousfarmersweredirectlyinvolved,includingwomenandyouth.
Throughtheagreement,CIPandthePParejointlyresponsiblefordynamicconservation,combiningactivitiesinsituandexsitu.Bothorganisationsrecognisedthecontributionsofscientificandtraditionalknowledge(TK)topotatodiversitycharacterization,conservation,climatechangeresearch,andtotherelatedlearningprocesses.FieldworkwasconductedinQuechua,asanimportantcarrierofTK.
Co-productionofresearch:CIP’smicro-levelapproachtogeneticresourcesconservation,potatobreedingandcultivationwascomplementedbytheholisticapproachtakeninthePP,wherethespiritual,natural,socialandeconomicaspectsoffoodsystemsareconsideredimportant.Similarly,CIP’sscientificcharacterisationofpotatoeswascomplementedbyTKofnames,mythology,rituals,uses,agriculturalpractices,soilandclimateconditions.
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Two-waycapacitybuildinghasbeenanimportantelementofthecollaborativeresearchprocess.CIPhasprovidedscientifictrainingtothefarmers(onpotatoconservation,characterisation,pollination,integratedpestmanagement,naturalfertilisers,botanicalseedproductionandseedstorage).FarmershavetaughtCIPscientistsabouttheAndeanholisticworldviewandtheimportanceofmacro-levelfactors,conceptsofreciprocity,andculturalaspectsofpotatocultivation.
ANDESplayedanimportantroleinensuringactivecommunityparticipation.TheorganisationprovidedcapacitybuildingtothePPcommunitiesfornegotiatingtheagreementandonassociatedconservation,rightsandeconomicdevelopmentaspects.ANDESdidthisbyusingindigenousresearchmethodologies,andcommunicationssystemsandformatscompatiblewithindigenousknowledge.Forinstance,oralandvisualapproaches—suchasstorytelling,songs,poemsandlegendsthatreflectcustomarylawsanddonotseparatetheartisticfromthefunctional—wereusedtoidentifyconceptsandvaluesassociatedwithequity,whichwerethenusedasthebasisofthedevelopmentoftheagreement.
Driversandchallenges
Drivers:• Sociallearning-orientedapproach:Inthedevelopmentofthefirstphaseofthe
agreement,sociallearningwasintendedtobeakeycomponentofthedynamicconservationandcollaborativeresearchprocesses.Thissetthesceneformutuallearning.
• Language:TheabilityofaCIPscientisttospeakQuechuawascrucialforintegratingtraditionalknowledge.
• Capacitybuilding:InvestmentincapacitybuildingbybothCIPandANDESandthetimingofthecapacitybuildingforPotatoParkcommunities,whichbeganbeforetheagreementwasnegotiated,toenablecommunitymemberstoparticipateinthedesignoftheagreementitselffromaninformed,equalfooting.ANDESalsosupportedpreviousandparallelfarmer-ledaction-researchprocesses,whichstrengthenedfarmers’capacitytoengageinco-researchwithCIPscientists.
• Facilitation:ThefacilitationroleofANDESensuredactivefarmerparticipationandanequitablepartnershipthroughouttheimplementationoftheagreement.
• Flexibleplanningandreview:Yearlynewchallengesarisewhichwereeithernotthoughtaboutorwerearesultofexchangesfromthepreviousyear.PPcommunities,ANDESandCIPcommittoprojectsannually,buttheprojectsareneversofixedindesignthattheycannotaccommodatenewideasorinterests.Throughtheagreement,thepartiesjointlylearnedtobetterappreciatethevalueofusinganideaasasparktobuildaprojectratherthandevelopinganideaintoa
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projectandpresentingthistothecommunities;andtotakeabroaderlandscapeapproach.
Challenges:• Facilitationofprocessesforco-learning,informationsharing,andjointdecision
making:Whiletheagreementhasincreasedunderstandingbetweenscientistsandfarmersoftheirdifferentneedsandperspectives,therearestillsomechallenges.Regularcommunicationthroughmonthlymeetings,andworkingtogether,supportsinformationsharingandincreasedunderstanding,althoughCIP’stimeinthefieldisquitelimited.Amoresystematicprocessfordocumenting,storingandsharinginformationandresultsofcollaborativeresearchisneeded.ThePPfarmersfeelthatmoreeffortsareneededtoensuretraditionalknowledgeisclearlydocumentedandaccessible,aswellasscientificknowledge.Thefarmersalsofeelthataccesstoinformation,especiallyonthepurposeandresultsofcollaborativeresearchmanagedbyCIP,couldbeimproved,andthatthiswouldstrengthensociallearningandenableresearchresultstobemorebroadlytestedandimplemented.
• Funding:Thereisnoinstitutionalfundingfortheagreement,whichisanobstacletopromotinginstitutionalchangewithinCIP.
ResultsThroughtheagreement,CIP,ANDESandthePotatoParkcommunitieshavecontributeddirectlytodevelopmentoutcomes,byenhancingfoodsecurity,climatechangeadaptation,economicopportunities,scientificandculturalunderstanding,andsocialcohesionofpoorindigenousfarmersinthehighAndes.Anumberofimportantconservationanddevelopmentoutcomesinclude:
• Preservationofgeneticdiversity:Theagreementestablishedanevolvinggenebankforadaptation,withabout650differentpotatovarieties(orabout1344varietiesaccordingtotraditionalmorphologicalclassification).
• Biodiversityandin-situconservation:Thereintroductionof410repatriatedvarietieshasincreasedpotatodiversityinthePotatoParkfromaround240to650varieties(orasabove,toabout1344varietiesaccordingtotraditionalmorphologicalclassification),creatingoneofthehighestlevelsofpotatodiversityanywhereintheworld,whichhasbeenconservedbythecommunities.
• Bestpractices:Co-managementofnativepotatoeshasgeneratedbestpracticesforin-situconservation,sustainableuse,increasingproductivityanddiversity,in-situ-ex-situlinksanddynamicconservation.
• Increasedyields:CIPreportsa30-40percentincreaseinyieldduetorepatriatedvarietiesandproductionbasedoncleanseeds,whilefarmersestimateasmuchasa50percentincrease.
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• Foodsecurityandclimateadaptation:Theagreementhasestablishedalargeevolvinggenepoolforclimateadaptation,andenabledfarmerstoincreaseon-farmcropdiversitytoreducetheriskofcropfailureinthefaceofincreasedpestinfestation,andotherchangingclimateconditions.ItalsofacilitatedseedproductionfordepositingthePotatoPark’sseedcollectionintheSvalbardGlobalSeedvault,forfoodsecurityofthecommunitiesandtheworldasawhole.ThisconcreteoutcomehasalsoenabledrecognitionofthePPcommunitiesintheglobalstageofconservationofgeneticresources.
• Traditionalknowledgeandculturalpractices:Thereturnoftraditionalpotatovarietiesthatthecommunitieshadlosthasledtoarevivalofthetraditionalknowledge,beliefsandpracticesassociatedwiththerepatriatedpotatoes,throughthememoryoftheelders.Ithasalsopromotedtraditionalagriculturebydiversifyingthenativevarietiesavailable.TheuseoflocalresearchersasleadersandQuechualanguageintheactivitieshashelpedtomaintaintraditionalknowledgeandlanguage.
• Economicdevelopment:Sixty-onerepatriatedpotatovarietiesarebeingusedtodevelop11new‘biocultural’products:chocopapa(chocolatewithpotatoflour),starch,papasour,preparedfoodanddrinks,andnaturalproducts(includingpotatoshampoo).Theagreementhasalsocontributedtoenhancedrevenuesfromtourism,thePotatoPark’slargestandgrowingrevenuestream.TheseeconomicimpactsarereflectedinarecentsurveyoffourPotatoParkcommunities,whichfoundasteadyincreaseinincomebetween2003and2012,whenincomeexceededexpenditureforthefirsttime.
• Rightsandbenefitsharing:EnsuringgeneticresourcesandknowledgeremainunderthecustodyofthecommunitiesanddonotbecomesubjecttoIPRsinanyformisanobjectiveoftheagreement.TheagreementhasincreasedthePotatoParkcommunities’understandingoftheirrightstogeneticresourcesandtraditionalknowledgeandrelatedpolicies;theircapacitytoprotecttheirrightsthroughcommunityregisterdatabasesofTKdevelopedbyANDES;andledtoaninter-communityagreementforbenefitsharing.
• Trustandsocialcohesion:TheagreementhashelpedtobuildtrustbetweenCIPscientistsandindigenousfarmersandledtogreaterawarenessandvaluingoftheknowledgeandpracticesoffarmersbyCIPscientistsandviceversa.Italsoledtostrongercohesion,knowledgesharingandcollaborationamongthePPcommunitiesthroughanewinter-communitygroupofpotatoexpertstomanagethepotatocollection;andwithothercommunitiesinLares,Vilcanota,LamayandParuro,throughsharingofpotatoes.
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AnalysisTheagreementisanexampleofasuccessfulprogram-basedefforttofostertheco-productionofresearchbystakeholdergroupswithsignificantculturaldifferences.Tenyearsofactivitiesundertheagreementhaveledtotransformationalchangesinthevaluesandpracticesofbothamajorscientificinstitutionandlocalcommunities,andtoawiderangeofpositivedevelopmentoutcomesthatwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithadifferentapproachtotheresearch.
TakeawaysforCARIAApertainprimarilytotheco-productionofresearchwithlocalcommunitiesintheclimatechangehotspotsthatCARIAAconsortiaoperatein,ratherthantotheco-productionofresearchbetweenmultiplescientificinstitutions:
• Two-waycapacitybuilding,facilitationandtrusthavebeenkeytotheresultsachieved.OnenotablefactoristheinvolvementofPPcommunitiesinthedesignoftheagreementitself,andthecapacitybuildingprovidedbyathirdpartyorganization(ANDES)tothecommunitiesthatallowedthemtoparticipateinthisstageoftheprocessonequalfootingwithCIPscientists.ANDES’facilitationwasalsocrucialtomaintainingtheactiveparticipationofcommunitiesthroughouttheimplementationoftheagreement,andinenablingtwo-wayknowledgesharingandcollectivelearning.Trustbetweenthestakeholdergroups,developedfrompreviousengagementbetweenthePPcommunitiesandANDES,andoverthecourseoftheagreementbetweenthePPcommunitiesandCIP—wasalsoanimportantingredientofsuccess.
• Flexibilityintheplanningoftheresearchenabledoutcomestobeemergent,ratherthanpre-determined.ItalsoenabledCIPscientiststoworktogetherwithPPcommunitiesinamorefluidmanner.
• Thechallengestheagreementhasfaceddemonstratethedifficultyofspreadingtransformationalchangetowidergroups.Thoughtheagreementhasbeguntochallengeinstitutionsandnormsofstakeholdergroupsbeyondthedirectparticipants,throughawarenessraising,exchangevisits,andthesharingofknowledgeandresources,itisclearthatlong-terminvestmentofeffortandfinancialresourcesisneededtomakechangesachievedtransformationalonalargerscale.Earlierengagementofwidergroups,throughoutreachandwell-designedcommunicationmaterials,maybeonepartofthesolution.
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Case 6: Red Cross Climate Centre Writeshop Process
Contributor:MargotSteenbergen(RedCrossClimateCentre)
Editedby:BlaneHarvey
Overview• TheRedCrossClimateCentrewriteshopprocessisanintensive,participatory
workshopthathelpsparticipantsdocumentandsharelearningwhilequicklygeneratingknowledgeproductsthatcanbesharedmorewidely.
• Writeshopsallowteamsworkingonrelatedissuestouseapeerreviewprocessestoclarifyandrefinetheirdocumentationthroughafacilitatedmulti-stepprocessthatissupportedbyskilledwritersandeditors.
• Whilewriteshopsareverytime-intensiveoncetheybegin,theyarereasonablyshortinduration.ThiskindofprocesscouldprovideCARIAApartnerswiththeopportunitytoundertakesynthesisandco-productionworkthathasclearstartandendpointsandisthereforeeasiertoplanandmanage.
Context“Themethodologyisreallygood.Receivingfeedbackfromsomanydifferentpeoplewithdifferentbackgroundsisinvaluableanditreducesanyriskofmisunderstandingand‘defensiveness’.Atthesametimeitisagoodwaytolearnwhatotherprojectsaredoing.”-Writeshopparticipant
Awriteshopisanintensive,participatoryworkshopthataimstoproduceawrittenoutput.Thismaybeasetofshortcasestudiesorevenaboundbook.Participantsincludeauthors,editorsandexternalreviewers.Thesemayincluderesearchers,NGOstaff,extensionagents,farmersandotherlocalstakeholders:anyonewhohas,inonewayoranother,beeninvolvedintheexperiencestobedocumentedorwhocanconstructivelycommentontheseexperiences.Ateamoffacilitatorsandlogisticsstaffassiststheseparticipants.
ThewriteshopprocesswaspioneeredbytheInternationalInstituteofRuralReconstructionandhasbeenadaptedbymanyinstitutions,includingtheRedCrossRedCrescentClimateCentre.Since2013,theClimateCentrehasorganisedovereightwriteshopsforover130participants,producingover55casestudies.
Tworeasonsnormallyassociatedfordoingwriteshopsare11:
1) Forprojectororganisationallearningtoimproveperformance,resultsandimpact;
11TheInternationalInstituteofRuralReconstructionhasdevelopedthewriteshopmethodologyanddeveloped“GuidelinesforWriteshops-2010”.
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2) Forwidersharingormainstreamingofexperiencesandknowledgeandinnetworkingandcooperationamongthedifferentdevelopmentstakeholdergroupsbeyondthelocalorprojectsetting.
Itisusefultoconductthewriteshopsonceyouhavegatheredexperiencesandhavestoriestoshare–inthecourseoftheprojectortowardstheend.
TheinitiativeThewriteshophadtwomainphases:preparationandimplementation.Thesearedescribedbelowwithapproximatetimelinesforeach.
PhaseOne–Preparation(2-3months):Duringthepreparationphase,thefollowingstepsaretaken:
1) Organiserssharedetailsofthewriteshopmethodologyandconfirmparticipants,includingauthors,editorsandexternalreviewers;andorganisers,includingfacilitator(s)andlogisticalstaff.Awriteshopcanbeanopportunitytobringarangeofstakeholderstogether-themorediversethegroupthemoreinterestingthestoriesbecome.Itisimportanttoincludepersonswhohavetechnicalexpertiseorpersonalexperienceinthetopicaswellasanexperiencedwriteshopfacilitator.Typically,therearebetween10and20participantsatawriteshop.
Therolesoftheparticipantsareasfollows:
• Authors:Theauthorswillpreparethefirstdraftandarethekeyresourcepeopleduringthewriteshop.Ifthewrittenoutputisacasestudy,theauthorsshouldhavefirst-handexperienceofthecase.
• Editors:Duringthewriteshop,editors(ideallyjournalists)areresponsibleforsubmittinghighqualityoutputsinatimelymanner.Theywillsupporttheauthorsincreatingeachconsecutiveversionoftheirjointwork.Thisprocesswillinvolvecorrection,condensation,structuring,andmanyotherrevisionstothetext,withtheaimofproducinganinteresting,accurate,consistent,wellorganisedandcompletecasestudy.Attentiontodetail,theabilitytobefocusedwhileworkingthroughthetext,tactindealingwithwriters,andexcellentcommunicationskillsareamust.
• Externalreviewers:Inadditiontopeoplewithexcellentwritingskills,itisrecommendedtoinviteafewresourcepersons,offeringoutsideperspectives.Theycanbesubject-matterexpertswhoareabletovalidateandenrichthequalityofthecasestudies,or,conversely,lay-personswhocanensurethatthecasestudyisunderstandablefornon-experts,therebymakingitaccessibleforawideraudience.
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2) Theorganisingorfacilitatingteamagreesontheanticipatedformatofthefinalproductsandthenprovidesauthorswithguidanceandsupportfortheirfirstdraftwrite-up.Thewriteshopstartswithparticipantsreadingandcommentingonthefirstdraftofauthors’writtenoutputs.Thismeansthattheauthorswillhavetofinalisetheirfirstdraftbeforearriving.Clearguidance,bothintheformofawrittenoutlineandsubsequente-mailorverbalfollow-up,willlikelyleadtoahigherqualityoutputandwillreducedelaysduringtheevent.
3) Ensurealllogisticsareinplace,includinglogisticsstafftobeonhandduringthewriteshop.
4) Organisebriefingmeetingspriortothestartofthewriteshoptofamiliariseeveryonewiththeirrespectiveroles.
PhaseTwo–Implementation(4-5days):Attheoutsetofthewriteshopeachparticipantpresentsthefirstdraftofhis,herortheir(inthecaseofauthorteams)paper.Theotherparticipantsprovidefeedbackverballyandinwrittenform(directlyontothefirstdraftcopies).Thefacilitatorallowsasmuchdiscussionaspossiblesothateveryonecancontributehisorherownknowledgeonthetopic.Theaimisnottocriticizethemanuscript,buttoimproveit,addtoit-andoftentoremoveunnecessaryinformation-sothatitfitstheendproductandisappropriateforthetargetaudience.
Afterhisorherpresentation,eachpresenterwillworkwiththeirassignededitor,whohasalsobeentakingnotesofthediscussion.Theeditorhelpstoreviseandeditthedraftinthehoursthatfollows.Thereviseddraftsofeachparticipantarethenpresentedagainandtheaudiencecanprovidecommentsandsuggestionsforasecondtime.Afterthissecondseriesofpresentations,aneditoragainhelpstorevisethedrafts.Thisreviewprocessisrepeatedatotalofthreetimesforeachcasestudyoverthecourseofthenextdays,beforeeachcasestudyisfinalised.Thefinalversioncanbecompleted,printedanddistributedsoonafterthewriteshop.
Overalltheprocessisverystraightforwardandfacilitatorled.Theroleofthefacilitatoristoprovidestructureduringtheprocess,settingandupdatinganagendawithclearlydefineddeadlinesforeachauthor/editorpair.Thefacilitatoralsostructurestheamountoftimegivenforfeedback,whichdecreaseswitheachroundoffeedback.Typically,feedbackonthefirstversionwillbemorestructuralinnature,whereasfeedbackonthelaterversionsismoredetail-orientedasauthorsandeditorsgetnearertoafinishedproduct.
Driversandchallenges
Drivers:“Everyonehascontributed.Ihavereallyappreciatedthateachparticipantbroughtadditionalvalue.Allofthiswasbasedonveryspecificguidance.Thiswillallowustocreatebriefingnotesthatcanbeappreciatedanywhereintheworld.Also,Ihavelearnedabouttheotherinnovations.”-Writeshopparticipant
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• Thewriteshopprocessisafastandefficientwayofdocumentingexperience.Theactualwriteshopitselftypicallylasts4-5days.Bygeneratingseveralfeedbackloopsinthespaceofafewdays’time,youavoiddrawn-oute-mailconversationsandinevitabledelaysasteamscollaborateoverlongdistancesamidstcompetingpriorities.
• Itcombinesvarioustypesofexpertise,forexamplebybringingtogetherpractitioners,technicalexpertsandprofessionaleditors.Ontheonehand,writeshopsareanexcellentwaytodocumenttacit“experiential”knowledgethatmayonlyexistintheheadsofpractitioners.Ontheotherhand,theyhavebeenusefulforenhancingtherelevanceof“expert”knowledge,bymakingitunderstandableandthus,moreeasilyusable(IIRRWriteshopGuidelines).
• Itdeliversaproduct.Thoughwriteshopscomeinmanyshapesandforms,oneofthenon-negotiableelementsisthatby“closeofbusinesss”ofthefinalday,afinalversionofallwrittenoutputissubmittedtotheorganisers.Theproductenablesthewriteshopparticipantstosharetheirideasandexperiencemorebroadly.
• Itencouragestheexchangeofknowledge,whileprovidingaconstructiveplatformforfeedback,andapleasantenvironmentofco-creation.Byreviewingseveralcasestudies,writeshopparticipantsgetanin-depthunderstandingofeachofthecases.
Challenges:• Sufficientpreparationtimeandclearguidanceforauthorsarecriticalforagood
starttotheprocess.Missingoutoneitherofthesecanleadtoapoorqualityfirstdraft,whichinturnmeanstheprocessduringthewriteshopismorerushedandstressfulthanitneedstobe.Toremedythis,clearandsuccinctguidelines,includingagoodexampleofacasestudy,shouldbesenttotheauthorsatleasttwomonthsinadvance.Theorganisersandfacilitatorshouldfollowupwiththeauthorstwoweekspriortothewriteshop,toensurethefirstdraftsfollowtheoutline.
• Itischallengingwhencasestudiesarenotwrittenbystaffmemberswithdirectexperienceofthesubjectmatter.Twoexamplesfollow:Inonecase,atechnicalstaffmemberwhodidnothavetimetowriteacasestudy,wasreplacedbyacolleague.Inanothercase,externalconsultantswerecontractedtowriteacasestudy.Inbothcases,thisledtomissingandincorrectinformation.Toovercomethis,itshouldbemadeclearthatallcasestudiesmustbewrittenbypeoplewhoaredirectlyinvolvedintheimplementationofactivitiesbeingdescribed(e.g.technicalstaff).
• Alackofcompetenteditorsisaseriouschallengeforthesuccessofawriteshop.Inordertoovercomethis,experiencedwritersneedtobeidentifiedwellbeforeawriteshop.Beforebeingselected,samplesoftheirwritingofcasestudiesorsimilardocumentsshouldbeevaluatedtoassesstheirwritingskills.Additionally,before
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thewriteshop,thereshouldbealistofqualificationsforthefollowingtechnicalstaff:a)authors,b)editors,andc)externalreviewers.
• Thewriteshopprocessdemandsthatparticipantsbepresentthroughoutthefullduration.Thiscanpresentchallengestosecuringtherightparticipantsamidstcompetingprioritiesandbusyschedules.
ResultsSince2013,theRedCrossClimateCentrehasorganisedovereightwriteshopsforover130participantsproducingover55casestudies.Aspecificexampleisa2015writeshop,whichproducedfourcasestudiesthataddressedthegenderandresiliencenexusinprojectsinBurkinaFaso,Myanmar,Chad,SudanandUganda,aswellastheoutlineforasynthesisreport.ThiswasproducedaspartoftheBRACEDprogramme.Outputscanbefoundat:http://www.odi.org/publications/9967-braced-gender-equality.
Awriteshopisessentiallyadraftingandpeer-reviewsysteminacondensedperiodoftime.Bycombiningvarioustypesofexpertise,thefinalproductbecomesmorerelevantandaccessible.Asoneparticipantmentioned:“Itwasextremelyusefultoreceiveinputfrompeoplewithadifferentbackground,tohelpmeshapemyargumentsinaccessiblelanguage”.Assuch,thesynthesisaspectofthiscaseisprimarilyprovidingaplatformforteamstoundertaketheirownsynthesisactivitiesviathewriteshop,whiletheco-productionisalsoprimarilyviatheparticipatingteams.AstheexampleoftheBRACEDGenderandResiliencethemeabovehighlighted,however,itcanalsoprovidetheopportunityforwidersynthesisandco-productionamongallparticipants.
Analysis
ThewriteshopapproachdescribedhereoffersCARIAAconsortiaanopportunitytoengageinverytargetedandtime-boundsynthesisandco-productionactivitiesthatgeneratetangibleoutputs.Theseoutputsareorganisedaroundacommonthemebutarestillentirelybasedonexperiencesofthespecificteamsthattakepartinthewriteshop.Furtherco-productionandsynthesisoffindingsfromacrossthesedifferentexperiencesandoutputscanthenbeundertakentogenerateajointoutput.Thisapproachcouldallowforaprocessthatmeetsbothconsortiumandprogrammeobjectives.
Whilethewriteshopapproachdescribedhereisn’tlikelytobeappropriateforproducingarticlesforpeerreviewedpublications,itcanbeavaluabletoolforworkingacrosstheresearch-policy-practicenexus,forexamplegeneratingpolicybriefs,orguidancefortheuseofresearchfindingsinpractice.Assuch,ifCARIAApartnersareinterestedinpilotingapproachesthatcanshowshort-termresultsbutarenotlikelytoprovidescopehighlytechnicalcollectiveanalysis,thisapproachmaybesuitable.
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